CH 07

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 233 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM
Geometry
7
Geometry is all around us.
Have you seen the outside
of Storey Hall in Swanston
Street, Melbourne? What
shapes and solids can you
identify? Make a list of
these with a sketch of each
type shown.
This chapter looks at the
properties of various
shapes, angles and solids.
234
Maths Quest 8 for Victoria
What is geometry?
The word geometry comes from the Latin geo meaning
earth and metre meaning measure. It dates back to the
ancient Greek philosophers and mathematicians such
as Plato, Euclid and Pythagoras. They considered
geometry as the science of measuring our Earth and
describing its properties. It was Euclid, for example,
who proved that parallel lines never meet.
Geometry today looks at
angles, shapes and solids, and
investigates their relationships
and properties. In this chapter
you will investigate triangles,
quadrilaterals and other polygons and work with rules that
the ancient Greeks discovered over 2000 years ago. You will
use angles and their properties to describe and construct shapes
and solids.
Triangles
The triangle is one of the most commonly used shapes in the world around us. Looking
around, we can see its many practical uses, from house roofs to high voltage power poles
and tents. Triangles give strength and rigidity to geometric shapes. Learning about the
different types of triangles helps us to understand the design of many everyday objects.
Chapter 7 Geometry
235
Naming triangles
Triangles are named according to the lengths of their sides, or the size of their angles.
The table below lists the six names commonly used to describe triangles.
etry
Cabri Geom
Naming triangles according to the lengths of their sides

Equilateral triangle
All three sides are equal in length.

(Also all three angles are equal in size.)
Isosceles triangle
Two sides are equal in length.

(Also two angles at the base are equal in
size.)
Scalene triangle
No sides are equal in length.

(Also no angles are equal in size.)
Classifying
triangles
(sides)
etry
Cabri Geom
Naming triangles according to the size of their angles

Acute-angled
triangle
All angles less than 90.
Right-angled
triangle
Contains a right angle (90).
Obtuse-angled
triangle
Contains an obtuse angle (greater than

90).
Note: To indicate the sides of equal length and angles of equal size, we use identical
marks. To indicate that the angle is right (90), a small square is used.
Classifying
triangles
(angles)
236
WORKED Example 1
Using side and angle markings where appropriate, draw a triangle that is:
a obtuse-angled
b both right-angled and isosceles.
THINK
WRITE
a An obtuse-angled triangle has one

angle greater than 90. Nothing is
known about the length of sides of this
triangle. Draw a triangle with one
obtuse angle, making the sides of any
length you like.
b A right-angled triangle contains a right

angle and an isosceles triangle has
two sides of equal length. Draw a
triangle with one angle 90 and two
sides equal in length. Place identical
markings on equal sides and use
a small square to indicate the right
angle.
WORKED Example 2
multiple choice Select the most appropriate name (or names) for the triangle shown.
A Scalene
B Obtuse-angled
C Acute-angled and scalene
D Scalene and right-angled
E Acute-angled
THINK
WRITE
One of the angles is marked with the

small square, which indicates 90.
State the angle name of this
triangle.
Angle name: right-angled
There are three different markings

placed on the sides of the triangle;
therefore, all sides are different in
length. State the side name of this
triangle.
Side name: scalene
Select the most appropriate answer

from the choices given.
Answer: D
Chapter 7 Geometry
237
remember
remember
1. Triangles can be named according to the length of their sides, or the size of
their angles.
2. Angle names are:
(a) acute-angled triangle (all angles are acute)
(b) right-angled triangle (contains one right angle)
(c) obtuse-angled triangle (contains one obtuse angle).
3. Side names are:
(a) equilateral (all sides are equal in length)
(b) isosceles (two sides are equal in length)
(c) scalene (all sides are different in length).
etry
Cabri Geom
7A
Classifying
triangles
(sides)
Triangles
etry
Cabri Geom
1 Copy and complete this table.

Picture
Name of triangle
Definition
Classifying
triangles
(angles)
cad
Math
Classifying
triangles
Equilateral triangle
One angle is greater than 90.
Scalene triangle
All angles are less than 90.
2 Using side and angle markings where appropriate, draw a triangle that is:
a right-angled
b isosceles
1a
c obtuse-angled
d scalene.
WORKED
Example
3 Using side and angle markings where appropriate, draw a triangle that is:
a both right-angled and scalene
b both acute-angled and isosceles
1b
c both obtuse-angled and isosceles
d both acute-angled and equilateral.
WORKED
Example
238
4 multiple choice
Select the most appropriate name (or names) for the triangles shown.
2
A Isosceles
a
B Right-angled
C Acute-angled and isosceles
D Isosceles and right-angled
E Right-angled and equilateral
WORKED
Example
c
40
100
40
A
B
C
D
E
A
B
C
D
E
Scalene
Scalene and obtuse-angled
Obtuse-angled and isosceles
Isosceles and acute-angled
Acute-angled and scalene
Right-angled
Scalene and obtuse-angled
Acute-angled and scalene
Obtuse-angled and isosceles
Right-angled and isosceles
A
B
C
D
E
Right-angled
Right-angled and acute-angled
Right-angled and scalene
Right-angled and isosceles
Right-angled and obtuse-angled
5 Using 12 matches, construct each of the following triangles. Draw the solutions in your
workbook, clearly showing the number of matches, used on each side.
a An equilateral triangle
b A scalene triangle
c An isosceles triangle
6 Use matches to construct each of the following structures. Draw the solution in your
workbook.
a Use 9 matches for 3 equilateral triangles.
b Use 8 matches for 3 equilateral triangles.
c Use 7 matches for 3 equilateral triangles.
d Use 12 matches for 6 equilateral triangles.
Note: A match can be used as a common side between two triangles.
7 Draw the solution to each of the following questions in your workbook.
a With one line, cut an equilateral triangle into two right-angled triangles.
b With two lines, cut an equilateral triangle into three triangles two right-angled
and one obtuse.
c With two lines, cut an equilateral triangle into three right-angled triangles.
d With three lines, cut an equilateral triangle into three isosceles triangles.
e With three lines, cut an equilateral triangle into four equilateral triangles.
f With two lines, cut an equilateral triangle into three triangles one equilateral, one
acute-angled and one obtuse-angled.
8 Using 15 matches:
a Construct as many different isosceles triangles as you can. Draw your solution,
clearly showing the number of matches used on each side of each triangle.
b Construct as many different scalene triangles as you can. Draw your solutions,
showing the number of matches on each side of each triangle.
9 Using 6 matches, construct four equilateral triangles. All triangles must have side
lengths of one match.
Chapter 7 Geometry
239
History of mathematics
EUCLID (c. 300 BC)
During his life . . .

Alexander the Great dies.
Two of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the
World are built: the Colossus of Rhodes
and the Lighthouse of Alexandria.
Rome is supplied with fresh water by
aqueducts.
Very little is known about Euclid. He was a
Greek mathematician and was probably
educated at the Platonic School of Athens.
Euclid developed an approach in which every
rule needed a proof. Using this method he
built up a set of theorems based upon
self-evident rules.
Euclids major work is a 13 volume
mathematical treatise spanning several topics
including the properties of numbers, plane
geometry and solid geometry. Elements is one
of the best known mathematical books ever
written. It contains 465 different mathematical
theories and proofs and has been in use
for more than fifteen hundred years.
Elements was first

printed in 1482, and
was still used as a
school textbook
less than a hundred
years ago. Even
today it provides a
basis for what is
taught in high
schools. Euclids
proofs included
most of the
geometrical facts
that we know today.
It is not known how
much of Elements
is Euclids original
work and how much he collected from other
sources. For example, Elements includes
Pythagoras theorem of right-angled triangles.
Euclid worked on finding the various types of
regular polygons and 3-dimensional
polyhedra. Some of the polygons he
researched were triangles (equilateral),
squares and nonagons (9-sided polygons) and
polyhedra such as tetrahedrons (4 faces),
dodecahedrons (12 faces) and icosahedrons
(20 faces).
In 306 BC, as King of Egypt, Ptolemy
founded a university at Alexandria where
Euclid became the first professor of
Mathematics. King Ptolemy wanted to know
if there was an easy way to learn geometry,
but Euclid said there was no Royal road to
geometry and the King would have to learn it
by hard work!
Questions
1. What is the name of Euclids major
work?
2. When was this work first published
for general use?
3. Which king wanted to find an easy
method of learning geometry?
240
Angles in a triangle
The ancient Greek mathematician Euclid discovered that the angles in a triangle always
add up to 180. This is true for any triangle no matter how large or small, wide or
narrow. We can use this law to find missing angles in triangles.
WORKED Example 3
Find the value of the pronumeral in the following triangle.
b
63
40
THINK
1
WRITE
Sum of angles in any triangle is equal

to 180. Form an equation by putting
the sum of the angles on one side
and 180 on the other side of the equals
sign.
Solve for b.
b + 40 + 63 = 180
b + 103 = 180
b + 103 103 = 180 103
b = 77
WORKED Example 4
B
h
65
THINK
1
According to the markings, triangle

