Respiration

29

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

Introduction
Inspiration
Expiration
Respiration rate
Types of respiration
Rhythm
Dyspnea
Respiratory sounds
Respiratory insufficiency
Respiratory failure

INTRODUCTION
In respiration, the oxygen is taken in lungs
through nasal passages where it combines
with hemoglobin of the erythrocytes and
travels throughout the body by blood stream.
The carbondioxide produced by combustion
of nutrients is carried away by blood to the
lungs from where it is expired. Thus, the
respiration includes both physical and
chemical processes. Respiratory process is
divided into three: inspiration, combustion
and expiration, but here we are concerned
with only physical process like inspiration and
expiration. Respiratory process occurs
through the intercostal muscles and diaphragm. The respiratory movements, their
depth and frequency depend on a center in
brain which controls both inspiration and
expiration.

Respiration

INSPIRATION
During inspiration the air goes to the lungs
through nasal passage and mouth passing
from trachea, bronchi, bronchial and alveolar
ducts. The inspiration occurs through
muscular (relaxation and contraction) efforts
responsible for expansion of the thorax in all
dimensions. The vacuum, thus, created is
filled in by the inspired air. The muscles of
diaphragm contracts to facilitate the flattening
of the dome of the diaphragm during
inspiration. The intercostal muscles situated
in between the ribs are also responsible for
the expansion of chest cavity.
EXPIRATION
The expiration occurs due to forward
movement of diaphragm and settling back of
the intercostal muscles on their original
position through the elasticity of cartilage and
muscular action. This results in production
of a considerable amount of pressure on the
chest cavity which causes flow out of air
present in the lungs through nasal passages
and mouth. The carbondioxide and the water
vapours in the lungs come out during
expiration.
RESPIRATION RATE
The respiration rate is measured through
counting of either contraction or expansion

30 Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

of the thorax and abdomen which can be
observed during clinical examination of animal or at the time of recording of temperature.
One should stand near the animal without
disturbing it and count the movements per
minute. The veterinarian should also record
the rhythm and other characters of the respiratory movements. The respiration rate
should be taken during standing position of
the animal. The veterinarian should stand
behind or on one side of the animal so that
both thoracic and abdominal movements can
be observed.
The respiration rate is also recorded by
applying the palm of hand over the nostrils
keeping about 4-5 inches away from nostrils.
The flow of air is easily observed as it touches
the hand.
Normal respiration rate in animals is given
in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Respiration rate in animals
Sr. No. Animal

Respiration rate/min

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

10-30
8-16
12-20
12-20
5-12
10-30
20-30
10-20
40-50

Cattle
Horse
Sheep
Goat
Camel
Dog
Cat
Pig
Fowl

The respiration is monitored voluntarily

and reflexly by the respiratory centers present
in medulla oblongata of brain. The normal
rate of respiration is known as eupnea.
Increased respiratory rate is called as
hyperpnea, while the increased respiratory
rate along with reduced depth of respiration
is known as polypnea. The decreased respiration rate from normal is termed as oligopnea
which occurs in hydrocephalus, brain tumors,
poisoning and stenosis of respiratory passage.
Polypnea or hyperpnea occurs in pulmonary

diseases, severe cardiac disease, pleurisy,

peritonitis and anemia.
TYPES OF RESPIRATION
Horsecosto-abdominal respiration.
Cattle, sheep and goatabdominal respiration.
Dog and catcostal or thoracic respiration.
In cattle, however, costal or thoracic type
respiration occurs when muscles of diaphragm
are impaired due to paralysis, rupture,
abscess, neoplasm, pneumonia and pulmonary
edema. In dog and cat the abdominal type
respiration can occur in pleurisy, tuberculosis,
chronic alveolar emphysema and paralysis of
intercostal muscles.
RHYTHM
Normally the respiratory process is completed
in three stages, i.e. inspiration, expiration and
pause. The expiration takes more time to
complete than inspiration. Pause is longer if
animal is relaxed while it is shorter during
exercise or excitement. The prolongation of
inspiration occurs due to partial obstruction
of upper respiratory passage while prolongation of expiration occurs in pulmonary emphysema. During respiratory distress, pause does
not occur. The abnormality of rhythm may
be characterized by the following types.
1. Cheyne-stokes respiration: Dropped respiration may occur with a pause of 15-30
second which is called as apnea. It occurs
in renal and cardiac diseases and in
toxemia. In such conditions the respiratory
arrest of shorter duration occurs followed
by gradual increase and decrease of
amplitude of movements of respiration.
2. Biots respiration: In this type of respiration, a shallow and rapid breath occurs
with alternate period of apnea. The
intervals of respiratory arrests and period
of activity vary in length. It occurs in
meningitis affecting medulla oblongata.

