MAJOR RESEARCH TRADITIONS

Sony Junaedi

Name

HANDOUT 4
0203513031

Student number

ACTIVITY 1
1. What are variables, samples, and populations, and what are they
important in research?
Answer:
Variable is something with varying degress of weight or value.
(Saleh.M :2012.) It is not only something that you measure, but also
something that you can manipulate and control for. In research
science variables are any factors or conditions that are changeable
during the course of an experiment such as temperature, time or
composition. Scientists attempt to change only one variable at a
time so that the reasons for the results of an experiment are clear.
Sample is A subset of individuals from a given population. It is the
number of observations used for calculating estimates of a given
population. Sample sizes reduce expenses and time by allowing
researchers to estimate information about a whole population
without having to survey each member of the population.
Population is the total number of subject research. It is a set (or
collection) of all elements processing one or more attributes of
interest. It is also generally a large collection of individuals or
objects that is the main focus of a scientific query.
They are very important in research, because they have a crucial role
2. What are the basic principles of sound experimental design?
Answer: there are 3 principles; they are randomization, replication, and
local control.
3. What do we mean by inferential statistics?
Answer:
A data analysis technique is used to examine, assess, and draw
conclusions based on data obtained from a sample to illustrate the
characteristics or traits of a population.
It is used when a researcher wants to compare the average
performance of two groups on a single measure to see if there is a
difference.
With inferential statistics, a researcher is trying to reach conclusions
that extend beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, he uses
inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the

population might think. Or, he uses inferential statistics to make

judgments of the probability that an observed difference between
groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by
chance in this study. Thus, he uses inferential statistics to make
inferences from our data to more general conditions; he uses
descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.
4. When is it appropriate to use the following statistical procedures: t-test,
analysis of variance (anova), correlation, and chi-square?
Answer:
The t-test assesses whether the means of two groups are
statistically different from each other. This analysis is appropriate
whenever we want to compare the means of two groups, and
especially appropriate as the analysis for the posttest-only twogroup randomized experimental design.
The picture shows the distributions for
the treated (blue) and control (green)
groups in a study. The picture indicates
where the control and treatment group
means are located. The question the ttest addresses is whether the means
are statistically different.

Analysis of variance (Anova) implies to compare means for three or

more categories.
Example: Income (metric/scale variable) and marital status (many
categories)
Correlation used when we do not (or at least try not to) influence
any variables but only measure them and look for relations
(correlations) between some set of variables, such as blood pressure
and cholesterol level.
Chi-square used when the null hypothesis here is that the two sets
of measures are similar or when significantly different.
5. What is the difference between the true experiments, quasiexperiments, and pre-experiments?
Answer:
True experiments; This design can control virtually all threats to
experimental validity. It examines the influence one variable on
another variable by using two groups,they are experimental group
and control group. Using random method to select the experimental

and control group subject. The group will be given pretest and
posttest. This category of design includes more than one
purposively created group, common measured outcome(s), and
random assignment. Note that individual background variables such
as sex and ethnicity do not satisfy this requirement since they
cannot be purposively manipulated in this way.
Quasi experiments; this category of design is most frequently used
when it is not feasible for the researcher to use random assignment.
Pre-experiments are the simplest form of research design. It
examines the influence one variable on another variable by using
only one group subject In a pre-experiment either a single group or
multiple groups are observed subsequent to some agent or
treatment presumed to cause change.
ACTIVITY 2
1. What are the two ways of classifying variables? Elaborate your answer!
Answer: there are two variables; they are independent variable and
dependent variable.
a. Independent variable is variable which affects other variables;
something that is hypothesized to influence the other variable. The
researcher determines for the participant what level or condition of
the independent variable that the participant in the experiment
receives. For example, each participant in the experiment may be
randomly assigned to either an experimental condition or the
control condition.
b. Dependent variable is variable which depends on another variable,
when another variable changes, dependent variable will change too.
It is the variable that reflects the influence of the independent
variable.
c. Example of using both variable; imagine that you wished to know
whether listening to music would increase productivity in the
workplace. You randomly assign each participant in this experiment
to either an experimental condition or a control condition. In the
experimental condition, participants listen to music while they
work. In the control condition, the participants do not listen to
music while they work. In this example, listening to music vs. not
listening to music is the independent variable. The dependent
variable
in
this
example
is
productivity.
2. What kind of situation requires experiments an appropriate way of
gathering data?
Answer:

