MODULE 9 - Weld and Base Metal

Discontinuities
Discontinuity: Discontinuity is
described as any interruption in the
uniform nature of an item.
Inspector must be capable of describing
their nature, location, and extent.
Defect: Defect is a specific
discontinuity which can impair the
suitability of that structure for its
intended purpose.
A defect is a rejectable discontinuity
and requires some further treatment to
bring it into acceptable limits to a
particular code.
Depending on the intended service of
the part in question, an existing
discontinuity may or may not be
considered to be a defect.
Criticality of discontinuities:
1. Configurations of discontinuities:
Configurations of discontinuities can
be separated into two general
groups: linear and non-linear.
(A) Linear discontinuities exhibit
lengths which are much greater
than their widths.
(B) Non-linear discontinuities, on the
other hand, have length and
width dimensions which are
essentially the same

2. End condition of discontinuities:

this refers to the specific
sharpness at its extremities.The
sharper the end of the
discontinuity, the more critical it
becomes. This is because a
sharper discontinuity is more
likely to propagate. And this is
also dependent on its orientation
with respect to the applied stress.
is a linear discontinuity having a
sharp end condition lying
transverse to the applied stress,

this represents the most

detrimental situation with respect
to the ability of that member to
carry an applied load.
Crack, incomplete fusion, incomplete
joint penetration, slag inclusion, and
porosity in that order represent the
sharpness of their end conditions in
decreasing order.
How a crack's propagation could be
stopped:
1. Placement of a drilled hole at the
end of a crack in a component.
This technique will only stop the
propagation of the crack.
Parts subjected to fatigue loading in
service are often required to have their
surfaces machined to very smooth
finishes. Abrupt changes in contour or
geometry are also avoided.
For these types of components, one of
the most effective methods of
inspection is visual.
Types of discontinuities:
Cracks: This is the most critical
discontinuity. This criticality is due to
cracks being characterized as linear and
exhibiting very sharp end conditions.
Since the ends of cracks are extremely
sharp, there is a tendency for the crack
to grow, or propagate, if a stress is
applied.
Cracks areinitiated when the load, or
stress, applied to a member exceeds its
tensile strength.
The stress can occur during welding,
immediately after, or when a load is
applied.
While the applied load may not exceed
the load carrying ability of a member,
the presence of a notch, or stress riser,

could cause the localized stress at the

tip of the stress riser to exceed the
tensile strength of the material. In such
a case, cracking could occur at this
stress concentration.
Cracking can be both surface and
subsurface discontinuities which
provide such a stress riser in addition to
those associated with the welding
operation itself.
Classification of cracks:
1. Hot cracks and cold cracks
2. Longitudinal and transverse
Hot cracks:Hot cracks usually occur as
the metal solidifies, at some elevated
temperature. The propagation of these
cracks is considered to be intergranular; that is, the cracks occur
between individual grains
Cold cracks:Cold cracks occur after the
metal has cooled to ambient
temperature. Those cracks resulting
from service conditions would be
considered cold cracks. Delayed, or
underbead, cracks resulting from
entrapped hydrogen would also be
categorized as cold cracks. The
propagation of cold cracks can be either
intergranular or transgranular; that is,
either between or through the individual
grains, respectively.
Longitudinal cracks: Longitudinal
cracks are those lying in a direction
parallel to the longitudinal axis.
Longitudinal cracks can result from
transverse shrinkage stresses of
welding or stresses associated with
service conditions
Transverse cracks: Those cracks lying
perpendicular to the weld's longitudinal
axis are called transverse cracks.
Transverse cracks are generally caused
by the longitudinal shrinkage stresses of

welding acting on welds or base metals

of low ductility.

These directional references apply to

cracks occurring in either the weld or
base metals.
Location of cracks:

Throat
Root
Toe
Crater
Underbead
Heat-affected zone
Base metal cracks

Throat cracks: Throat cracks extend

through the weld along the weld throat
or the shortest path through the weld's
cross section. These are longitudinal
cracks and are generally considered to
be hot cracks. A throat crack can be
observed visually on the weld face. The
term centerline crack is often used to
describe this condition.
Causes of throat crack:
1. Joints exhibiting high restraint
transverse to the weld axis are
susceptible to throat cracking.
2. Thin root passes and concave
fillet welds could result in a throat
crack because their reduced cross
sections may not be sufficient to
withstand the transverse weld
shrinkage stresses.
Root cracks: Root cracks are usually
longitudinal; however, their propagation
may be in either the weld or base
metal. They are referred to as root
cracks because they initiate at the weld
root or the root surface of the weld.
They are usually considered to be hot
cracks.
Causes of Root cracks:

1. Improperly fitted or prepared

joints.
2. Large root openings may result in
a stress concentration which
produces root cracks.
Toe cracks: Toe cracks are base metal
cracks which propagate from the toes of
welds. They are considered cold crack,
and usually occur in service.
Causes of toe crack:
1. Weld configurations exhibiting
weld reinforcement or convexity
may provide a stress riser at the
welds' toes.
2. Less ductile microstructure in the
heat affected zone
3. Fatigue loading of material in
service
Crater cracks:Crater cracks occur at
the termination point of individual weld
passes. If the technique used by the
welder to terminate the arc does not
provide for complete filling of the
molten weldpuddle, result could be a
shallow region, or crater, at location.