ABC is an isosceles with AB = BC.
The two base angles of an isosceles are
equal in size, so BCA = BAC = 65.
Form an equation by making the sum of
the angles in the triangle ABC equal to
180.
Solve for h.
WRITE
BCA = 65
h + 65 + 65 = 180
h + 130 = 180
h + 130 130 = 180 130
h = 50
Chapter 7 Geometry
WORKED Example 5
50
THINK
1
3
4
WRITE
Form an equation by making the sum of

the angles in the given triangle equal to
180.
Solve the equation to find the value of
w. First simplify by collecting like
terms.
Subtract 50 from both sides of the
equation.
Divide both sides by 2.
w + w + 50 = 180
2w + 50 = 180
2w + 50 50 = 180 50
2w = 130
2w 130
------- = ----------2
2
w = 65
WORKED Example 6
2x
x
60
THINK
WRITE
The angles in a triangle add up to 180,

so form an appropriate equation.
Solve for x. First simplify by collecting
like terms.
Subtract 60 from both sides.
1
2
x + 2x + 60 = 180
3x + 60 = 180
3x + 60 60 = 180 60
3x = 120
3x 120
------ = ----------3
3
x = 40
remember
remember
1. The sum of the angles in any triangle is 180.
2. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
241
242
7B
7.1
WORKED
Example
SkillS
HEET
Angles in a triangle
1 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following triangles.

a
100
w
Cabri
55
60
Geometry
Angle sum
of a
triangle
40
c
50
30
30
d
hca
Mat
80
Cabri
Angles
in a
triangle
Geometry
Angles
in rightangled
triangles
30
60
WORKED
Example
70

a
b
c
62
55
45
WORKED
Example
50

a
b
c
72
34
t
96
s
m
48
55
q
r
243
Chapter 7 Geometry
WORKED
Example

a
b
c
x
3x
5x
2x
4x
60
131
45
2x 7
2x
2x 1
4x + 3
2x + 1
3x + 6
5 multiple choice
The values for the pronumeral angles in the following diagrams are:
a
A 180
B 117
C 27
D 153
E 63
63
82
A 49
D 44
B 98
E 180
C 82
A 90
D 180
B 30
E 120
C 60
2x
3x
6 In snowy regions, houses are built with

steep roofs so the snow slides off. If the
sloping edges of the roof make an angle
of 55 with its base, find the angle at the
apex.
7 A Christmas tree is shaped like an

isosceles triangle. If the angle at the top is
36, find the size of each of the base
angles.
8 A vertical flagpole is held up by a wire.
The angle between the ground and the
wire is twice the angle between the pole
and the wire. Find the angle between the
pole and the wire.
55
55
9 Maya measures the angles in a triangle and finds that two angles are the same and one
is 15 degrees larger than the other two. What is the size of each angle?
10 The second largest angle in a triangle is 5 degrees smaller than the largest angle and
5 degrees larger than the smallest angle. How large is each angle?
244
Exterior angles of a triangle

In exercise 7B you were dealing with the angles inside a triangle, called interior angles.
In this section we will look at the angles outside a triangle, called exterior angles.
If one side of a triangle is extended, the angle between this extension and the
triangle is called an exterior angle.
e
e = exterior angle
WORKED Example 7
For the triangle shown, find the value of:
a x
b the exterior angle, e.
54
50
x e
THINK
WRITE
Form an equation by making the

sum of angles in the given triangle
equal to 180.
Solve for x. Subtracting 104 from
the left-hand side leaves x.
a x + 50 + 54 = 180
Angle x, together with the exterior

angle, e, makes a straight angle of
180. Write this as an equation.
Substitute the value of x, found in
part a into the equation.
Solve for e.
2
3
x + 104 = 180
x = 180 104
= 76
x + e = 180
76 + e = 180
e = 180 76
= 104
From the above example an important observation can be made:

An exterior angle and the interior angle adjacent to it are supplementary.
From worked example 7 we can also observe that the exterior angle, e, was equal to the
sum of the two interior angles, not adjacent to it:
e = 104 = 50 + 54
Chapter 7 Geometry
245
Exterior
angles
of a
triangle
Open the Cabri

Geometry file
Exterior angles of a
triangle on the
Maths Quest 8
CD-ROM and
observe what happens
to the size of the
exterior and interior
angles when you
change the triangle.
Write down your
conclusions. Can you
prove why this
relationship occurs?
In general,
In any triangle, the exterior angle is equal to the sum of the two interior angles not
adjacent to it.
b
a+b=e
The following worked examples demonstrate the use of this rule.
WORKED Example 8
Find the size of the exterior angle in the triangle shown.
80
30
Cabri Geom
etry
THINK
WRITE
The exterior angle equals the sum of

the two opposite interior angles.
State this as an equation.
e = 30 + 80
Simplify to find the value of e.
e = 110
246
WORKED Example 9
Find the value of the pronumeral in the triangle shown.
70
132
THINK
WRITE
The exterior angle of a triangle equals

the sum of the two opposite interior
angles. Form an appropriate equation.

equation to find the value of w.
w + 70 = 132
w = 132 70
= 62
WORKED Example 10
Find the value of the pronumeral in the triangle shown.
2x
4x
120
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
The exterior angle of a triangle equals

the sum of the two opposite interior
angles. So form an equation.
Solve for x. First collect like terms.
Divide both sides of the equation by 6
to find the value of x.
4x + 2x = 120
6x = 120
x = 120 6
= 20
remember
remember
1. When one side of a triangle is extended, the angle between this extension and
the triangle is called an exterior angle of the triangle.
2. The exterior angle and the interior angle adjacent to it are supplementary (add
up to 180).
3. In any triangle, an exterior angle is equal to the sum of the interior angles
which are not adjacent to it.
247
Chapter 7 Geometry
7C
WORKED
Example
1 For each of the triangles shown, find the value of:

i x
ii the exterior angle, e.
a
b
20
cad
Math
60
x e
60
e x
60 x e
2 a Copy and complete this table, showing the interior angles and the opposite
exterior angle for the triangles in question 1.
Question
1a
Given interior
angles
Sum of given
interior angles
20, 60
80
Opposite exterior
angle, e
1b
1c
WORKED
Example
b Verify the rule connecting the interior angles and the opposite exterior angle for
each triangle.
3 Find the size of the exterior angle in these triangles.
a
72
30
32
54
25
65
m
WORKED
Example

a
b
c
w
65
83
132
110
43
t
WORKED
Example
10
90
1 1 4
5 Find the value of the pronumeral(s) in each triangle shown.

a
b
c
x+4
3x
3x
2x
120
60
50
5x
e
6x
2x
Exterior
angles
of a
triangle
65
42
etry
Cabri Geom
x + 30
70
60
x
2x
Exterior
angles
of a
triangle
248
6 multiple choice
a The value of the pronumeral, e, in this triangle is:
A 48
B 69
C 117 D 63
E 180
69
48
b The value of the pronumeral, w, in this triangle is:

A 98
B 54
C 44
D 82
E 180
54
98
The value of the pronumeral, k, in this triangle is:

A 59
B 62
C 118 D 180 E 121
k
d The value of the pronumeral, m, in this triangle is:

A 42
B 126 C 63
D 84
E 56
59
2m
126
7 Find the size of the exterior angle of an equilateral triangle.

