Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history:
Received 24 August 2013
Received in revised form
18 July 2014
Accepted 2 October 2014
Handling Editor: K. Worden
Vibratory power is defined as the rate of energy transmitted through a cross section of
unit width in a vibrating structure. It is known that the vibratory power is a function of
the source and travel path. Therefore the spatial distribution of the vibratory power may
contain information on the state of a structure. Vibratory power can be estimated
experimentally by measuring accelerations. By combining numerical predictions with
experimental measurements the location and severity of damage can be identified. This
method has been successfully applied to prismatic beam problems. In the present work,
the idea is extended to identifying damage in thin plate problems. To identify damage in
thin plates by the proposed vibratory power method, the two-dimensional damage index
and damage index ratio are newly introduced. The plate is assumed to be of uniform
thickness and damaged in the form of a crack simulated as a straight cut of finite length.
The vibratory power of the plate is estimated from frequency response functions to
random excitations. First, the proposed method is applied numerically and then verified
experimentally. Both numerical and experimental results show the present method can
identify not only the location of damage but also its direction. The location and direction
can be identified by investigating the damage index, the damage index ratio, and local
principal axes of the index peak in the vicinity of the damage. The spatial distribution of
the damage index, newly introduced in beam problems, can be considered as a scalar field
in plate problems. In the neighborhood of the damage, the damage index has the shape of
a semi-ellipsoid or a semi-ovoid, and it is found that the major principal axis corresponds
to the direction of the crack. It enables us to identify the damage direction correctly
without ambiguity.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Buildings and infrastructures such as transportation, power supply, communication, water supply facilities etc. are
critical to the proper functioning of social and economic activities of a community. These facilities consist of many structural
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003
0022-460X/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
systems, components, and members that carry and support various loads. The proper functioning of these facilities requires
that the structural systems maintain their integrity during the service life. History tells us that these structural systems may
undergo sudden catastrophic failure leading to both heavy human casualties and serious economic loss. In many cases these
failures have been generated by apparently minor damages such as cracks. But the repeated action of cyclic load and the
degradation due to various conditions such as corrosion will cause a minor damage to become a serious one ultimately
leading to sudden catastrophic failures of members, components, and systems. If damage can be detected at an early stage,
then they can be repaired or other preventive measures can be taken. Hence serious damage and potential failures may be
avoided. This is the very goal and the ultimate objective of various detection methods and algorithms developed or currently
under development, some of which use mechanical vibration and propagation of stress waves along the structures.
Vibration-based damage detection methods have been studied very extensively during the past decades. Many
algorithms for identifying structural damage have been developed and reported as well. Comprehensive literature reviews
on vibration-based damage detection methods can be found in Refs. [14].
Vibration-based damage detection methods utilize the changes produced by damage in modal parameters of a structure
such as natural frequency [58], mode shape and its derivative [9,10], flexibility [1113] and strain energy [14,15]. These
signatures, i.e., changes in modal parameters, however, are mainly measured in low frequency ranges. This method of
damage detection does not require the damage location to be known in advance. Thus even those instances of structural
damage which occur in inaccessible areas can be identified in principle by the vibration-based detection method. However,
only a few parameters of lower modes are known to be sensitive to structural damage. Detection of change requires exact
identification of the relevant modal parameters from the corresponding natural modes, which should be determined
accurately from measured data. Therefore, a considerable number of sensors need to be deployed throughout the structure
and their locations should be determined judiciously. In many cases, it is very difficult to identify modal parameters if only a
limited number of sensors are available. In particular, if we want to pinpoint the damage location with a narrow margin of
uncertainty, we need many sensors deployed optimally over the structure under consideration.
The kinds of detection methods summarized above are suitable for assessing the overall integrity of a structure. But it
may not be efficient in identifying damage location accurately. Recently, a new approach based on vibratory power has been
proposed to identify the damage and its location in a prismatic beam [16]. This approach is motivated by the observation
that the distribution of vibratory power shows a notable change in the neighborhood of a damage compared with the power
in the corresponding region of the undamaged structure. This feature enables us to identify the damage location accurately
without using modal parameters. Of course we have to find the distribution of vibratory power over the structure.
In addition we need a numerical model of the structure. This method has the potential to complement the vibration-based
methods mentioned above. It can be extended to use remote sensing techniques since it requires measurement of
accelerations only.