Respiration
3. Syncopic respiration: In this respiration,
a pause is followed by deep breathing that
becomes shallow till apnea.
All the three types of abnormal rhythm
respiration have unfavourable prognosis.
DYSPNEA
A difficult respiration, which is causing
distress to animal is known as dyspnea.
The breathing is characterized by the
movements of thoracic and abdominal wall.
During deep breathing, the abdominal and
thoracic wall movements are clearly visible
and known as laboured breathing while in
shallow breathing these movements are not
very clear. In dyspnea usually laboured
breathing occurs. Dyspnea is of three types:
1. Inspiratory: When entry of air in the lungs
is difficult. It occurs during stenosis of air
passage, bronchopneumonia, pulmonary
edema and pleurisy.
2. Expiratory: When exit of air from lungs is
affected and become difficult. It occurs
during pulmonary emphysema and pleural
adhesions.
3. Indeterminate: When difficulty occurs both
times, i.e. during inspiration and expiration. Such dyspnea occurs in pneumonia,
bronchitis, cardiac diseases, pulmonary
edema, stenosis of nasal passage.
When pumping of anus is associated with
dilatation of nostrils, it is the major sign of
the malady and termed as severe dyspnea.
Such dyspnea is observed in chronic pulmonary exphysema in horses. In such condition,
the double expiratory lift of abdominal muscle
is observed, which occurs in brokenwind of
horses and parasitic bronchopneumonia in
calves.
RESPIRATORY SOUNDS
The audible vibrations which occurs during
respiration are known as respiratory sounds.

31

The following types of respiratory sounds are

observed in various diseases:
1. Hiccough: Due to the stimulation of
phrenic nerve and contraction of diaphragm, a short jerky inspiration occurs
which is known as hiccough. It is
associated with inspiratory grunt.
2. Sneezing: Sneezing is an explosive expiration. It is an abnormal respiratory
noise occurs due to irritation in nasal
mucosa. It occurs in rhinitis and canine
distemper in dogs.
3. Snoring: When lumen of nasal passage
is contracted by swelling or thickening
of mucous membrane. It occurs due to
the occlusion of pharynx which is observed in tuberculosis and lymph
adenitis of retropharyngeal lymphnodes.
4. Roaring or whistling: Loud rattling noise
are heard when larynx or trachea contains loose masses of mucous. It occurs
due to paralysis of intrinsic muscles of
larynx and narrowing of lumen of larynx
and observed in laryngitis, strangles
and tumors of larynx.
5. Grunting: When a long inspiration is
followed by prolonged expiration
through partially closed glottis.
6. Coughing: It occurs due to irritation in
pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi.
7. Yawning: Prolonged inspiration with
mouth open widely. It is not a sign of
disease. It is an indication of catarrhal gastritis, chronic hepatitis and dumb rabies.
8. Wheezing/blowing: This is an inspiratory
sound and occurs like the stenosis of
nasal cavity. It has been observed in
tumors of nasal passage, enlargement of
turbinate bones and deposit of exudate
in nasal passage.
9. Mucous click: It is an expiratory sound
occurs when nasal mucous membrane is
very moist.

