2014 - Huh - Damage Identification in Plates Using Vibratory Power

Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]
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Journal of Sound and Vibration

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsvi
Damage identification in plates using vibratory power

estimated from measured accelerations
Young Cheol Huh a, Tae Young Chung a, Jong Won Lee b, Jae Kwan Kim c,n
a
Department of System Dynamics, Korea Institute of Machinery & Materials, 104 Shinsung-ro, Yuseong-gu,
Daejeon 305-343 Republic of Korea
b
Department of Architectural Engineering, University of Namseoul, 21 Maeju-ri, Seonghwan-eup, Seobuk-gu, Cheonan 331-707,
Republic of Korea
c
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 151-742,
Republic of Korea
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history:
Received 24 August 2013
Received in revised form
18 July 2014
Accepted 2 October 2014
Handling Editor: K. Worden
Vibratory power is defined as the rate of energy transmitted through a cross section of
unit width in a vibrating structure. It is known that the vibratory power is a function of
the source and travel path. Therefore the spatial distribution of the vibratory power may
contain information on the state of a structure. Vibratory power can be estimated
experimentally by measuring accelerations. By combining numerical predictions with
experimental measurements the location and severity of damage can be identified. This
method has been successfully applied to prismatic beam problems. In the present work,
the idea is extended to identifying damage in thin plate problems. To identify damage in
thin plates by the proposed vibratory power method, the two-dimensional damage index
and damage index ratio are newly introduced. The plate is assumed to be of uniform
thickness and damaged in the form of a crack simulated as a straight cut of finite length.
The vibratory power of the plate is estimated from frequency response functions to
random excitations. First, the proposed method is applied numerically and then verified
experimentally. Both numerical and experimental results show the present method can
identify not only the location of damage but also its direction. The location and direction
can be identified by investigating the damage index, the damage index ratio, and local
principal axes of the index peak in the vicinity of the damage. The spatial distribution of
the damage index, newly introduced in beam problems, can be considered as a scalar field
in plate problems. In the neighborhood of the damage, the damage index has the shape of
a semi-ellipsoid or a semi-ovoid, and it is found that the major principal axis corresponds
to the direction of the crack. It enables us to identify the damage direction correctly
without ambiguity.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Buildings and infrastructures such as transportation, power supply, communication, water supply facilities etc. are
critical to the proper functioning of social and economic activities of a community. These facilities consist of many structural
Corresponding author. Tel.: 82 2 880 8387; fax: 82 2 873 2684.