Vibratory power is defined as the rate of energy transmitted through cross section of unit width in a vibrating structure.
It is known that vibratory power is a function of the source and travel path. The basic formulae describing vibratory power
in the far field were proposed first by Noiseux [17]. Pavic [18] extended these formulae to the near field problem based on
the finite difference method. Verheij proposed a practical procedure to estimate vibratory power based on a cross-spectral
density method [19] and a frequency response method [20]. Gavric et al. [21] showed that the input power at a source point
is the same as the vibratory power passing through a closed curve including the source point. Daley [22] estimated the
vibratory power in a simply supported plate subject to diffusing acoustic pressure using a laser Doppler vibrometer. Khun
et al. [23] calculated the vibratory power of a plate with multiple discrete and distributed dampers and examined the
characteristics of energy flow in the presence of the dissipative elements. Mandal [24,25] estimated the vibratory power of
orthotropic plate and corrugated plate by experimental and numerical studies. In the past decade, several numerical
techniques have been proposed on the estimation of vibratory power of damaged structures. Among them are the transfer
matrix method [2628] and the spectral finite element method [29]. Lee et al. [30] calculated the forced response of a
rectangular plate with surface cracks using the commercial finite element analysis code, and investigated the characteristics
of vibratory power in the vicinity of a crack. Zhu et al. [31] presented an analytical method for the estimation of the
vibratory power of a thin cylindrical shell with a circumferential surface crack and examined changes in input and
transmitted power flows with respect to crack parameters. Wong et al. [32] proposed damage identification techniques
based on modal reactive power. However, experimental validation was not included in these previous numerical studies.
In this paper, a two-dimensional damage index is newly introduced that can be used to identify damage in thin plates.
It is a two-dimensional extension of the method proposed for beam problems [16]. The plate is assumed to be of uniform
thickness and damaged in the form of a crack simulated as a straight cut of finite length. The vibratory power of the plate is
estimated from frequency response functions to random excitations. A new concept named damage index is introduced.
It can be calculated from measured acceleration. The damage index can be visualized as a surface over the plate which forms
a sharp peak in the neighborhood of a damage. This feature enables us to identify the damage location. But in order to know
the damage direction we need further information. We propose two alternatives to this end. The first one is utilizing the
damage index ratio which is the ratio between components of the damage index at a point. The second method is finding
the principal axes of a local damage index peak. The proposed methods are applied, first, numerically and then verified
experimentally. The damage location can be identified by both methods but the direction can be identified without
ambiguity only by the second method. Therefore the method utilizing the local principal axes of the damage index peak
seems more promising and reliable than that using the damage index ratio alternative.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
x
y
Qy
Qx
Myy
Myx
Mxx
Mxy
Mxx+ Mxx
Mxy
Mxy
Myy+ Myy
w
Myx
Myx
Qy
Qx
Qx
y
Fig. 2. A finite difference grid and sensor sets.
The time average of the vibratory power flux in x direction over period T can be expressed as follows:
_ T M x U _ x T M xy U _ y T
px x; y; tT Q x U w
2
2
2
w w w
w
2 w 2 w
2 w 2 w
:
D
1
x x2 y2 t
xytyT
x2
y2 tx
The spatial derivatives can be approximated using the finite difference method [18] as
2 w 2 w
1
3 w1 w2 5w3 w4 w5 5w6 w7 w8 ;
x x2 y2
(1)
(2a)
2 w
1
w1 w3 w6 w8 ;
x2 22
(2b)
2 w
1
w2 2w3 w4 w5 2w6 w7 ;
y2 22
(2c)
2 w
1
w2 w4 w5 w7 ;
xy 22
(2d)
w 1
_ 6 ;
_ 3 w
w
t
2
(2e)
2 w 1
_ 6 ;
_ 3 w
w
tx
(2f)
2 w
1
_ 4 w
_ 5 w
_ 7 :
_ 2 w
w
ty 4
(2g)
_ T , Mx U _ x T and M xy U _ y T as follows:
Substituting Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we can obtain expressions for Q x U w