8 The roof of an A-frame house makes a 65 angle with the
ground. What angle does the roof make with the balcony?
Roof
b
Balcony
Ground
65
9 In this native american teepee, the poles meet at an

angle of 50.
a Find the size of the acute angle that each pole
makes with the ground.
b Find the size of the obtuse angle that each pole
makes with the ground.
50
10 The two sloping sides of a roof meet at an apex angle of 72. Find the obtuse angle
that each of the sloping sides makes with the horizontal.
11 The three exterior angles of a triangle are 105, 125 and 130.
Find the interior angles.
GAM
me
E ti
125
Geometry
001
105
130
Chapter 7 Geometry
249
Exterior angles
1 Find the size of each of the exterior angles in the four triangles shown.
110
80
35
50
30
65
2 Find the sum of the exterior angles in each of the above triangles.
3 Is there any pattern that you have observed? Complete this sentence: In any
triangle the sum of the exterior angles is
.
Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is any closed 2-dimensional shape with four straight sides. All
quadrilaterals can be subdivided into two major groups: parallelograms and other
quadrilaterals. Parallelograms are quadrilaterals with two pairs of opposite sides being
parallel.
Note: Parallel lines are those lines that never meet. We indicate that the lines are
parallel by placing identical arrows on each line.
The table below shows quadrilaterals, which belong to either of these two groups and
their properties.
Parallelograms
All sides are equal in length.

All angles are 90.
Cabri Geom
etry
Square
Opposite sides are parallel
Squares
bri Geom
Ca
Opposite sides are equal in length.
All angles are 90.
Rectangles
Rhombus
Ca
All sides are equal in length.
Opposite angles are equal in size. Rhombuses
Parallelogram
Opposite sides are equal in length.

Opposite angles are equal in size. Parallelograms
etry
Rectangle
bri Geom
etry
etry
Cabri Geom
Cabri
250
Geometry
Other quadrilaterals
Opposite sides not all parallel
Trapezium
One pair of parallel sides.
Kite
Two pairs of adjacent (next to

each other) sides are equal in
length.
Angles between unequal sides are
equal in size.
Irregular quadrilateral
Looks like none of the above

(possesses no special properties).
Cabri
Trapeziums
Geometry
Kites
WORKED Example 11
State whether each of the following is true or false.
a Opposite sides of any rectangle are parallel.
b Any rectangle is a square.
THINK
WRITE
a All rectangles are parallelograms. By

definition, a parallelogram has two pairs
of opposite sides parallel. Since a
rectangle is a parallelogram, it must have
a parallelograms properties. Therefore,
opposite sides of any rectangle are
parallel and the statement is true.
b By definition, both a square and a
rectangle must have four right angles.
However, in a square all four sides are
the same, while in a rectangle only
opposite sides must be of equal length.
Therefore, the statement is false.
a True
b False
remember
remember
1. A quadrilateral is any closed 2-dimensional shape with four straight sides.
2. All quadrilaterals can be subdivided into two major groups:
parallelograms (these include rectangles, squares, parallelograms and
rhombi) and other quadrilaterals (these include trapeziums, kites and
irregular quadrilaterals).
3. Parallelograms are quadrilaterals with two pairs of opposite sides parallel.
251
Chapter 7 Geometry
Quadrilaterals
Cabri Geom
cad
Math
etry
7D
Types of
quadrilaterals

Picture
Name
Classifying
quadrilaterals
Definition
Parallelogram
All sides are of equal
length; opposite angles
are equal in size.
Kite
Irregular quadrilateral
All sides equal; all angles
are 90.
2 State whether each of the following is true or false.
a All squares are rectangles.
11
b All squares are rhombi.
c A trapezium could have two sides of equal length.
d A parallelogram with adjacent sides being equal is a square.
e A parallelogram with at least one right angle is a rectangle.
f A kite could have one right angle.
g A kite can not have two right angles.
h An irregular quadrilateral can not contain a 90 angle.
i A rectangle is a quadrilateral because it has two pairs of parallel sides.
j A rhombus is a parallelogram because it has two pairs of parallel sides.
k Not every parallelogram has opposite sides equal in length.
l Not every square is a parallelogram.
WORKED
Example
3 For each of the following, state the name of the quadrilateral that best matches the clues.
a I am a parallelogram with all sides of equal length. What am I?
b I have two pairs of equal sides. These sides are not opposite. What am I?
c I am a rhombus with 90-degree angles. What am I?
4 Construct a trapezium which has:
a two adjacent right angles
b two sides (that are not parallel) of equal length.
252
5 Draw the solutions to each of the following problems in your workbook.

a With one line, divide a square into two rectangles.
b With one line, divide a square into two trapeziums.
c With one line, divide a rectangle into a square and another
rectangle.
d With one line, divide a rhombus into two parallelograms.
e With one line, divide a rhombus into two trapeziums.
f With four lines, divide a square into seven squares.
6 multiple choice
The walls of the metal shed in the foreground
of the photograph at right are:
A squares and parallelograms
B irregular quadrilaterals and squares
C rhombuses and rectangles
D rectangles and trapeziums
E rectangles and squares
7.1
QUEST
GE
EN
M AT H
Work
ET
SHE
CH
AL
1 How many rectangles can be found

in this figure?
L
2 How would you cut this trapezium into four
pieces of exactly the same size and shape?
The trapezium is made up of a square and
half of a similar square divided diagonally.
Forming quadrilaterals
1 Copy the kite at right onto a piece of paper. Cut it out
then cut along the dotted lines to form four triangles.
Rearrange these four triangles to form:
a a rectangle
b a trapezium
c a parallelogram.
(Hint: You may flip pieces upside down.)
2 Use two sticks or cut drinking straws of length 3 cm and
two of length 5 cm. How many different types of
quadrilateral can you make? List them and draw the
solutions in your workbook.
Chapter 7 Geometry
253
1
1 Using side and angle markings where appropriate, draw a scalene triangle.
2 Using side and angle markings, where appropriate, draw an acute-angled isosceles
triangle.
3 Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram below.
10
112
x
4 Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram below.

40
4x 7
2x +3
5 Beth was drawing a 2-dimensional diagram of a pear.

She noticed that it resembled an isosceles triangle. If the
angle at the top is 42, find the base angle.
6 True or false? The interior angle marked x in the
triangle shown is x = 90.
x
10
100
7 The three interior angles of the triangle are 54, 61 and 65.
Find the exterior angles a, b and c.
c
54
61
a
65
b
8 Joshua placed 2 playing cards on an angle to form the sides of

a card house. The cards met at an angle of 80. Find the obtuse
angle that each card makes with the surface of the table.
80
a
9 Draw and name a shape with 4 sides where the opposite sides are equal in length and
opposite angles are equal. (There are 2 pairs of parallel sides.)
10 multiple choice
A quadrilateral has 2 sides 5 cm long and 2 sides 10 cm long. If all the angles are
equal, this is best described as a:
A rhombus B square
C rectangle
D trapezium E parallelogram
254
Angles in a quadrilateral
You probably already know the following fact.
Cabri
The sum of the interior angles in any quadrilateral is equal to 360.