Causes of crater crack:

1. The presence of this thinned
area, combined with the
shrinkage stresses from weld
may cause individual crater
cracks or where there is a radial
array of crater cracks, they are
commonly referred to as star
cracks.
Since crater cracks occur during the
solidification of the molten puddle, they
are considered to be forms of hot
cracks.
2. The technique used by the welder
to terminate a weld pass.
(primary cause)

3. these cracks can also result f the

use of filler metals having flow
characteristics which produce
concave profiles when solidified
example of this phenomena is the
use of those stainless steel
covered electrodes bearing
designation ending with
"16''. This ending designates a
titania coating which will produce
a characteristically or slightly
concave weld profile.
Underbead cracking:underbead
cracking is located in the heat affected
zone instead of the weld metal. They
are typically subsurface and difficult to
detect. They may propagate to the
surface. Underbead crack are referred
to as delayed crack because it may not
propagate until many hours after
welding. Final inspection on Materials
susceptible to underbead cracking is
done 48 to 72 hours after weld has
cooled to an ambient temperature. High
strength steel are susceptible to this
kind of cracking.
Underbead cracking can result from the
presence of hydrogen in the weld zone.
The hydrogen could come from the filler
metal, base metal surrounding
atmosphere, or organic surface
contamination.
Radiographically, cracks appear as fine
lines, and can be differentiated from
other linear discontinuities because
their propagation path is not perfectly
straight.

Incomplete fusion: a weld discontinuity

in which fusion did not occur between
the weld metal and the fusion faces or
adjoining weld beads. Due to its
linearity and sharp end condition,
incomplete fusion represents a

significant weld discontinuity. The no

standard term for incomplete fusion is
cold lap.
Causes of incomplete fusion:
1. Improper manipulation of
electrode.
2. Short circuiting transferGMAW
3. Configuration of weld joints
4. Contamination such as mill scale
and oxide layers.
Incomplete fusion is difficult to detect
with radiography unless the angle of
radiation is oriented properly. If
incomplete fusion is radiographically
visible, it will appear as darker density
lines. The lateral positions on the film
will be a hint to their actual depth.
Incomplete joint penetration: this is
associated with only groove welds. The
weld metal does not extend entirely
through the joint thickness when
complete penetration is required.
Causes of incomplete joint
penetration:
1. Improper manipulation of
electrode.
2. Configuration of weld joints
3. Contamination such as mill scale
and oxide layers
Radiographic images for incomplete
joint penetration are dark straight lines.
The lines are straighter than
INCOMPLETE FUSION.
INCLUSIONS: entrapment of foreign
solid materials such as slag, tungsten,
flux or oxide.
Inclusion can be metallic and non
metallic.
Slag inclusions are often associated
with incomplete fusion.

Causes of slag inclusion:

1. It occurs when using welding
process with flux shielding.
2. Improper welding technique
3. Insufficient cleaning between the
passes
Radiographic images for slag inclusion
are dark indications with irregular
shapes.
Tungsten inclusions are associated with
GTAW process.
Causes of tungsten inclusion:
1. This occurs if the tungsten
electrode makes contact
withmolten weld puddle.
2. Excess weld current
3. Improper grinding of electrode
4. Contamination of electrode tip
with spatter
5. Excessive wind drafts
The primary way in which tungsten
inclusion can be revealed is
radiography. It will show as definite light
area on the film.
Porosity: AWS A3.0 defines porosity as
cavity-type discontinuities formed by
gas entrapment during solidification.
They are considered to be less
detrimental discontinuities. A single
cavity is also referred to as porosity or a
cavity. Porosity is detrimental where a
weld must form a pressure boundary;
there is a possibility of leakage.
Uniform scattered porosity:
numerous porosities in a weld with no
particular pattern.
Linear porosity: occurs in a straight
line
Wormhole porosity: gas pockets are
elongated and not spherical. This

usually happens in SAW when depth of

granular flux is excessive.

overlap is large enough it can hide a

crack.