_ T
Q x U w
D
_ 3 w1 w
_ 6 w2 w
_ 3 w2 w
_ 6 w3 w
_ 4 w3 w
_ 5 10w3 w
_6
w1 w
3
2
_ 7 w3 w
_ 8 w4 w
_ 6 w5 w
_ 6 w6 w
_ 7 w6 w
_ 8 T ;
w3 w
D
D
_ 3 w1 w
_ 6 2w3 w
_ 6 w3 w
_ 8 w6 w
_ 8 T
_ 3 w2 w
_6
w2 w
M x U _ x T 3 w1 w
3
2
2
_ 4 w3 w
_ 5 4w3 w
_ 6 w3 w
_ 7 w4 w
_ 6 w5 w
_ 6 w6 w
_ 7 T ;
w3 w
D1
_ 5 w2 w
_ 7 w4 w
_ 5 w4 w
_ 7 T :
w2 w
M xy U _ y T
3
4
(3a)
(3b)
(3c)
If we sum (3a), (3b) and (3c), then we get the expression for px x; y; tT as follows:
_ T Mx U _ x T M xy U _ y T
px x; y; tT Q x U w
D
_ 3 w6 4w1 w
_ 6 4w3 w
_8
83 w
3
4
_ 3 w2 w
_ 5 w2 w
_ 7 w3 w
_ 4 w4 w
_ 5 w4 w
_ 7 2w5 w
_ 6 2w6 w
_ 7
1 2w2 w
_ 5 w3 w
_ 7 w2 w
_ 6 w4 w
_ 6 T ;
21 w3 w
(4)
where px x; y; t is the instantaneous vibratory power flux, D Eh =121 is the flexural rigidity of the plate in which h is
_ i are the
the plate thickness, E is Youngs modulus and is the Poissons ratio, is twice of the grid space and wi and w
vertical displacements and velocities respectively at points i.
Eq. (4) shows that the average power flux can be obtained from the cross correlations between displacements and
velocities if these quantities are stationary [18]. In the frequency domain, a cross correlation can be expressed as a cross
spectrum between accelerations [19,33]. Thus quantity px x; y; , the cross spectral density function, can be defined for
average vibratory power as
3
px x; y;
D
4
3
Im 83 G36 4G16 4G38 1 2G23 G25 G27 G34 G45 G47 2G56 2G67
21 G35 G37 G26 G46 :
(5)
where Gij denotes the cross spectra between accelerations at the i-th and j-th grid points and Im{ } means taking the
imaginary part of { }. The contribution to px x; y; may be decomposed into three components due to Q x , M x and Mxy as
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
follows:
px;Q x x; y;
px;Mx x; y;
D
23
D
23
ImfG13 G23 G34 G35 G37 G38 G16 G26 10G36 G46 G56 G67 G68 g;
px;Mxy x; y;
D
23
D1
4 3
(6a)
(6b)
(6c)
The time average of vibratory power can be recovered by integrating the cross spectral density function from zero to infinity.
Z 1
px x; y; d:
(7)
px x; y; t T
0
If vertical accelerations of a plate are due to a single source of which the spectral density is GFF , then the cross spectra of
accelerations Gij can be written as follows [20]:
Gij H nFi H Fj GFF ;
(8)
where HFi is the acceleration response at the i-th grid point due to a harmonic force of unit amplitude and GFF is the auto
spectrum of the source. HnFi is the conjugate of HFi.
We can estimate the vibratory power in y direction in a similar way. Instead of accelerations at the black dots we can use
those at white dots indicated as 1 ; 2; :::; 8 in Fig. 2. We can calculate py x; y; and subsequently py x; y; t T as well.
Consequently we can define cross spectral density vector px; y; at a point as
px; y; px x; y; i py x; y; j:
(9)
Moreover the average powers px x; y; t T and py x; y; t T can be considered as two components of the vector quantity. We
are going to name it vibratory power and express it as
px; y; t T px x; y; t T i py x; y; t T j:
The magnitude of the vibratory power can be written as
r
2
2
px; y; t T
p x; y; t T p x; y; t T :
x
(10)
(11)
R up
up
lw px2 xk ; yk ; d
lw px1 xk ; yk ; d
i
h
R
;
i; j 1; ; k; :::; n:
(12)
DI x xk ; yk
max
lwup px1 xi ; yj ; d
where px1 and px2 are the spectral densities of undamaged and damaged plates respectively, and up and lw are the
upper and lower limits of integration that are determined by considering the wavelength, and the grid spacing, =2. The y
component of the damage index can be calculated in a similar way at the same point. Thus we will be able to define a scalar
quantity called the damage index at each grid point as the square root of the sum of squares of two damage index
components:
q
(13)
DI DI2x DI2y :
The damage index defined by Eq. (13) will constitute a scalar field in the x; y plane. Graphically the field will be depicted as
a surface in a three-dimensional space. It will be demonstrated numerically and experimentally that damage can be located
and its direction determined from the damage index and its components.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
(14a)
DI y
Ry q:
DI2x DI2y
(14b)
Ry DIy
:
Rx DI x
(15)
The damage index ratio DIR will be used later in determining the damage direction.