32 Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

10. Rattling: It occurs as stenotic laryngeal
sound when vocal cords are relaxed. It
has been observed in laryngitis,
pharyngitis and edema of glottis.
RESPIRATORY INSUFFICIENCY
When interference in respiratory process
occurs leading to hindrance in exchange of
gases and reduced supply of oxygen to
tissues, it is known as respiratory insufficiency. It may occur in pulmonary diseases
like pneumonia, atelectasis, pleurisy, pulmonary edema, emphysema, neoplasia, bronchitis and rhinitis.
Respiratory insufficiency leads to increased concentration of carbon dioxide in
blood and called as hypercapnia. Cyanosis is
bluish discolouration of skin and mucous
membrane which occurs due to hypercapnia.
Respiratory insufficiency is responsible for
hypoxia which is the cause of deaths in
animals.
Hypoxia is the reduction of oxygen level
in body tissues below physiological levels.
Hypoxia is of following three types:
1. Ambient hypoxia: When oxygen tension is
low in blood and hemoglobin is not
saturated to normal extent. It occurs in
strychnine poisoning, pneumonia, pneumothorax, pulmonary edema. Anemic
hypoxia occurs as reduction in blood
hemoglobin level and observed in nitrite
poisoning.
2. Stagnant hypoxia: When flow of blood is
reduced. It occurs in congestive heart
failure, embolism and thrombosis.
3. Histotoxic hypoxia: When tissue oxidation
is inhibited by paralysis of cytochrome
oxidase even after fully oxygenated blood.
It occurs in cyanide poisoning.
RESPIRATORY FAILURE
Respiratory failure is the terminal stage of
respiratory insufficiency. It is clinically

recognizable by cessation of movements of

respiratory muscles. The respiratory failure
is of three types:
1. Asphyxial: Asphyxial respiratory failure
gives rise to hypercapnia and hypoxia. The
respiratory movements are of dyspneic
type, in which gasping and apnea occurs
in the end.
2. Paralytic: It occurs due to depression of
respiratory center by anesthesia, toxic
chemicals, nervous shock and acute heart
failure. The respiration rapidly decreases
in frequency and in amplitude and finally
stops without dyspnea.
3. Tachypneic: In this hypothermia and
hyperventilation of lungs occurs that
causes hypoxia and acapnia leading to
increased respiratory movements which
are shallow and rapid.
QUESTIONS
Q 1. Indicate whether the following
statements are True or False.
1. _______ In fever, the respiration rate is
increased.
2. _______ The respiration rate is measured
by counting either contraction or expansion
of thorax and abdomen.
3. _______ Respiratory centres are located in
the medulla oblongata of brain.
4. _______ In horse there is costo-abdominal
respiration.
5. _______ Rattling occurs as stenotic laryngeal sound when vocal cords are contracted.
Q 2. Fill in the spaces below with most
appropriate word/words.
1. Respiratory process occurs through the
intercostal muscles and _______.
2. Increased respiratory rate is known as
_______.
3. Respiration with a shallow and rapid
breath along with alternate period of apnea
is known as _______ respiration.

Respiration
4. An explosive expiration is called as ______.
5. A long inspiration followed by prolonged
expiration through partially closed glottis is
known as ______.
Q 3. Select the most appropriate answer
from the four choices given in each
question.
1. The normal respiration rate in cattle
is:
A. 10-30
B. 40-50
C. 5-10
D. 8-16
2. The respiration is controlled by respiratory centres present in:
A. Hypothalamus of brain
B. Medulla oblongata of brain
C. Hippocampus of brain
D. Spinal cord
3. Increased respiration rate with reduced
depth of respiration is known as:
A. Eupnea

33

B. Dyspnea
C. Polypnea
D. Hyperpnea
4. The reduction of oxygen level in body
tissue below the normal levels is known as:
A. Anoxia
B. Hypoxia
C. Asphyxia
D. Dyspnea
5. Respiratory insufficiency leading to
increased concentration of CO2 in blood is
called:
A. Dyspnea
B. Anoxia
C. Asphyxia
D. Hypercapnia
Q
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

4. Define the following terms.

Oligopnea
Apnea
Yawning
Hypoxia
Respiratory failure