General Examination 7

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General Examination

Introduction
Behaviour
Colour and marks
General condition
Posture
Gait
Palpation
Percussion
Auscultation

INTRODUCTION
When the animal is presented before the
veterinary doctor/disease investigation
expert, he should examine the ailing animal
keeping all fronts open and in such a way
that no organ or system is omitted from the
investigation. It has, therefore, been advisable
to follow a routine set pattern which can be
modified to meet the personal requirements.
The possibility of mistakes occurs when the
veterinarian examines only one or two
systems according to his own choice and left
the others presuming no ill-effects in them.
This will result in a biased and sometimes
wrong diagnosis. So, it is better to examine
all the systems/organs in order to arrive at
a proper and accurate conclusion. Before
examination of organ and systems, the
veterinarian should go for general inspection
of animal including its behaviour, colour,
marks, physical or general condition, posture

and gait. After general inspection of animal,

one should examine the animal through
palpation, percussion and auscultation.
BEHAVIOUR
One should note the behaviour of the sick
animal from a distance. Any alteration in
behaviour from normal is a sign of disease
condition. Change in the eating behaviour of
ailing animal, if any, must be noted carefully.
In most disease conditions, animal becomes
anorexic or loses its appetite and the feed given
to animal remains in its mangers. If animal feels
pain, it will certainly show abnormal behaviour
like cattle and buffaloes start frequently sitting
and standing tendency along with bellowing.
Horse kicks at abdomen, swishes the tail, lies
down, rolls, get up quickly in case of colic.
During illness, the feeding habits are altered
and one can note the altered prehension,
mastication or swallowing in ruminants. The
frequency of urination and defecation should
be observed. Difficult defecation by straining
with tenesmus occurs in constipation and
paralysis of the rectum or colon, straining
movements occur in peritonitis, acute
nephritis, obstruction in urethra and in genital
tract. The movements of jaws during
swallowing produce a smacking noise in
bovines suffering from Foot and Mouth
disease. The foot and mouth disease affected
sheep may produce snapping sounds.

Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

The normal behaviour of animal is also

altered due to involuntary movements
including tremors and convulsions. Tremors
are characterized by a persistent and repeated
twitching of the skeletal muscles which may
occur either localized or generalized and
detectable by palpation. The tremors are
intensified by the active movements of the
affected animal. Muscular convulsions are of
two types, clonic and tonic. They may involve
whole or part of the body. Clonic convulsions
are repeated muscle spasms which are
interspersed with periods of relaxations. The
tonic convulsions are the continuous muscle
spasms which may be intensified to become
clonic. Such convulsions occur in tetanus and
strychnine poisoning.
Animal suffering from fever may exhibit
dullness and depression. Animal fails to
respond the stimulus and shows apathy
towards the external stimuli. It may occur in
listeriosis in cattle and hepatic cirrhosis in
horses. The most severe apathy is comma, in
which animal becomes unconscious and fails
to respond the painful stimulus, e.g. post
parturient hypocalcemia.
Restlessness is a sign of an abnormal
behaviour, which may occur due to fever, pain
in body, indigestion and impaction. The
abnormal behaviour of animal expressed by
vigorous licking of some specific part of body
surface or presses the head towards some
hard object is known as mania. Mania may
occur in ketosis and meningitis. Due to acute
lead poisoning, hypomagnesemic tetany and
rabies, animal actions become uncontrolled
which are known as frenzy abnormal
behaviour of animal.
COLOUR AND MARKS
The veterinarian should mention the colour
of coat of the animal. The colour of hairs,
which is characteristic at few places like tail,

head and legs should be noted in order to

identify the animal. The marking of animal
should be noted properly, which is
particularly important in veterolegal cases.
The identification of animal is of particular
interest when repeat visits or follow-up action
is to be taken by a same or different doctor.
The colour of eyes, hoofs and spotted marks
should also be noted. Besides, the tattooing
marks and branding number, if present,
should be noted which is very useful in
identification of animal.
GENERAL CONDITION
One should see the condition of the body of
animal which can be assessed by looking at
certain parts including ribs, spine, shoulder,
pelvis, and tail. On this basis, the condition
of animal, can be classified as normal, obese,
weak (thin) and emaciated or cachectic. In the
well fed animal, the ribs and other bones are
well covered with flesh which shows a
brighter coat and a good look of animal.
Excessive deposition of fat gives the rounded
appearance of body and is sometimes
responsible for dyspnea. The fatty or obese
body may occur in certain metabolic diseases
like thyroid dysfunction. In poor or weak
condition, the skeleton of animal like ribs,
pelvis and spines of vertebral column
becomes more prominent and shows the least
deposition of flesh. The eyes of animal looks
deepened. The coat becomes dry and rough.
Skin loses its elasticity giving the animal
hide bound condition as observed in
Johnes disease. The weak and emaciated
animal also exhibit the pale and watery
mucous membrane. Animal losses its weight
due to non-availability of food, inadequate
nutrients, maldigestion and malabsorption.
Such conditions may occur in cobalt deficiency, Johnes disease, parasitic gastroenteritis, fasciolosis, tuberculosis, pyelonephritis,