2.4. Two local principal axes of damage index peak in the neighborhood of a damage
As mentioned before the damage index defined in Eq. (13) may constitute a surface in a three-dimensional space. It will
be demonstrated later that this damage surface takes the shape of a semi-ellipsoidal peak in the local region surrounding a
damage. Then we can define two principal axes for this semi-ellipsoid using the method of least-square fitting. We can use
either the damage index values obtained from the measurements or values interpolated using a smoothing algorithm such
as the spline.
First, we find a smoothed index surface. On this surface we can draw several contour lines of equal index value in the
range from 40 percent to 90 percent of the peak value. This particular range is chosen in order to get closed contour lines
around the damage.
Second, we project those contour lines to the x; y plane. Then using data points on these projected contour lines we can
find a straight line that best fits these data points using the method of least-square fitting. We may take this line as the
major principal axis. Another principal axis, called the minor axis can be determined uniquely to be orthogonal to the major
principal axis direction by the method of least square fitting.
In application examples both numerical and experimental, we will show that the major axis obtained by this method
coincides with the damage direction. The accuracy of this method is comparable to that of the method based on the damage
index ratio, DIR. But the method based on the local principal axes seems to be more reliable than the method based on
damage index ratio.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
150
75
40
20
10
52.01
50.49
3.01
49.80
1.39
49.59
0.42
49.54
0.10
49.53
0.02
Convergence rate 100 (the decrement of natural freq.)/(the current result of natural freq.).
Fig. 5. The finite element model: (a) whole model; (b) magnified model.
Fig. 6. Magnitude of vibratory power: (a) undamaged plate; (b) damaged plate.
In the experiment, each side of the plate will be buried up to a length of 0.3 m in sand in order to suppress waves reflected
by the boundary as shown in Fig. 3. To duplicate these conditions in a numerical model, the plate is divided into two regions
and each region is modeled differently. The inner square region of 0.6 m 0.6 m is modeled using finite elements and the
outer square ring region buried in sand is modeled using distributed springs and dampers as in Fig. 4. The spring and
damping coefficients that are appropriate to experimental conditions are determined by trial and error as 96 N/m and
3.847 103 N/ms 1.
The origin of the coordinate system is defined at the center of the plate. CQUAD4 elements with 4 nodes and CTRIA3
elements with 3 nodes are used for finite element modeling of the plate by MSC/PATRAN [34]. The element size in the finite
model is determined by considering the convergence in the fundamental frequency of the plate model. The change in
natural frequency is studied whenever the element size is being halved. The results are shown in Table 1. When the element
size is reduced from 40 mm to 20 mm, the change in natural frequency is only 0.42 percent. Hence the element size of
20 mm may be small enough for our purpose. However, we used the 5 mm as the element size to model the geometry of
damage more accurately. The damage is assumed to be located at 0.125 m to the left of the origin along the x axis and its
direction is perpendicular to the x axis. The length and width of the damage are 60 mm and 2 mm. The damage is simulated
numerically by deleting the elements belonging to the damaged region. The finite element models are shown in Fig. 5.
3.2. Estimation of vibratory power from the acceleration responses
The plate is assumed to be excited by a harmonic force of unit amplitude applied at the origin in the frequency range
between 370 Hz and 1490 Hz. This range is determined considering the wavelength and finite difference grid space =2
[16]. The acceleration responses are calculated in frequency domain using MSC/NASTRAN [35]. The auto spectrum of the
source GFF is taken as 1.0 because the excitation force has a unit amplitude, therefore the cross spectra at grid points can be
written as
Gij H nFi H Fj
(16)
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
Fig. 8. Damage index by FEM: (a) damage index; (b) the x component; (c) the y component.
The x component of the vibratory power can be obtained from Eqs. (5), (7) and (8). The y component will be obtained in a
similar way. The damage index can be calculated from Eq. (13).