Check that this works by investigating the angles in a quadrilateral using the Cabri
Geometry file supplied on the Maths Quest 8 CD-ROM.
Geometry
Angles
in a
quadrilateral
This rule applies to any quadrilateral, regardless of shape or size. If it were not true,
every time you walked around the block you would risk ending up somewhere else. If
you walk around a quadrilateral you will end up at your starting point.
The rule can be used to find missing angles in quadrilaterals, as shown in the worked
examples that follow.
WORKED Example 12
Find the value of the pronumeral in the following diagram.
110
b
THINK
1
The sum of angles in the quadrilateral

must be 360, so form an appropriate
equation. (The two angles marked with
the small square are each 90.)
Solve for b.
WRITE
b + 110 + 90 + 90 = 360
b + 290 = 360
b = 360 290
b = 70
Chapter 7 Geometry
WORKED Example 13
Find the value of the pronumeral in the following diagram.
85
t
75
THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
Form an equation by putting the sum of

angles on one side and 360 on the
other side of the equals sign.
Simplify by adding numbers together
and collecting like terms.
equation.
Divide both sides by 2 to find the value
of t.
t + t + 75 + 85 = 360
2t + 160 = 360
2t = 360 160
2t = 200
t = 200 2
t = 100
WORKED Example 14
Find the value of x in the quadrilateral shown below.
3x + 10
110
x
2x
THINK
WRITE
Add the four angles and set them equal

to 360.
To solve the equation, first simplify by
collecting like terms.
Subtract 120 from both sides.
1
2
x + 2x + 3x + 10 + 110 = 360
6x + 120 = 360
6x = 360 120
6x = 240
x = 240 6
x = 40
remember
remember
The sum of the interior angles in any quadrilateral is equal to 360.
255
256
7E
Angles in a quadrilateral
1 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following diagrams.

a
b
c
12
85
WORKED
d
hca
Mat
Example
Angles
in a
quadrilateral
100
45
95
50
Cabri
50
Geometry
Cabri
Angle sum of
a
quadrilateral
112
e
95
68
k
95
120
q
112
95
60
Geometry
50
Angles
in a
quadrilateral
2 multiple choice
a In this square, the equal angles are:
d
A a and b only
B a and c only
C a and b are equal, c and d are equal
a
D all angles
E a and c are equal, b and d are equal
b In this kite, the pairs of equal angles are:
A a and c only
d
B a and c are equal, b and c are equal
C a and c are equal, b and d are equal
D b and d only
E all angles are equal
c In this parallelogram, the pairs of equal angles are:
A a and c only
B a and d are equal, b and c are equal
d
D b and d only
a
d In this trapezium, the pairs of equal angles are:
A b and c only
B a and d are equal, b and c are equal
d
D a and d only
a
WORKED 3 Find the value of the pronumeral(s) in each of the following diagrams.
Example
a
b
c
m
115
13
74
98
74
42
b
c
b
a
c
b
c
b
115
k
Chapter 7 Geometry
85
122 q
105
257
116
4 Find the value of x in each of the following quadrilaterals.

a
b
c
2x
2x
14
WORKED
Example
2x
2x
4x
4x
2x
x + 10 110
3x
x
x 10
2x + 6
4x + 30
2x + 40
2x + 40
98
x+8
5 The swing at the local

park is in the shape of a
trapezium. If the angle
that the pole makes with
the ground is 70, find the
angle, x, between the pole
and the top crossbar.
2x 20
x
70
70
6 Jennifer built a kite. If the angle at the top of the kite is three times
more than the angle at the tail, and the angles on the side are 80, find
the angle at the tail.
3x
80
80
7 One angle in a parallelogram is double the other angle. Find all angles.
8 One angle in a rhombus is 40. Find all other angles.
9 A certain quadrilateral has each angle 10 greater than the previous one, except the
smallest angle. How large is the smallest angle?
MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 258 Wednesday, May 9, 2001 11:56 AM
258
What did the pencil say
say to the eraser?
The size of the lettered angles

gives the puzzle answer code.
57o
98o
52o
E
83o
59o
63o
71o
41o
39o
56o
L
28o
112o
37o
46o
72o
N
O
105o
S
47o
126o
Z
56o
45o X
56o
T
64o 108o 108o 64o 252o 38o 124o 124o 38o
75o
45o
34o
134o
27o
124o
108o
96o
252o
96o
124o
108o
12o
18o
124o 54o
75o
134o
108o
96o
Chapter 7 Geometry
Angles in polygons
259
In the previous exercises you saw that the

a
b
a
b
sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 and the
a
+
b
+
c
+
d
=
360
a + b + c = 180
sum of the angles in a quadrilateral is 360.
In this section you will discover a method of finding the sum of the angles in any polygon.
Sum of angles in a polygon

1 For every polygon shown in the table below, draw as many diagonals, as
possible from the vertex, marked X. (This will divide each polygon into a
number of triangles.)
2 Copy and complete this table:
Polygon
Number of
sides
3
Number of
triangles
1
Quadrilateral
2 180
= 360o
Pentagon
3 180o
= 540o
Hexagon
Heptagon
Octagon
Decagon
10
Name
Triangle
Sum of
angles
180o
3 Can you see a pattern? What would be the sum of the angles in a dodecagon
(12 sides)? Can you predict the angle sum of an icosagon (20 sides)? What
about a polygon with 100 sides?
260
The patterns that you have observed in the previous investigation can be generalised as
follows:
For any polygon the sum of interior angles = 180 (number of triangles).
Furthermore, the number of triangles = the number of sides 2.
Therefore,
The sum of the interior angles in any polygon = 180 (n 2 ), where n is the
number of polygons sides.
We can use this formula for finding the size of unknown angles in various polygons,
as shown in the following worked examples.
WORKED Example 15
Find the sum of the interior angles of the polygon shown.
THINK
1
2
3
Write the general formula for the angle

sum of a polygon.
Count the number of sides in the given
polygon to identify the value of n.
Substitute the value of n into the
formula and evaluate.
WRITE
Sum of angles = 180 (n 2)
n = 11
Sum of angles = 180 (11 2)
= 180 9
= 1620
WORKED Example 16
120
For the polygon shown at right find:

a the sum of its interior angles
b the value of the pronumeral.
p
130
70
50
THINK
WRITE
Write the general formula for the

angle sum of a polygon.
The shape has five sides, so state the
value of n.
Substitute the value of n into the
formula and evaluate.
a Sum of angles = 180 (n 2)
Form an equation by making the

sum of interior angles equal to 540.
Solve for p.
b p + 120 + 130 + 50 + 70 = 540
1
2
3
1
2
n=5
= 180 3
= 540
p + 370 = 540
p = 540 370
= 170
Chapter 7 Geometry
261
Regular polygons
A regular polygon is the one in which all sides are equal in length and all angles
are equal in size.
If a polygon is regular, we can find the size of each of its angles by first finding the sum
of the interior angles of the polygon and then dividing it by the number of angles.
Consider the following example.
WORKED Example 17
Find the value of the pronumeral in this regular polygon.
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write the general formula for the sum of angles

in a polygon.
The shape has five sides, so state the value of n.
Substitute the value of n into the formula and
evaluate.
Since the polygon is regular, all of its angles are
equal in size. So, to find the size of each angle,
divide the sum of angles by the number of
angles.
Note: The number of angles corresponds to the
number of sides, n.
Sum of angles = 180 (n 2)

n=5
= 180 3
= 540
a = 540 5
= 108
remember
remember
1. The sum of the interior angles in any polygon = 180 (n 2), where n is the
number of the polygons sides.
2. A regular polygon has all sides equal in length and all angles equal in size.
3. To find the size of the angles in a regular polygon, find the sum of its angles
first and then divide it by the number of angles in the polygon.
Angles in a regular polygon