General Examination 9
neoplasia, diabetes mellitus, loss of fluids
from body due to diarrhoea and vomiting,
chronic nephritis and pancreatic and cerebral
diseases.
POSTURE
Alteration in normal posture of the animal
may indicate some disease but it may have
significance when occurs with other signs of
disease. Some abnormal postures are:
i. Curvature of spines
ii. High carriage of head and neck
iii. Oblique carriage of head and neck
iv. Unusual position of limbs.
Abnormal posture is the manifestation of
the disease of bones, joints, ligaments and
tendons.
The disease of tendon sheaths, bursae,
muscle, central nervous system, ears, skin,
hoofs, claws may also give rise to an abnormal posture. Arched back condition in animals is due to abdominal pain, and sternal
recumbency which occurs in cattle suffering
from post parturient hypocalcemia. Dog
sitting posture of horses can be observed in
distension of stomach leading to pain and
pressure on diaphragm. In sheep typical
posture occurs in early stages of pregnancy
toxemia and scrapie. In this posture head is
in elevated position with ears having listening
attitude. Sternal recumbency with extension
of hind legs posteriorly gives frog like
condition and occurs in sheep suffering from
post parturient hypocalcemia and in cattle
with bilateral hip dislocation. In pneumonia,
animals remain on standing position for a
longer period without any sitting.
GAIT
Gait is the movement of animal and involves
the locomotor system. The abnormal movements can be observed when animal walks
voluntarily in disease conditions. The

veterinarian should examine the animal by

seeing them in movements. The movements
of legs should be observed particularly for
rate, range, force and direction. The movements of legs may show stiffness, lameness,
staggering and exaggerated flexion. The
swaying of hind legs and forced movements
are observed in rheumatic like syndrome due
to phosphorus deficiency in buffaloes. The
disturbance in locomotion may be the result
of some disease of nervous system, musculoskeletal system, poisoning and/or nutritional
deficiency. Circling movements can be seen
in buffaloes with surra (trypanosomiasis) and
in sheep with listeriosis. Lameness occurs
either due to injury in the legs, or due to
rickets and arthritis. The staggering gait can
be observed due to strychnine poisoning. In
cattle with hypomagnesimic tetany, the
stumbling gait is observed.
PALPATION
Palpation means the examination of animal
by touching with fingers and hand for the
presence of growth, feeling of pain, size,
shape, consistency and position of an organ.
The animal feels pain on palpation due to
inflamed organs. Palpation can be performed
in two ways.
Direct or Immediate Palpation
In this method both the veterinarian and the
animal, are in direct contact, e.g. examination
of superficial lymph nodes for the presence of
edema or abscess. The palpation of cyst reveals
a soft feeling while the tumor gives a feeling
of hard object. Palpation can be performed
from out side the body or through rectum in
large animals like cattle, buffaloes and horses.
Through rectal palpation one can observe the
obstruction in intestines, calculi in bladder,
and affection of kidneys, ovary, oviduct,
uterus, spleen, rumen and gallbladder.

10 Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

Rectal palpation can be used in large animal
for the detection of displacement of abomasum, retention of urine, rupture of urinary
bladder, and cysts in kidneys. The diagnosis
of pregnancy is also made through rectal
palpation of uterus in large animals. One can
also feel or palpate the adhesions present in
abdominal cavity due to peritonitis through
rectal examination.
Indirect Palpation
Palpation is performed with the help of some
instrument and in this the examiner and
animal are not in direct contact, e.g.
determination of esophageal obstruction by
passing a stomach tube.
The constituency of any organ can be
classified in following ways:
a. Normalwhen it is in normal shape, size,
and consistency.
b. Doughyone feels soft and finger imprints remains on organ for few moments
which fills again (pits on pressure).
c. Firmwhen one feels toughness in organ
on pressure. The toughness is like liver,
e.g. neoplasm.
d. Hardbone like feeling.
e. Fluctuatingfeeling of soft, elastic, filled
with fluid like pus, blood, lymph or serum.
f. Emphysematous or puffy swelling on
pressure, it produces crepitating sounds,
e.g. in black quarter disease, the puffy
swelling is due to the presence of gas
produced by anaerobes.
PERCUSSION
Percussion means to strike or to beat. One
can make the percussion by striking a part
of body to listen and feel the audible sounds
produced by striked organs. The sounds of
the organ depend on the nature of the
underlying tissue. Percussion is of little value
in sheep and pigs because of presence of wool