The vibratory powers are estimated in a rectangular region between 0.27 mrxr 0.03 m and 0.27 m ryr0.27 m
near the damage. The interval between the adjacent points is 20 mm, hence the total number of points are 364 (13 28
mesh lines). In Fig. 6, the magnitude of vibratory power in the undamaged plate is compared with that in the damaged one.
The power flow is plotted as a vector field in Fig. 7. The contour lines in Fig. 7 connect points of the same magnitude. In
Fig. 7, arrows indicate the direction and magnitude of the vector field. In the undamaged plate, we can observe that the
power flows out radially. The magnitude decreases gradually and smoothly with distance from the source. On the contrary,
in the damaged plate, the magnitude of the power changes abruptly in the neighborhood of the damage forming a sharp
peak. The change in power flow is most pronounced along the x axis. This change in the power is dominated by the rapid
change in the x component. In comparison, the change in the y component is quite moderate. It may be due to the fact the
damage direction is perpendicular to the x axis. This phenomenon indicates that vibratory power can identify not only the
location but the direction of the damage.
3.3. Damage index
The damage index and its components are calculated for the damage plate model and plotted in Fig. 8(ac). The values of
the index are so high in the neighborhood of the damage compared with the rest of the plate that we can pinpoint the
damage location correctly. Not only the damage index but also the x and y components are also very pronounced in that
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
10
Fig. 9. Finite element models for inclined damage: (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; (c) inclined by 451; (d) inclined by 1351.
region. In this particular example the contribution of the x component is predominant. The maximum value of the index is
DI 0:69 and values of corresponding x and y components are DI x 0:68 and DIy 0:18. Even though DI y is many times
smaller than DI x , it is still large enough to stand out from the rest of the plate. The large contrast between DI x to DI y may be
related to the direction and length of the damage. This phenomenon will enable us to identify the direction of the damage
which will be described in the following section.
11
Fig. 10. Contour lines of damage index for inclined damage: (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; (c) inclined by 451; (d) inclined by 1351.
3.5. Identification of damage direction from the local principal axes of damage index peak
Using cubic spline interpolation we generate a smooth surface of damage index from the data used to obtain the contour
lines in Fig. 10. The results are shown in Fig. 12. Damage index forms a sharp peak in the neighborhood of the damage.
Following the procedure described in Section 2.4 we generate three contour lines corresponding to 40 percent, 60 percent,
and 80 percent of the maximum value. Of course we may use more contour lines at much smaller intervals than before. But
as we can see in Fig. 13 the results obtained using 11 contours lines are almost equal to those with 3 contour lines.
The projections of these contours are plotted in Fig. 14 for four damage configurations with different inclined angles 01,
451, 901, and 1351. In general the contour lines have an oval shape with one line of symmetry. In particular, for two inclined
damage configurations, asymmetry is more pronounced with respect to the minor axis. This is due to the existence of small
peaks not shown in Fig. 10.
In plots of Fig. 14, the major axes are denoted by solid blue lines and the minor ones by broken red lines. We can calculate
the inclined angles easily and the results are listed in Table 3. The deviations in the horizontal and vertical damage
configurations are quite small but the deviation in the inclined damage is rather large at 15 percent. But still, the results
enable us to distinguish the damage inclined by 451 from that inclined by 1351 angle without any ambiguity.
These results are in good agreement with those in the previous section. Therefore we can conclude that this approach is
reliable and may be a better alternative to the method utilizing damage direction.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
12
Fig. 11. Directions of Rx ; Ry : (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; (c) inclined by 451; (d) inclined by 1351.
Table 2
Direction by damage index ratio, cot1 (DIR).
Damage length
60 mm
Damage width
2 mm
901
451
1351
8.3
74.8
49.5
49.6
4. Experimental studies
4.1. Experiment set up
A specimen is manufactured to have dimensions and mechanical properties identical to the model for numerical study.
The elastic modulus and density are found to be 70 GPA and 2710 kg/m3, respectively. A square wooden box is used to
support the plate. The length, width and height of the box are 1.6 m, 1.6 m and 0.5 m. A cuboid region of 0.6 m 0.6 m
dimensions is emptied to place the plate. The outer space of the box is filled with sand. The plate is placed at mid height of
the box. Strips of 0.3 m width from the 4 edges of the plate are buried in sand at a length of 30 cm. After the plate is properly
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
13
Fig. 12. Smoothed damage index surface by FEM: (a) damage index; (b) the x component; (c) the y component.
placed and supported, the holes of inner panels are sealed with soft sponge to prevent leaking of sand from the box.