1 What is the sum of the interior
angles of this polygon-shaped stop
sign?
2 What is the size of each angle?
3 What is the angle sum and size of
each angle for a Give way sign?
262
7F
WORKED
d
hca
Mat
Example
Cabri
Angles
in
polygons
15
Angles in polygons
1 Find the sum of the interior angles of each of the polygons shown.
a
Geometry
Star
polygons
WORKED
Cabri
Example
Geometry
16
Cabri
Exterior
angles of
a polygon
2 For each of the polygons shown, find:

i the sum of its interior angles
ii the value of the pronumeral.
a
b
c 110
b
120
120
150
h
150
150
150
240
55
260 170
55
Geometry
Angle
sum of a
polygon
250
45
45
3 State whether each of the following polygons is regular, or not. Give reasons.
WORKED
Example
17
4 Find the value of the pronumeral in these regular polygons.

a
t
a
Chapter 7 Geometry
263
5 Some regular shapes have special names. Draw each of these shapes, marking all
equal sides and angles, and write down their common name:
a a regular quadrilateral
b a regular triangle.
6 Two angles of a pentagon are right angles. The other three angles are all equal. Find
the size of these angles.
7 Two angles of a hexagon are right angles. The other four angles are all equal. Find the
size of these angles.
8 A cross as shown in the diagram at right is a polygon.
a What is the name of this polygon?
b What is the sum of its angles?
9 Yvette draws a regular 15-sided polygon. How large is each
angle?
10 Sam draws a regular 30-sided polygon. How large is each angle?
Cabri Geom
The diagram at right shows a regular triangle,

quadrilateral, pentagon and hexagon, constructed on a
common base 2 cm long. Using a ruler and a
protractor, construct, on a common base 5 cm long,
each of the following polygons:
a a regular triangle
b a regular quadrilateral
c a regular pentagon
d a regular hexagon
e a regular octagon
f a regular decagon
g a regular dodecagon.
Hint: Calculate the size of each angle first.
etry
Regular polygons
Regular
polygons
2 cm
Angles and parallel lines

In previous exercises we have discussed angles in triangles, quadrilaterals and other
polygons. In this section we will investigate different angles associated with parallel
lines.
A line, intersecting a pair (or a set) of parallel lines, is called a transversal.
Transversal
Parallel lines
Cutting parallel lines by a transversal creates a number of angles. These angles are
related in a number of ways, as we will now see.
Cabri
264
Geometry
Vertically opposite angles

The diagram at right shows two vertically opposite angles.
Vertically
opposite
angles
Vertically opposite angles are equal in size.
Cabri
Thus, in the diagram at right a = b.

Vertically opposite angles are often associated with the X shape.
Geometry
Corresponding
angles
a
b
Corresponding angles
The diagram at right shows two angles, a and b, positioned
below the parallel lines to the right of a transversal.
When both angles are on the same side of the transversal
(both to the left, or both to the right of it) and are either both
above, or both below the parallel lines, such angles are called
corresponding angles.
Corresponding angles are equal in size.
Cabri
Thus, in the above diagram a = b.

The position of corresponding angles is easy to remember by
associating it with the F shape.
Geometry
Co-interior
angles
a
b
Co-interior angles
The diagram at right shows two angles, a and b, positioned
inside the parallel lines, on the same side (to the right) of the
transversal. Such angles are called co-interior angles.
a
b
Co-interior angles are supplementary; that is, they add up to 180.
Cabri
Thus, in the diagram at right a + b = 180.

The position of the co-interior angles is easy to remember by
associating it with the C shape.
Geometry
Alternate
angles
a
b
Alternate angles
The diagram at right shows two angles, a and b, positioned inside
the parallel lines on alternate sides of the transversal. Such angles
are called alternate angles.
a
b
Alternate angles are equal in size

Thus, in the above diagram a = b.
The position of alternate angles is easy to remember by associating
it with the Z shape.
a
b
Chapter 7 Geometry
265
Parallel
lines
Open the Cabri

Geometry file
Parallel lines
on the Maths
Quest 8
CD-ROM.
Follow the
instructions on
the screen to
vary the position
of the transversal
and observe the
change in the
angles. Identify
the different
angle
relationships.
Calculating angles associated with parallel lines

Angle relationships associated with parallel lines can be used to find the size of missing
angles, as shown in the following worked examples.
WORKED Example 18
For the diagram at right:
a state the type of angle relationship
b find the value of the pronumeral.
45
m
THINK
WRITE
Study the diagram: which shape

X, Z, F or C would include both
angles that are shown? Copy the
diagram into your workbook and
highlight the appropriate shape.
State the name of the angles

suggested by the C shape.
Co-interior angles add to 180.

Write this as an equation.
Solve for m.
Cabri Geom
etry
Angle relationships with parallel lines
45
m
Shown angles are co-interior.

b m + 45 = 180
m = 180 45
= 135
266
WORKED Example 19
Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram shown.
120
THINK
1
WRITE
The two angles shown are neither X, C,

Z nor F angles. So we must find some
other angle first, that will enable us to
find the size of angle x. (This other
angle must be in a certain relation with
both given angles.) Draw an F-shape
that includes a 120 angle. The other
angle in the F shape is related to both
given angles: it is corresponding to the
120 angle and it is supplementary to
angle x. Call this angle y.
120
y
x
State the size of angle y, specifying the

reason (the angle relation).
y = 120 (as corresponding angles)
The angles x and y are supplementary

(add to 180). State this as an equation.
x + y = 180 (as supplementary angles)
Substitute the value of y into the

equation.
Solve for x.
x + 120 = 180
x = 180 120
= 60
remember
remember
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Vertically opposite (X) angles are equal in size.

Corresponding (F) angles are equal in size.
Co-interior (C) angles add to 180.
Alternate (Z) angles are equal in size.
Supplementary angles add to 180.
Complementary angles add to 90.
If the given angles are in none of the above relations, we might need to
find some other angle first. This other angle must be related to both given
angles.
Chapter 7 Geometry
7G
267
Angles and parallel lines

Cabri Geom
Associated shape
Rule
Corresponding
Alternate
Are equal in size.

Z
Add up to 180.
2 a Copy the diagram into your workbook. Clearly draw the F

shape on your diagram and label the angle corresponding to the
one that is marked.
b Copy the diagram into your workbook. Clearly draw the Z

shape on your diagram and label the angle alternate to the
marked angle.
Copy the diagram and label the angle vertically opposite to the
marked angle. Clearly draw the X shape on your diagram.
d Copy the diagram and label the angle co-interior to the marked
angle. Clearly draw the C shape on your diagram.
etry
Diagram
Type of angle
relation
Parallel
lines
268
3 Match each diagram with the appropriate name from the five options listed.
Diagram
Name
A Vertically opposite angles (X)
B Co-interior angles (C)
C Corresponding angles (F)
D Alternate angles (Z)
E None of the above
4 multiple choice
In the diagram at right:
a Which angle is vertically opposite to angle p?
A j
B k
C m
D r
b Which angle is corresponding to angle p?
A j
B k
C m
D r
c Which angle is co-interior to angle p?
A j
B k
C m
D r
d Which angle is alternate to angle p?
A j
B k
C m
D r
5 In the diagram at right, list all pairs of:
a vertically opposite angles
b corresponding angles
c co-interior angles
d alternate angles.
a b
c d
e f
g h
E q
E q
E q
E q
r t
n p
k m
j q
269
Chapter 7 Geometry
Example
18
6 For each of the following diagrams:

i state the type of angle relationship
ii find the value of the pronumeral.
a
b
HEET
SkillS
WORKED
p
45
q
60
s
65
f
132
72
m 70
7 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following diagrams.

a
b
c
116 64
62
38
z
b
44
e
68
f
135
72 g
h
120
WORKED
Example
19
44
110
8 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following diagrams.

a
b
c
x
123
137
b
62
80
p
q
z z
160
9 If the angle co-interior to x is 135, find the size of angle x.