and fat in these animals, respectively. In small

animals, the affections of thorax can be diagnosed through percussion while in large
animals the percussion is useful in diagnosis
of tympany in cattle and buffaloes and
affections of paranasal sinuses in horses. The
percussion can be performed either directly
or through pleximeter. Direct percussion is
being done by using fingers and palm of the
hand. The left hand is put flat on the part/
organ and the tips of fingers of right hand
are used to strike and feel the sounds. One
can diagnose tympany in ruminants by
percussion of rumen. Indirect percussion can
be performed by using a plexor, a small metal
hammer with rubber rim and pleximeter
which is a circular or hexagonal plate madeup
of ivory or, wood with a rubber rim. Put the
pleximeter on the affected part and strike by
plexor to listen the sounds of the affected part.
It is useful to obtain the information about
deep lying parts of the body. The vibrations
produced by striking make the sounds
audible, which vary according to the
consistency of tissue and organs. Precaution
must be taken that the force should be applied
uniformly, pleximeter should be applied when
animal is stationary and there should be
movement of wrist (not the elbow) when the
plexor is striked. Plexor should fall
perpendicular either to pleximeter or to body
surface. The minimum amount of striking
force requires for producing the audible
sounds is known as threshold percussion. The
tactile or modified percussion can be
performed with palpation simultaneously. In
ascites, strike on one side of abdomen and
the thrill of fluid wave can be seen on another
side. However, in pregnancy a firm percussion is given to the abdomen on right side
and rebounding of organs are noted. If the
animal is pregnant, the fetus rebounds quite
strongly. However, no rebounding occurs in
case of no pregnancy.

General Examination 11
The audible sounds produced through
percussion can be classified in following two
ways.
1. Dull: Sounds produced by a solid organ
like liver. Such organ does not contain any
air.
2. Resonant: Sounds characteristic of air
containing organs.
a. Tympanicvibrations of tissues are
uniform, sounds produced by hollow
organs which contains gas, e.g.
tympany of rumen.
b. Fullno uniformity of vibrations, e.g.
normal lungs.

by putting the stethoscope at right third or

fourth intercostal space between olecrenon
and costochondral junction. The left fourth
intercostal space is used for the sounds of
aortic valve and the stethoscope is fitted just
below the level of shoulder. The sounds of
the pulmonary valves can be listened at left
third intercostal space just below the sternum
in dogs and cats and at left third intercostal
space at costochondral junction in cattle,
buffaloes, horse and sheep. The lung sounds
can be heard by putting the stethoscope at
any place on the thorax.

AUSCULTATION

Q 1. Indicate whether the following statements are True or False.

1. ____ It is advisable for a veterinarian to
examine all the organs and systems systematically to arrive at a proper and accurate
diagnosis.
2. ____ Tissues form an organ and organs
form a system.
3. ____ Colour and marks of an animal may
be helpful to know the behaviour of an
animal.
4. ____ The obesity in an animal may result
due to thyroid dysfunction.
5. ____ Arched back posture of a cow may
be observed in milk fever.

Auscultation includes the listening of sounds

produced by the organs of body as their
functional activity. By this method, the sounds
of lungs, heart, artery, trachea and certain
parts of gastrointestinal tract can be heard,
which is characteristic for each organ of the
body. The sounds of the internal organ of
body can be heard directly or through
stethoscope, thus auscultation can be
performed in following two ways:
1. Direct auscultationwhich can be performed by putting the ear directly on the
site of organ/tissue.
2. Mediate auscultationwhich is performed
by using stethoscope, which is useful to
listen the sounds of heart, lungs and
intestine in animals. Hairs or wool should
be moistened before application of
stethoscope in order to reduce/eliminate
the frictional sounds.
Heart sounds of left AV valve can be heard
at the left fourth intercostal space at the level
of olecrenon in sheep, cattle, buffaloes and
horse, while in dogs and cats it is felt at fifth
intercostal space at the costochondral junction.
The right AV valve sounds can be obtained

QUESTIONS

Q 2. Fill in the spaces below with most

appropriate word/words.
1. Restlessness is a sign of an abnormal ____.
2. Animal becomes emaciated or cachectic in
____ wasting diseases like TB.
3. ____ is the movement of animal and
involves the locomotor system.
4. Examination of animal by touching with
fingers or hands is known as____ .
5. Pleximeter can be used to perform ____
in animals.

12 Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

B. Indirect palpation
C. Direct palpation
D. Percussion

Q 3. Select the most appropriate answer

from the four choices given in each
question.
1. Smacking noise during swallowing and
movement of jaws may be an abnormal
behaviour in cattle in:
A. Black quarter
B. Foot and mouth disease
C. Ketosis
D. Fascioliosis
2. Animal becomes unconscious and fails
to respond to painful stimulus in a
condition called:
A. Hypomagnesemia
B. Comma
C. Mania
D. Tetany
3. Examination of superficial lymph nodes
by fingers or hands is an example of:
A. Auscultation

4. Circling movements in buffaloes can be

seen in:
A. Rinderpest
B. Leptospirosis
C. Theileriosis
D. Trypanosomiasis
5. Heart sounds can be heard in animals by:
A. Percussion
B. Palpation
C. Auscultation
D. Perforation
Q
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

4. Define the following terms.

Tattooing
Mania
Puffy swelling
Resonant
Tremors