The support conditions are described in Fig. 15.
The responses of the plate are measured at the unsupported 0.6 m 0.6 m region. For convenience the origin is defined
at the center of the plate. An exciter, B&K Type 4827, is installed underneath the origin. An impedance head, B&K Type 8001,
is attached between the exciter and plate to measure the force signal. The impedance head is connected to the exciter using
a steel bar with a 2 mm diameter. It is fastened tightly to the fixture of the exciter. The signals measured at the impedance
head pass through the conditioning amplifier, B&K NEXUS Type 2692-D-001, and are transmitted to the signal analyzer, LMS
SCADAS Mobile System. A lightweight accelerometer, PCB 352C22, is used to measure accelerations of the plate. The weight
of an accelerometer is approximately 0.5 g. The accelerometers are adhesively mounted on the top surface of the plate using
beeswax. The exciter is driven by signals from an internal function generator of a signal analyzer, B&K Pulse, and the signal
from the analyzer is amplified by a power amplifier, B&K Type 2721. The diagram of the measurement systems is
schematically shown in Fig. 16.
The plate is subjected to random excitations with frequencies ranging from 2 Hz to 6.4 kHz. The sampling frequency is
set at 51.2 kHz and the frequency resolution at 3.125 Hz. The ensemble average is taken for 200 samples. Before estimating
the cross spectra, the coherence function between the force and acceleration is monitored to check whether there exists an
interference of external noise to two signals. As a typical example, a coherence function estimated at x 0.2 m, y0.05 m
is given in Fig. 17. The coherence function is close to 1.0 above 372 Hz, which confirms that there is no meaningful
interference.
14
Fig. 13. Comparison of the result of local principal axes according to the number of contour lines: (a) vertical damage of eleven contour lines in 5% interval;
(b) vertical damage of three contour lines in 20% interval; (c) inclined damage of eleven contour lines in 5% interval; (d) inclined damage of three contour
lines in 20% interval.
A rectangular region of 0.2 mrx r0.0 m and 0.12 m ryr0.12 m surrounding the damage is selected to measure
vertical accelerations due to the excitations. To facilitate the measurement operation even further, a grid is marked on the
plate surface in advance. This grid consists of 25 lines parallel to the x axis and twenty one lines parallel to the y axis
resulting in a total of 525 grid points at 10 mm apart.
As explained before and illustrated in Fig. 2, we need a set of 8 accelerometers to estimate the cross spectra at a grid
point. By locating the set of accelerometers at various points, we may be able to measure the cross spectrum and ultimately
the average power and damage index at any point of interest. It can be easily seen that the area where responses are
measured and estimated is smaller than the grid as compared in Fig. 19.
To minimize the spacing error that may occur while attaching accelerometers to the plate, an auxiliary fixture is specially
developed and utilized. This fixture is immediately removed from the plate after the completion of the attachment. Hence it will
not introduce any interference to the measured responses. Fig. 20 shows the attachment of accelerometers using this fixture.
15
Fig. 14. Local principal axes for inclined damage by FEM analysis: (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; (c) inclined by 451; (d) inclined by 1351.
Table 3
Inclined angle 1 predicted by FEM analysis based on local principal axes.
Damage direction
Deviationa
Vertical
Inclined by 451
Horizontal
Inclined by 1351
88.561
51.781
4.001
128.661
1.441
6.781
4.001
6.341
a
Deviation is an absolute value of the difference between 1 and each
damage direction.
20 mm. At this stage of calculation, GFF is taken to be 1.0. The frequency bandwidth for the spectral analysis is chosen to
maintain the wavelength from 7 to 14 times longer than sensor spacing [16]. Since the sensor spacing is 20 mm, the required
frequency bandwidth is between 372 Hz and 1.49 kHz. The x component of the vibratory power is obtained from Eqs. (5), (7)
and (8). The y component can be obtained in a similar way.