10 If the angle corresponding to y is 55, find the size of angle y.
7.2
MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 270 Thursday, September 13, 2001 3:35 PM
270
11 A hill is at an angle of 30 to the horizontal. A fence is put in,

consisting of a railing parallel to the ground and vertical fence
posts. Find the angle between the top of the fence post and the
rail.
30
12 Two gates consist of vertical posts, horizontal struts and diagonal beams. Find the
angle, a, as shown in the gates below.
a
40
50
a
GAM
me
E ti
Geometry
002
14 Find the angles w, x, y, z

in the diagram shown.
7.2
120
135
45
60
w
x y
QUEST
GE
EN
M AT H
Work
ET
SHE
13 Two transversal lines cross a pair of parallel lines at 120

and 135. Find the angle between the transversals.
CH
B
48
84
1 Is the line AB parallel to line CD? Explain

your answer.
LL
133
C
2 This figure has 8 unit triangles.

Remove 4 matches so that 4 unit
triangles are left behind.
3 Move 4 matches so that there are 4 unit
squares instead of 5.
Chapter 7 Geometry
271
2
1 Using side and angle markings where appropriate, draw a right-angled scalene triangle.
2 True or false? The name of the quadrilateral shown is a trapezium.
3 What is the complement of 25?
4 Name the following pair of angles in this
diagram.
For questions 5 to 10, find the value of
the pronumerals.
5
7
y
172
120
8
140
53
m
xv
w 80
140
z y
10
70
15
35
272
Constructing triangles
Using a ruler, protractor and compass you can construct any triangle if you are given three side
lengths, two side lengths and the angle between
them, or two angles and the length of the side
between them.
Constructing a triangle given

three side lengths
If the lengths of the three sides of a triangle are
known, it can be constructed with the help of a
ruler and a compass, as shown in the following
worked example.
WORKED Example 20
Using a ruler and compass, construct a triangle with side lengths 15 mm, 20 mm and
21 mm.
THINK
DRAW
Rule out the longest side (21 mm).
Open the compass to the shortest side

length (15 mm).
Draw an arc from one end of the

21 mm side.
21 mm
15 mm
21 mm
4
Open the compass to the length of the

third side (20 mm) and draw an arc
from the other end of the 21 mm side.
15 mm
20 mm
21 mm
Join the point of intersection of the two

arcs and the end points of the 21 mm
side with lines. Erase the arcs.
15 mm
20 mm
21 mm
Constructing a triangle given two angles and the side

between them
If the size of any two angles of a triangle and the length of the side between these two
angles are known, the triangle can be constructed with the aid of a ruler and a
protractor. The following worked example shows how this is done.
Chapter 7 Geometry
273
WORKED Example 21
Use a ruler and protractor to construct a triangle with angles 40 and 65, and the side
between them of length 2 cm.
THINK
1
2
DRAW
Rule a line of length 2 cm.

Place the centre of your protractor on
one end point of the line and measure out
a 40 angle. Draw a line so that it makes
an angle of 40 with the 2 cm line.
Place the centre of your protractor on the
other end point of the 2 cm line and
measure an angle of 65. Draw a line so
that it makes a 65 angle with the 2 cm line.
If necessary, continue the lines until they
intersect each other to form a triangle.
Erase any extra length.
40
2 cm
40 65
2 cm
40 65
2 cm
Constructing a triangle given two sides and the angle

between them
A triangle can be constructed using a protractor and a ruler, if the lengths of two sides
and the size of the angle between them (called an included angle) are given. The
following worked example shows how this can be done.
WORKED Example 22
Use a ruler and protractor to construct a triangle with sides 6 cm and 10 cm long, and an
angle between them of 60.
THINK
1 Rule a line 10 cm long.
2 Place the centre of your protractor on
one end point of the line and mark an
angle of 60. Note: These figures have
been reduced.
3
Join the 60 mark and the end point of

the 10 cm side with the straight line.
Extend the line until it is 6 cm long.
DRAW
60
10 cm
6 cm
60
10 cm
Join the end points of the two lines to

complete the triangle.
6 cm
60
10 cm
274
remember
remember
1. A triangle can be constructed using a ruler and a compass if the three sides are
known.
2. If two angles of a triangle and the side between them, or two sides and an angle
between them are known, the triangle can be constructed using a protractor and
a ruler.
3. When using a protractor:
(a) make sure that the baseline of the protractor is exactly on the line, and the
cross of the protractor is exactly on the point from which you are
measuring the angle.
(b) use the scale that begins from 0 (not 180).
Cabri
7H
Geometry
Three
sides
7.3
Cabri
SkillS
HEET
Geometry
Two
angles and
a side
Constructing triangles
1 Using a ruler and compass, construct triangles with the following side lengths:
a 7 cm, 6 cm, 4 cm
b 5 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm
20
c 6 cm, 5 cm, 3 cm
d 6 cm, 6 cm, 6 cm
e 7.5 cm, 4.5 cm, 6 cm
f 2 cm, 6.5 cm, 5 cm
g an equilateral triangle of side 3 cm
h an equilateral triangle of side 4.5 cm.
WORKED
Example
2 Use a ruler and protractor to construct these triangles:

a angles 60 and 60 with the side between them 5 cm long
21
b angles 50 and 50 with the side between them 6 cm long
c angles 30 and 40 with the side between them 4 cm long
d angles 60 and 45 with the side between them 3 cm long
e angles 30 and 60 with the side between them 4 cm long
f angles 65 and 60 with the side between them 3.5 cm long
g angles 60 and 90 with the side between them 5 cm long
h angles 60 and 36 with the side between them 4.5 cm long.
WORKED
Example
3 Use a ruler and protractor to construct the following triangles:

a two sides 10 cm and 5 cm long, angle of 30 between them
22
b two sides 8 cm and 3 cm long, angle of 45 between them
c two sides 6 cm and 6 cm long, angle of 60 between them
d two sides 4 cm and 5 cm long, angle of 90 between them
e two sides 7 cm and 6 cm long, angle of 80 between them
f two sides 9 cm and 3 cm long, angle of 110 between them
g two sides 6 cm and 6 cm long, angle of 50 between them
h two sides 5 cm and 4 cm long, angle of 120 between them.
WORKED
Cabri
Example
Geometry
Two sides
and an
angle
between
4 a Use your ruler and compass to draw an isosceles triangle with two sides 5 cm long
and one side 7 cm.
b Use your protractor to measure the size of the largest angle.
c Complete this sentence using one of the words below: This triangle is an
- angled triangle.
i acute
ii right
iii obtuse
Chapter 7 Geometry
275
5 a Use your ruler and compass to draw a scalene triangle with sides 8 cm, 10 cm and 13 cm.
b Use your protractor to measure the size of the largest angle.
c Complete this sentence using one of the words below: This triangle is a
-angled triangle.
i acute
ii right
iii obtuse
6 Imagine that you were to copy a given triangle, using any tool(s) from your set of a
ruler, a protractor and a compass. What is the minimum information you would need to
accomplish the task? (There is more than one possible answer.)
Isometric drawing
When working with 3-dimensional models and designs, it is often useful to have the
design or model drawn on paper (that is, in 2 dimensions).
A 2-dimensional drawing of a 3-dimensional object is called an isometric drawing.
This picture shows an architects plan of a beach hut and environs in isometric view
superimposed on the actual hut. Architects and draftspersons often use isometric
drawings to give their clients a clear picture of the proposed design.
276
WORKED Example 23
First copy the incomplete figure at far right onto
isometric dot paper. Complete the isometric
drawing of the object shown at near right.
THINK
DRAW
Study the object and identify the lines that

have already been drawn. Fill in the
missing lines on your isometric drawing to
match the object.
WORKED Example 24
Draw the following object on isometric dot paper.
(You could construct it first from a set of cubes.)
THINK
1
DRAW
Use cubes to make the object shown