Experiment is required as a way of gathering data when the researcher

attempts to understand cause-and-effect relationships and plan to get
stronger evidences. The study is "controlled" in the sense that the
researcher controls (1) how subjects are assigned to groups and (2)
which treatments each group receives.
3. Why is it difficult to conduct experiments in school setting, and what do
you think is the best solution?
Answer:
Experimental research is difficult to be conducted in school setting; it is
not always practicable to rearrange students into different groups or
classes at will. It will have to be with intact groups of subject, this is
subjects who have been grouped together.
4. Why is the standard deviation, in addition to the mean, important in
studying numerical data?
Answer:
The reason of standard deviation important in studying numerical
data is it gives us information about the central tendency of the
scores by employing measure of similarity of mean () which is
simply the average of a set of scores.
It is calculated by deducting the mean from each individual score,
squaring the resulting figures to get rid of the minus sign, adding
those together and dividing by the number of scores minus one.
5. Describe a situation which requires analysis of variance (ANOVA) as the
best technique of data analysis!
Answer:
When we have only two samples we can use the t-test to compare
the means of the samples but it might become unreliable in case of
more than two samples. If we only compare two means, then the ttest (independent samples) will give the same results as the ANOVA.
EXAMPLE: Suppose we want to test the effect of five different
exercises. For this, we recruit 20 men and assign one type of
exercise to 4 men (5 groups). Their weights are recorded after a few
weeks.
We may find out whether the effect of these exercises on them is
significantly different or not and this may be done by comparing the
weights of the 5 groups of 4 men each.
The example above is a case of one-way balanced ANOVA. It has
been termed as one-way as there is only one category whose effect
has been studied and balanced as the same number of men has
been assigned on each exercise. Thus the basic idea is to test
whether the samples are all alike or not.

ACTIVITY 3

(Competency Test Exercise)

1. Match up the following:

a. Intact- group comparison
Improved control for history but
weak on external validity
b. Pretest posttest control group design
does not control for
history or selection
c. Posttest only control group design
True design with no
testing effect
d. One- shot case study
does not control for selection
e. Equivalent time-samples design
True design with possible
testing effect
f. Separate-sample pretest posttest
one

group
design
repeated twice
2. Match up the following :
a. Nonequivalent control group design
Imperfect control of
selection but better than non - design
b. Posttest-only control group design
true design with no
pretest bias
c. Time-series design
inadequate control of history
d. One-group pretest-posttest design
imperfect
control
of
history
e. Factorial design
true design for dealing with multiple
independent variables
f. Patched-up design
combination of two non design
3. In term of controlling for history bias, rank order the three following
designs in terms of their adequacy.
1. Most adequate = pretest-posttest control group design
2. Next most adequate = time-series design
3. Least adequate = one-group pretest-posttest design
4. In term of controlling for selection bias, rank order the four following
designs in terms of their adequacy.
1. Most adequate = posttest-only control group design
2. Next most adequate = patched-up design
3. Next least adequate = nonequivalent control group design
4. Least adequate = intact-group comparison
5. Prediction : student teachers who are randomly assigned to urban
schools for experience are more likely to choose urban schools for
their first teaching assignment than student teachers who are
randomly assigned to nonurban schools.
Construct an experimental design to test this prediction.
Answer :
Based on the prediction above we should be better to use quasi
experimental design because the situations in which complete
experimental control is difficult or impossible. There are times when

a comparison or control group cannot be included in an experiment.

One kind of quasi experimental design that suitable for this case is
time series design. It can be diagramed as follows:
O1O2O3O4 X
O5O6O7O8

6. Prediction : Students given programmed math instruction will gain

more in math achievement than students not given this instruction,
but this effect will be more pronounced among high math aptitude
students than among low.
Construct an experimental design to test this prediction.
Answer :
Actually we can use Pretest Posttest Control Group design, but
based on the prediction above it can be concluded that the best
design is Nonequivalent Control Group Design. There is possibility of
bias because there is not enough randomized of Ss. This design is
identical to the previous one in all respects except for the random
assignment of subjects to conditions. It can be diagramed below:
O1

O2

----------------------O3

O4

The procedures of this design are the same as for a true design
except that intact groups rather than randomly assigned ones are
used, creating a control problem in terms of selection bias. It has
ability in controlling of selection of bias, especially by using a
pretest.
7. Which of the following circumstances necessitate the use of a quasiexperimental design?
Answer: a. Experimenter cannot assign Ss to condition
8. Which of the following circumstances necessitate the use of a quasiexperimental design?
Answer : b. No control group is available
c. The pretest is sensitizing