The experimental results are compared with the numerical results for both undamaged and damaged plates. The
magnitude of the estimated power is shown in Fig. 21 for the undamaged plate and Fig. 22 for the damaged one. In both
cases, the maximum values of vibratory power estimated by FEM are lower than those obtained from the experiments.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
16
Fig. 17. Coherence functions at x 0.2 m, y 0.05 m between the force and acceleration signals.
However, both experimental and numerical results share common features. Especially, for the damaged plate, the abrupt
change of vibratory power magnitude and the location of peaks near the damage are almost identical.
The vector fields of the vibratory power are visualized in Fig. 23 for the undamaged plate and Fig. 24 for the damaged
one. The arrow denotes the magnitude and direction of the vector field at the point. The contour lines connect points of
equal magnitude. The three lines in each figure correspond to a magnitude of 40 percent, 60 percent, and 80 percent of the
maximum. The agreement between experimental and numerical results is excellent practically in all aspects. The results for
the damaged plate clearly demonstrate that vibratory power can provide information rich enough to identify both the
damage location and direction.
It may be instructive to know which internal force contributes most to the vibratory power. The cross spectrum of the
power obtained from experiments is separated into contributions from three internal forces. At the location of ( 0.11 m,
0.01 m), the power spectra of shear force, bending moment, twisting moment, and their resultant are calculated according
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
17
Fig. 19. Regions where the accelerations are measured and the power is estimated in experimental studies.
Fig. 20. Accelerometers with a fixture on the surface of undamaged plate: (a) overview; (b) close view.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
18
Fig. 21. Comparison of vibratory power of undamaged plate: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 22. Comparison of vibratory power of damaged plate: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 23. Power flow in undamaged plate: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
to Eq. (6) and shown in Fig. 25. The contribution of each internal force to the total average power is calculated and listed in
Table 4. Those quantities of the damaged plate are compared to the ones of the undamaged plate and the ratios are
calculated and displayed also in Table 4. The minus sign means that the power is flowing into the negative x direction. For
this particular example, the contribution of shear force is predominant at over 76 percent, and the contribution of bending
moment is 24 percent. The contribution of the twisting moment is negligible.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
19
Fig. 24. Power flow in damaged plate; (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 25. Spectral densities in undamaged and damaged plates: (a) resultant force; (b) shear force; (c) bending moment; (d) twisting moment.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
20
Table 4
Contribution of internal forces to vibratory power.
Internal forces
Power (N/s)
Undamaged plate
Shear force
Bending moment
Twisting moment
Total
a
b
4
1.341 10
1.171 10 4
7.105 10 7
2.519 10 4
Power incrementa
Contribution (%)b
6.323 10 4
1.964 10 4
1.070 10 6
8.301 10 4
76.17
23.66
0.13
100.0
Damaged plate
7.664 10 4
3.135 10 4
1.780 10 6
1.082 10 3
Fig. 26. Damage index of the plate: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 27. The x component of damage index: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
21
Fig. 28. The y component of damage index: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 29. Profile of the damage applied to plate: (a) vertical; (b) inclined by 451.
Fig. 30. Damage applied to plate: (a) vertical; (b) inclined by 451.
Even though the contribution of the damage index may be small, still the y component stands out in the neighborhood of
the damage from the rest of the plate. The damage index ratio defined as DIR DIy =DI x is much smaller than 1 implying that
the damage direction is vertical. As we discussed for numerical results, this feature may be utilized to identify the damage
direction.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
22
Fig. 31. Contour lines of damage index: (a) FEM result for vertical damage; (b) experimental result for vertical damage; (c) FEM result for the damage
inclined by 451; (d) experimental result for the damage inclined by 451.
23
Fig. 32. Comparison of directions of Rx ; Ry plots between experiment and FEM analysis: (a) vertical damage; (b) damage inclined by 451.
Table 5
Comparison of cot1 (DIR) between experiment and FEM analysis.
Damage index
Rx
Ry
cot1 (DIR) (deg)
901
451
FEM
Experiment
FEM
Experiment
0.96
0.26
74.8
0.97
0.24
76.1
0.76
0.65
49.5
0.77
0.64
50.3
and the direction cot 1 DIR is almost vertical agreeing roughly with the damage direction. But for the oblique damage with
an inclined angle of 451, the damage index ratio is close to one and the vector Rx ; Ry is pointing in the direction of 39.71.