(optional). Draw the front face of the
object. The vertical edges of the
3-dimensional object are shown with
vertical lines on the isometric drawing;
the horizontal edges are shown with the
lines at an angle (by following the dots
on the grid paper).
Draw the left face of the object.
Add the top face to complete the

isometric drawing of the object.
remember
remember
1. An isometric drawing is a 2-dimensional picture of a 3-dimensional object.
2. If possible, construct the solid from the set of cubes prior to drawing its
isometric view.
3. Draw the front face first.
4. In isometric drawings, vertical edges of a 3-dimensional object are shown with
vertical lines, while horizontal edges are shown with the lines drawn at an angle.
Chapter 7 Geometry
7I
277
Isometric drawing
1 Copy the following figures onto isometric dot paper and complete the isometric
drawing of the objects shown.
23
a
b
WORKED
Example
2 Draw each of the following objects on isometric dot paper. (You might wish to make
them first from a set of cubes.)
24
a
b
WORKED
Example
3 Construct the following letters using cubes, and then draw the solids on isometric dot
paper:
a the letter T with 5 cubes
b the letter L with 7 cubes
c the letter E with 10 cubes
d the letter H with 7 cubes.
4 Draw these objects, whose front (F), right (R) and top (T) views are given, on isometric
dot paper.
a
b
F
F
T
T
d
F
R
278
5 Draw the front, right and top views of these objects.

a
b
c
6 Draw the following figure on isometric dot paper.
7 Draw a selection of buildings from this photograph of the Melbourne skyline on isometric
dot paper.
Chapter 7 Geometry
279
Geometric constructions
Using your imagination, a sharp pencil and eraser, a ruler, protractor and compass you
can create some interesting geometric designs.
WORKED Example 25
Use the following steps to construct a pentagonal star.
Step 1. Draw a circle of radius 1 cm.
Step 2. Draw a pentagon in the circle. (Mark off every 72.)
Step 3. Join all vertices of the pentagon to every other vertex.
Step 4. Draw a line from each vertex of the large pentagon to the opposite vertex of the
small pentagon.
Step 5. Using a pen, highlight the lines to be kept.
Step 6. Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your finished design.
THINK
1
DRAW
Using a compass, draw a circle with a

1 cm radius in the middle of your page.
Mark the centre of the circle.
To draw a pentagon in the circle, place
the cross of the protractor at the centre
of the circle and mark off every 72o
along the circumference. Join your
markings with straight-line segments.
Join each vertex of the pentagon to

every other vertex with straight lines.
Join each vertex of the large pentagon

to the opposite vertex of the small
pentagon with straight lines.
Using a pen, highlight the lines to be
kept, so that the star is formed.
Erase the original circle and all the

pencil lines that have not been
highlighted. Colour in your finished
design.
remember
remember
Always work with a pencil first. When the constructions are done, use a pen to
highlight the lines to be kept and erase the remaining pencil lines.
280
7J
WORKED
.
Example
Geometric constructions
1 Use the steps outlined below to construct a larger version of this hexagonal pattern.
25
Guidelines for step e
Completed pattern, step g
a
b
c
d
e
Draw a circle of radius 10 cm.

Draw a hexagon (mark off every 60 on the circle first).
Mark the midpoint of each side of the hexagon.
Join each midpoint to all other midpoints.
Draw lines joining all vertices of the larger hexagon to each other (see the guidelines above).
f Using a pen, highlight the lines to be kept.
g Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your finished design.
2 Use the steps outlined below to construct the optical illusion as shown here in miniature.
Guidelines, step d
a
b
c
d
e
f
Completed illusion, step f

Join all vertices of the hexagon to each other.
Draw a small hexagon in the middle of the diagram (see the guidelines above).
Using a pen, highlight the lines to be kept.
Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your finished design.
3 Construct the design, called Cubes using the steps outlined. Try different colouring
patterns.
Guidelines
Final pattern
Chapter 7 Geometry
a
b
c
d
e
f
281

Mark the midpoint of each side of the hexagon.
Draw in the grid lines as shown in the guidelines above.
Using a pen, highlight the lines to be kept.
Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your finished design.
4 By following the steps outlined below, construct the Olympic rings.
Guidelines
a
b
c
d
Draw a line 16 cm long in the centre of a page.

Mark three points at 0 cm, 8 cm and 16 cm on this line. Rub out the line.
Using each of these points as a centre, draw three circles of radius 5 cm.
Taking the bottom points of intersection of these circles, draw another two circles of
radius 5 cm using the points of intersection as the centres as shown in the guidelines
above.
e Using the same five points as centres, draw five circles of radius 3 cm.
f Colour to create overlapping Olympic rings.
Nets and solids

A net of a solid is a 2-dimensional plan, which can be cut out and folded to form
that solid.
Most packaging boxes are constructed from nets. This box which contained paper clips
can be unfolded to form a net as shown below.
282
WORKED Example 26
a Make a net for a cube of side length 5 cm. Include flaps or tabs to hold the cube
securely together.
b Construct the box from your net.
THINK
DRAW/CONSTRUCT
A cube has six faces, each of which

is a square. Arrange six squares of
side 5 cm into a net. Note: These
figures have been reduced to fit.
Add tabs to hold the cube together.

(This may take some trial and error.)
Cut out the net and fold to crease all

the lines.
Fold into shape and stick down the
tabs with tape or glue.
Technology and polyhedra
Poly
A demonstration version of the program Poly is available on the Maths Quest 8

CD-ROM. This program allows you to visualise polyhedra and their nets.
When you first open Poly, follow these steps to select the most appropriate options:
Go to View then select Available modes. Tick the following options:
Option 2:
3-dimensional shaded polyhedra
Option 6:
2-dimensional net
Poly can be used to assist you in counting the number of faces, edges and vertices as
well as view the shape of each face.
For the polyhedron in worked example 26, follow these steps:
1. Select Platonic solids and Cube.
2. Press the icon
(3-dimensional shaded polyhedra) and rotate the object to
count the number of faces and to see the shape of each face. (You can rotate the solid
by placing your mouse arrow over the solid then clicking and holding down the
mouse while moving the arrow.)
Use Poly to see the nets of different solids by selecting option
(2-dimensional
net). You can also see how the solid unfolds into a net and then folds back into a polyhedron by moving the button forward and backwards along the horizontal slot when
using option
(3-dimensional shaded polyhedra).
Chapter 7 Geometry
283
remember
remember
1. A net is a 2-dimensional plan, which can be folded to create a 3-dimensional
object.
2. When designing nets, think carefully about placing tabs to give strength to your
solid.
3. When cutting out nets, accuracy is important.
7K
Nets and solids
1 Draw and cut out the net shown, then

fold it into a tetrahedron.
2 Cut out the net shown and

fold it into an octahedron.
Stick down the tabs to make
your figure more stable.
3 a A cereal box measures

24 cm 16 cm 6 cm.
26
Make a net for this
box. Include flaps or
tabs to hold the box
securely together.
b Construct the box from
your net.
WORKED
Example
4 a Use cardboard to make a net for this chocolate box.

Include flaps or tabs to hold the box securely together.
284
Work
ET
SHE
7.3
5 a Many people store pamphlets or magazines in pamphlet boxes

like the one shown. Use cardboard to make a net for this box.
Include flaps or tabs to hold the box securely together.
PAMPHLETS
Box it!
1 Find two different boxes at home (such as a milk carton, pizza box or other
packaging). Open up all the tabs and lay the boxes flat to make nets.
a Look at the way that the tabs are used to hold the boxes together. How
strong are the boxes?
b The net of each box was probably cut from a rectangle. Was much
cardboard wasted to make this net? Estimate the amount wasted and
explain how you have arrived at this estimation.
2 Make a net for a box with a 7 cm square base and
height 10 cm. It should hold together without any tape
or glue, and have a closeable lid. Construct the box
10 cm
from cardboard to check that it works.
7 cm
7 cm
Poly
Models of polyhedra
Consider the photograph of Storey Hall at the start of the chapter. The designers of
the facade of this building would have produced scale drawings and scale models
to assist in the building of it.
Look at the purple 3-dimensional polyhedra formed over the front doorway. Can
you form a net of this to produce a model? Use the program Poly to help you. Try to
keep the proportions of the faces of the polyhedra similar to that seen in the photograph.
Try some other models of polyhedra.
Use the program Poly to find the nets of other polyhedra. There are some
suggestions below. Print out each net and trace it onto coloured paper or card. (You
may like to enlarge your net by using a photocopier first.) Cut and fold the nets to
form each of the polyhedra. Use tape to hold the solid together.
Pentagonal rotunda (in Johnson solids)
Square orthobicupola (J28) (in Johnson solids)
Rhombicuboctahedron (in Archimedean solids)
Triakis tetrahedron (in Catalan solids)
Icosidodecahedron (in Archimedean solids)
Hexagonal deltohedron (in Dipyramids and Deltohedrons)
Chapter 7 Geometry
285
summary
Copy the sentences below. Fill in the gaps by choosing the correct word or
expression from the word list that follows.
1
An
An isosceles triangle has
All sides and all angles are different in
triangles.
An acute-angled triangle has all angles
90.
An obtuse-angled triangle contains one
The sum of the
An
of a triangle is equal to the sum of the 2 interior angles,
not adjacent to it.
All
triangle has all 3 sides of equal length and all 3 angles equal.
of equal length and 2 base angles equal.
angle.
triangle contains one 90 angle.