Piping porosity: occurs in pipe, has

potential of leakages and therefore
detrimental

Causes of overlap:

Moisture and contamination causes

porosity. In SMAW using excessive long
arc with low hydrogen type electrode
can cause porosity. In SAW excessive
travel speed.
In radiography porosity appears as
round indications.
Undercut:
It occurs in the base metal directly
adjacent to the weld. During welding
the base metal had melted away and
there is in sufficient filler metal
deposited to adequately fill the
resulting depression. Its a surface
discontinuity.
Causes of undercut:
1. Improper welding technique
2. Excessive weld travel speed
3. Excess welding heat
Method of inspection is by visual.

Underfill: occurs when there is not

sufficient filler metal deposited to
adequately fill the weld joint.
Causes of underfill:
1. Technique employed by the
welder
2. Excessive travel speed
Overlap: this is the protrusion of weld
metal beyond the weld toe or weld root.
It appears as if the weld metal has
overflowed the joint and is laying on the
adjacent base metal surface. It is
considered a significant discontinuity
since it presents a sharp notch. If

1. Improper technique
2. Slow travel speed
3. Amount of filler metal in excess
than required.
Overlap and undercut occur when
welding in horizontal position.
Convexity:
It applies only to fillet weld. This is the
amount of weld metal build up on the
face of the filet weld beyond what
would be considered flush. Convexity
beyond limits will result in a profile
having sharp notches.
Causes of convexity:
1. Slow travel speed
2. Too little heat
3. Incorrect manipulation of
electrode
Reinforcement: reinforcement is the
same as convexity except that it occurs
in groove welds.
Arc strikes: this occurs when the arc is
initiated on the base metal away from
the weld joint. Arc strikes can lead to
crack. Using prods for MPI can cause arc
burns. Strikes may cause localized heat
affected zone
Spatter: metal particles expelled
during fusion welding that do not form
part of the weld. Large spatter can
cause localized HAZ.
Causes of spatter:
1. High welding current
2. Globular and short circuiting
transfer in GMAW
Lamination: lamination is a base metal
flaw.

Lamination results from the presence of

non-metallic inclusions which occur in
steel when it is being produced. The
inclusions are normally forms of oxides
which are produced when the steel is
still molten. During rolling the inclusions
become elongated to form stringers. If
the stringers are large they take planer
shape and are referred to as lamination.
The most massive form of lamination
arises from a condition referred to as
pipe.
The heat of the welding may open up
the lamination. If the stress acting on
the material is perpendicular to the
lamination the structure becomes
weakened.
Lamination located on the weld groove
could pocket some hydrogen which will
eventually lead to underbead cracking.
The welder can do nothing to avoid
lamination. The best method for
discovery of lamination is by UT.
RT will not detect lamination because
there is no change in radiographic
density.

3. Degree of contaminants present

4. Material high content of inclusion.
Seams and Laps:
They are different from lamination in
that they are open to the rolled surface
of the metal instead of the edge.
Seams are straight-line longitudinal
crevices or openings that may appear
on the surface of steel. They are
primarily caused by imperfections in the
steel ingot, or by improper handling
after pouring, or by variations in
heating and rolling practice.
Laps are as a result of overfilling in the
rolling mill passes that causes fins or
projections which turn down as the
material rolls through succeeding
stands in the train. The best method to
detect laps and seams are VT, MT, PT,
UT or ET
Dimensional discontinuities:
They are size and shape imperfections
that may occur in welds making it
unsuitable for intended service.

Lamellar Tear:
This is a base metal discontinuity. It is a
tarrace-like fracture in the base metal
with a basic orientation parallel to the
rolled surface. Lamella tear occur when
the stress occur in the through
thickness (Z- direction). The tearing lies
within the base metal outside the HAZ
and parallel to the weld fusion
boundary.
Factors affecting materials
susceptibility to lamella tearing:
1. Materials rolled in the z-direction
2. Thickness of the material, the
thicker the material, the
possibility of inclusion and lamella
tearing

Discontinuities in Laser and

Electron beam welding: laser and
electron beam welding produces narrow
and deep weld profiles, the inherent
discontinuities which may occur are:
1. Missed joint: this is due to
deflection of the beam off the
weld joint due to misalignment of
beam with joint root usually of a
thick part.
2. Root porosity: due to not enough
time for gases at the bottom of
the weld to escape through deep
weld metal.This is so because
electron beam is done in vacuum.

3. Shrinkage voids and micro

fissures or hot cracks: they are
formed near the weld centreline.
4. Spiking: this is inconsistent
penetration: this occurs in partial
joint penetration welds. For
electron beam welding this is

caused by power density of the

beam.
5. Over penetration: when this
occurs there is a tendency for
liquid metal to be expelled from
the root of the weld in form of
spatter.