9. A Patched-up design has been created where this years, first

graders serve as the control group for a treatment being tried on
this years second graders. Which validity threat is not controlled?
Answer : b. Maturation
c. History
10.
Prediction: student teachers who choose urban schools for
experience are more likely to choose urban school for their first
teaching assignment than student teachers who choose non urban
schools.
a. Why must a quasy-experimental design be employed to test this
prediction?
Answer :
Because the prediction above is not as adequate as the true
experimental designs (since the sources of bias are not amply
controlled). It is fraught with real limitations upon researchers
ability to select or assign subjects and manipulate conditions.
b. construct one
Based on the prediction above we should be better to use quasi
experimental design because the situations in which complete
experimental control is difficult or impossible. There are times when
a comparison or control group cannot be included in an experiment.
One kind of quasi experimental design that suitable for this case is
time series design. It can be diagramed as follows:
O1O2O3O4 X
O5O6O7O8
11.
A school decides to implement a dental hygiene program for
all its students. It predicts that cavities will be reduced as a result of
this program.
a. Why must a quasi-experimental design be employed to test this
prediction?
Because there is only a single group is available for study and the
groups pattern of the experience with the treatment is highly
predetermined- that is, the researcher must expose the group to the
treatment on some systematic basis.

b. construct one
The design used for the prediction above is Equivalent Time
samples Design. It is diagramed below
X1

O1

X0

O2

X1

O3

X0

O4

The school takes the dental hygiene programme regularly for

the week(X1). The following week the teacher checks students teeth
(O1). Then the teacher ask a dentist to check again students teeth
(X0) followed by the teachers checking on the next week (O 2). And it
is done simultanously until (O4).
The analysis of the data in this study is set up as shown
above. A comparison of O 1,O2,O3 and O4 allows the teacher to
compare the experiences. The interaction between the four
measurements provides a check on differential changes overtime,
12. Sample Study III, Appendix A, utilizes a criterion-group design.
a. Why is this design employed rather than an experimental
design?
b. Diagram this design as used in Sample Study III.
13. Prediction : children from broken homes will create a greater
discipline problem in school ( as evidenced by demerits) than
children from intact homes.
a. Why must a criterion-group design be employed to test this
prediction?
We must use criterion- group design because the context of the
prediction is suitable for the requirements of this design. The
Criterion-group design used in two context.

An attempt is made to determine what characteristics are

associated with the criterion group and have presumably
preceded and thereby caused the criterion behavior.

Illustrated by the directive versus nondirective teacher study,

the criterion group approach might better have called a
naturalistic study.

b. construct one
The criterion group design can be diagramed as follows.
C

O1

O1
Or

O2

O2

------------------------ or
O3

O1

---------------

O4

O2

14. Prediction : an after-school dance program will improve the physical

skills and social skills of first graders.
a. why does the testing of this prediction call for Hawthorne control?
The

prediction

above

calls

for

Hawthorne

control

because

the

experimental intervention were after-school dance program fror first

graders and dependent variables are physical skills and social skills. Then
Hawthorne intervention might take the form of tchnique in teaching dance
to the children during the same period of the time that the experimental
group was experiencing it. The non-treatment control condition, on the
other hand, would involve no contact whatever between experimenter and
subjects.

b. Construct a design for testing it.

X
H
Ep
En

Ep

O1

En

O2

Ep

O3

En

O4

Experimental (relevant) treatment.

Hawthorne control (irrelevant experience)
Positive teacher expectation
Neutral teacher expectation created.

15. A researcher has just designed a special program to increase verbal

I.Q.
It is a series of classroom lesson. She wants to try it out in some
schools.
a. Why would a Hawthorne control be a good idea?
A Hawthorne control be a good idea because it represent a
systematic intervention and interaction on the part of experimenter
with the subject; the purpoae is to introduce a new procedure that is
not anticipated to have specific effects related to the effects of the
treatment or intervention being evaluated. In Hawthorne controlb
experiment an irrelevant, unrelated intervention is deliberately
introduced in order to create the Hawthorne effect which is often
associated with intervention.
b. Why would teacher expectancy controls be a good idea?
Teacher expectancy controls be a good idea because the teacher
would

believe

that

the

experimental

innovation

would

be

successful.The outcome then would be a combination of the

treatment plus the teachers expectation to success.
c. Construct a design to test this program
R

Ep

O1

En

O2

Ep

O3

En

O4

Experimental (relevant) treatment.

Hawthorne control (irrelevant experience)

Ep

Positive teacher expectation

En

Neutral teacher expectation created.