angles in any triangle is 180.
can be divided into 2 groups: parallelograms and others.
10
Parallelograms have 2 pairs of

parallelograms and rhombi.
11
A rectangle has 2 pairs of opposite sides equal and all 4 angles are
angles.
12
13
A parallelogram has two pairs of

angles of equal size.
14
A rhombus has
size.
15
Other quadrilaterals include kites,
16
The
of a kite are equal in length and the angles between the
unequal sides are equal in size.
17
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with
18
An
19
The sum of the interior angles in any quadrilateral is
20
The sum of the interior angles in any polygon = 180 (n 2), where n is
the
in the polygon.
21
22
and include rectangles, squares,
has all 4 sides of equal length and four right angles.

of equal length and opposite
sides of equal length and opposite angles of equal

and irregular quadrilaterals.
of parallel sides.
quadrilateral does not have any special features.

.
polygon has all sides of equal length and all angles of equal size.
is a line that intersects a pair (or a set) of parallel lines.
286
23
Corresponding angles (F-shaped),

angles (Z-shaped) and
angles (X-shaped) are equal in size.
24
Co-interior angles are
25
If the length of each of the 3 sides of a triangle is known, it can be constructed using a
and a ruler.
26
If the length of 2 sides of a triangle and the size of the included angle, or
the size of the 2 angles and the length of the side between them are
known, a triangle can be constructed with the aid of a ruler and a
.
27
A 2-dimensional picture of a 3-dimensional object is called an

of that object.
28
In isometric drawings, vertical edges of an object are shown with vertical

lines, while the lines
represent horizontal edges of an object.
29
A
object.
WORD
trapeziums
regular
isometric view
equilateral
parallel sides
protractor
alternate
two sides
(that is, add to 180).
is a 2-dimensional plan, which can be cut and folded to form an
LIST
scalene
360
smaller than
square
obtuse
right-angled
all four
net of an object
transversal
supplementary
interior
adjacent sides
right
exterior angle
quadrilaterals
vertically
opposite
opposite sides
one pair
irregular
number of sides
compass
at an angle
Chapter 7 Geometry
287
CHAPTER
review
1 Give: i the side name and ii the angle name for each of these triangles.
a
b
c
7A
2 Using side and angle markings, draw a triangle that is:

a equilateral
b right-angled and isosceles
7A
obtuse-angled and scalene.
3 Find the values of the pronumerals in these triangles.

a
b
c
d
65
t
30
50
42
2x
7B
40
3x
w
2x + 10
4 A ladder meets with the wall at a 30 angle.

Find the angle that the ladder makes with the
ground.
7B
30
5 Calculate the value of the pronumeral in each diagram below.

a
b
c
d
40
50
50
t
62
120
7C
2x
80
6x
288
7C
6 A framed mirror was hung with fabric, as

shown in the photograph at right. Find the size
of the exterior angle, e, that the fabric makes
with the top edge of the frame.
45
7D
7 Draw these quadrilaterals, showing all parallel sides, sides of equal length and angles of
equal sides, using appropriate markings:
a a rectangle
b a trapezium c a kite
d a rhombus.
7E
8 Find the value of the pronumeral in each diagram below.

a
b
c
x
125 125
2x
2x
110
g
55
x + 50
x + 10
50
7E
9 A kite has a bottom angle of 50 and a top angle of 120.

Find the size of the other two angles of the kite.
120
50
7F
10 Find the angle sum of:

a a pentagon
7F
11 Calculate the value of the pronumeral in each diagram below.

a
b
c
210
120
b an octagon.
75
130
75
2m
210
4m
3m
2m
Chapter 7 Geometry
12 Calculate the size of each angle (labelled p) in this

regular pentagon.
13 multiple choice
a In the following diagrams, angles a and b are:
A vertically opposite
B corresponding
C co-interior
D alternate
E supplementary
b A
B
C
D
E
vertically opposite
corresponding
co-interior
alternate
supplementary
A
B
C
D
E
vertically opposite
corresponding
co-interior
alternate
supplementary
d A
B
C
D
E
vertically opposite
corresponding
co-interior
alternate
supplementary
7G
p
p
p
p
7G
a
b
a
b
a
b
14 For each diagram:

i state the type of angle relation that you use
ii calculate the value of the pronumeral.
a
b
y
7G
c
130
135
60
x
289
45
15 Use a compass, protractor and ruler to construct these triangles:

a a triangle with the side lengths 4 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm
b a triangle with two of the sides 4 cm and 5 cm long, and an angle between them of 75.
16 Draw the front, right and top views of these objects.
a
b
7H
7I
290
7I
17 Draw isometric views of the objects, whose front, right and top views are given below.
a
b
R
F
7I
18 A rectangular prism, constructed from the set of cubes is 3 cubes long, 2 cubes wide and
4 cubes high. Draw an isometric view of the prism.
7J
19 Construct a decagonal star based on the

figures at right and using these steps.
a Draw a circle of radius 5 cm.
b Mark the vertices of a decagon
(36 apart) on the circle. Also
mark the centre of the circle.
c Draw the lines shown in the guide at
right.
d Using a pen, highlight the lines to be
Guidelines
kept.
e Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your design.
7K
20 Draw a net of the milk carton shown below.
7K
21 This chocolate box has a 100 cm2 square base.

The height is 2.5 cm. Construct a possible net.
CHAPTER
test
yourself

CH 07

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MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 233 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 234 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 235 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Naming triangles according to the lengths of their sides

All three sides are equal in length.

Two sides are equal in length.

No sides are equal in length.

Naming triangles according to the size of their angles

All angles less than 90.

Contains a right angle (90).

Contains an obtuse angle (greater than

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 236 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

a An obtuse-angled triangle has one

b A right-angled triangle contains a right

One of the angles is marked with the

Angle name: right-angled

There are three different markings

Side name: scalene

Select the most appropriate answer

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 237 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

1 Copy and complete this table.

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 238 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 239 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

During his life . . .

Elements was first

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 240 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

Sum of angles in any triangle is equal

According to the markings, triangle

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 241 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Form an equation by making the sum of

The angles in a triangle add up to 180,

Divide both sides by 3.

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 242 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

1 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following triangles.

2 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following triangles.

3 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following triangles.

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 243 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

4 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following triangles.

6 In snowy regions, houses are built with

7 A Christmas tree is shaped like an

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 244 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

Exterior angles of a triangle

Form an equation by making the

Angle x, together with the exterior

From the above example an important observation can be made:

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 245 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Open the Cabri

Exterior angles of a triangle

The exterior angle equals the sum of

Simplify to find the value of e.

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 246 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Maths Quest 8 for Victoria

The exterior angle of a triangle equals

Subtract 70 from both sides of the

The exterior angle of a triangle equals

MQ 8 Ch 07 Page 247 Thursday, December 7, 2000 4:05 PM

Exterior angles of a triangle