The predicted inclined angles are 49.51 from the FEM analysis and 50.31 from the experiment. But as we mentioned earlier,
cot 1 DIR cannot indicate whether the damage is oriented at 451 or 1351. But the method that will be described in the next
section does not have this shortcoming.
4.6. Identification of damage direction from the principal axes of damage index surface
The two principal axes of a semi-ovoid in the neighborhood of the damage are determined according to the procedure
described already. The results for the two damage configurations are presented and compared in Fig. 33. The predicted
values at the inclined angles are listed in Table 6. As for the vertical damage the prediction by experiment is almost exact. On
the other hand in the case of the damage inclined by 451, the experimental prediction deviates with a wider margin than in
the FEM analysis result. This large error may be attributed to the fact that the damage index is estimated at 9 grid points for
the damage inclined by 451 compared with 16 grid points used for the vertical damage.
The new approach utilizing the principal axes seems to be more promising than the method based on the damage index
ratio. The main shortcoming of the latter is that it involves an inversion of trigonometric functions and relies on the values
at a single point. On the other hand, the principal axes method uses values at many points surrounding the damage.
5. Conclusions
A vibratory power method that was developed for beams is extended further to plate problems. New concepts and
indicators are introduced, defined, and utilized to identify both the location and direction of damage in plates.
It is shown that time average of vibratory power can be obtained from vertical accelerations of a plate using the
frequency domain approach and finite difference approximation. Thus the obtained vibratory power is a vector quantity.
Consequently it will constitute a vector field over the two-dimensional plane. By visual inspection of this vector field we can
have some idea of the damage location. But to be more precise we introduced and defined a damage index that can highlight
only the damaged area. But in order to determine the damage direction we defined another indicator, called the damage
index ratio, DIR; which is the ratio between the components of the maximum damage index. But with this method we
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
24
Fig. 33. Comparison of local principal axes: (a) FEM result for vertical damage; (b) experimental result for vertical damage; (c) FEM result for the damage
inclined by 451; (d) experimental result for the damage inclined by 451.
Table 6
Comparison of damage direction predicted by experiment and FEM analysis based on local principal axes.
Damage direction
Vertical
Inclined by 451
Horizontal
Inclined by 1351
a
FEM result
Experimental result
Deviation
88.561
51.781
4.001
128.661
1.441
6.781
4.001
6.341
Deviationa
90.061
64.111
Not done
Not done
0.061
19.111
Not done
Not done
Deviation is an absolute value of the difference between 1 and each damage direction.
cannot identify uniquely the direction of an inclined damage. Therefore we proposed an alternative method based on local
principal axes of a damage index peak in the neighborhood of the damage.
First, the methods were applied numerically using the FEM. The damage index singled out the damage location
successfully. The damage index ratio was found to be a useful indicator of the direction of a particular damage. But in the
case of inclined damage, the damage index ratio cannot determine the direction uniquely. On the other hand the method
based on principal axes of damage index surface can identify the direction of an inclined damage without ambiguity.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
25
Second, experimental studies were designed and carried out to duplicate the numerical studies. Every effort was made to
realize the support and excitation conditions assumed for a numerical study. Measurement systems and devices were
designed to get responses as accurate as possible.
The measured signals were processed and the results were compared with the numerical counterparts. The agreement
between them was solid, at least, in a general trend. We can say that the experimental results established firmly that the
proposed method can identify not only damage location but also its direction.
Even though the present method has a great potential for real life application, further research may be necessary to
arrive at this goal. The damage considered in this study is a straight crack with a gap around its perimeter. But cracks may
repeat opening and closing during vibration. In this process energy may be dissipated too but it is not taken into account in
this study. Only the point source is considered in this study. Therefore different types of sources including ambient
vibrations may have to be studied in the future. Moreover non-reflecting boundary conditions were assumed in this study.
But these conditions may not be easy to realize in reality. Therefore we may have to consider the effects of waves reflected
from the boundary in future study.
Acknowledgment
This study is part of the research project, Development of risk based design and maintenance technology for a safety of
large complex facility, which has been supported by a grant from the Korea Research Council for Industrial Science &
Technology under the R&D Program of Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy. The authors, also, wish to acknowledge that this
study is supported partly by a grant Development of cutting edge technologies for the multi-faceted representation of
design earthquake ground motions based on analyses of acceleration records (NEMA-NH-2013-71) provided by the Natural
Hazard Mitigation Research Group, National Emergency Management Agency of Korea.
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