E-mail addresses: ychuh@kimm.re.kr (Y.C. Huh), tychung@kimm.re.kr (T.Y. Chung), jwlee@nsu.ac.kr (J.W. Lee), jkwankim@snu.ac.kr (J.K. Kim).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003
0022-460X/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Y.C. Huh, et al., Damage identification in plates using vibratory power estimated from
measured accelerations, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.10.003i
Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]
systems, components, and members that carry and support various loads. The proper functioning of these facilities requires
that the structural systems maintain their integrity during the service life. History tells us that these structural systems may
undergo sudden catastrophic failure leading to both heavy human casualties and serious economic loss. In many cases these
failures have been generated by apparently minor damages such as cracks. But the repeated action of cyclic load and the
degradation due to various conditions such as corrosion will cause a minor damage to become a serious one ultimately
leading to sudden catastrophic failures of members, components, and systems. If damage can be detected at an early stage,
then they can be repaired or other preventive measures can be taken. Hence serious damage and potential failures may be
avoided. This is the very goal and the ultimate objective of various detection methods and algorithms developed or currently
under development, some of which use mechanical vibration and propagation of stress waves along the structures.
Vibration-based damage detection methods have been studied very extensively during the past decades. Many
algorithms for identifying structural damage have been developed and reported as well. Comprehensive literature reviews
on vibration-based damage detection methods can be found in Refs. [14].
Vibration-based damage detection methods utilize the changes produced by damage in modal parameters of a structure
such as natural frequency [58], mode shape and its derivative [9,10], flexibility [1113] and strain energy [14,15]. These
signatures, i.e., changes in modal parameters, however, are mainly measured in low frequency ranges. This method of
damage detection does not require the damage location to be known in advance. Thus even those instances of structural
damage which occur in inaccessible areas can be identified in principle by the vibration-based detection method. However,
only a few parameters of lower modes are known to be sensitive to structural damage. Detection of change requires exact
identification of the relevant modal parameters from the corresponding natural modes, which should be determined
accurately from measured data. Therefore, a considerable number of sensors need to be deployed throughout the structure
and their locations should be determined judiciously. In many cases, it is very difficult to identify modal parameters if only a
limited number of sensors are available. In particular, if we want to pinpoint the damage location with a narrow margin of
uncertainty, we need many sensors deployed optimally over the structure under consideration.
The kinds of detection methods summarized above are suitable for assessing the overall integrity of a structure. But it
may not be efficient in identifying damage location accurately. Recently, a new approach based on vibratory power has been
proposed to identify the damage and its location in a prismatic beam [16]. This approach is motivated by the observation
that the distribution of vibratory power shows a notable change in the neighborhood of a damage compared with the power
in the corresponding region of the undamaged structure. This feature enables us to identify the damage location accurately
without using modal parameters. Of course we have to find the distribution of vibratory power over the structure.
In addition we need a numerical model of the structure. This method has the potential to complement the vibration-based
methods mentioned above. It can be extended to use remote sensing techniques since it requires measurement of
accelerations only.
Vibratory power is defined as the rate of energy transmitted through cross section of unit width in a vibrating structure.
It is known that vibratory power is a function of the source and travel path. The basic formulae describing vibratory power
in the far field were proposed first by Noiseux [17]. Pavic [18] extended these formulae to the near field problem based on
the finite difference method. Verheij proposed a practical procedure to estimate vibratory power based on a cross-spectral
density method [19] and a frequency response method [20]. Gavric et al. [21] showed that the input power at a source point
is the same as the vibratory power passing through a closed curve including the source point. Daley [22] estimated the
vibratory power in a simply supported plate subject to diffusing acoustic pressure using a laser Doppler vibrometer. Khun
et al. [23] calculated the vibratory power of a plate with multiple discrete and distributed dampers and examined the
characteristics of energy flow in the presence of the dissipative elements. Mandal [24,25] estimated the vibratory power of
orthotropic plate and corrugated plate by experimental and numerical studies. In the past decade, several numerical
techniques have been proposed on the estimation of vibratory power of damaged structures. Among them are the transfer
matrix method [2628] and the spectral finite element method [29]. Lee et al. [30] calculated the forced response of a
rectangular plate with surface cracks using the commercial finite element analysis code, and investigated the characteristics
of vibratory power in the vicinity of a crack. Zhu et al. [31] presented an analytical method for the estimation of the
vibratory power of a thin cylindrical shell with a circumferential surface crack and examined changes in input and
transmitted power flows with respect to crack parameters. Wong et al. [32] proposed damage identification techniques
based on modal reactive power. However, experimental validation was not included in these previous numerical studies.
In this paper, a two-dimensional damage index is newly introduced that can be used to identify damage in thin plates.
It is a two-dimensional extension of the method proposed for beam problems [16]. The plate is assumed to be of uniform
thickness and damaged in the form of a crack simulated as a straight cut of finite length. The vibratory power of the plate is
estimated from frequency response functions to random excitations. A new concept named damage index is introduced.
It can be calculated from measured acceleration. The damage index can be visualized as a surface over the plate which forms
a sharp peak in the neighborhood of a damage. This feature enables us to identify the damage location. But in order to know
the damage direction we need further information. We propose two alternatives to this end. The first one is utilizing the
damage index ratio which is the ratio between components of the damage index at a point. The second method is finding
the principal axes of a local damage index peak. The proposed methods are applied, first, numerically and then verified
experimentally. The damage location can be identified by both methods but the direction can be identified without
ambiguity only by the second method. Therefore the method utilizing the local principal axes of the damage index peak
seems more promising and reliable than that using the damage index ratio alternative.
x
y
Qy
Qx
Myy
Myx
Mxx
Mxy
Mxx+ Mxx
Mxy
Mxy
Myy+ Myy
w
Myx
Myx
Qy
Qx
Qx
Fig. 1. Internal forces in a thin plate.
y
Fig. 2. A finite difference grid and sensor sets.
2. Vibratory power method for plates

2.1. Estimation of the average vibratory power from vertical accelerations
If a thin plate vibrates in an elastic range, internal forces such as shear forces Q x and Q y , bending moments M x and M y
and twisting moments M xy and Myx , shown in Fig. 1, are proportional to spatial derivatives of vertical displacement w. In a
vibrating structure, the inner product of internal forces with the corresponding generalized velocities yields the power
transmitting through a cross section of unit
[17]. We can evaluate the powers, px and py in directions x and y
width

respectively and define a power vector p px ; py at each point x; y. Thus we can define a vector field on a x; y plane for
vibratory power. This field can be visualized using flow lines, which show the path of energy propagation. If we draw a
closed curve around a vibrating source in a plate, then in a stationary state the input power at the source is equal to the flux
of the power vector field through the boundary (the closed curve) [21]. The flux is the integral of the inner product between
the outward normal vector and the power vector along the boundary. In an analogy to the flow of fluid, we call this power
vector the power flow.
In a plate, at an instance of time, the spatial derivatives of the vertical displacement can be approximated by the finite
difference method. Since we need to evaluate the third-order derivatives for the finite difference approximation of vibratory
power at the center of the grid, a rectangular grid with 7 lines in each direction should be employed. In this grid, to estimate
the power in x direction we need to evaluate vertical displacement at 8 grid points marked with black dots as shown in
Fig. 2. Likewise we only need to know displacements at 8 grid points marked with white dots.
The time average of the vibratory power flux in x direction over period T can be expressed as follows:
_ T M x U _ x T M xy U _ y T
px x; y; tT Q x U w
2
2

2
w w w
w
2 w 2 w
2 w 2 w
:
D

1

x x2 y2 t
xytyT
x2
y2 tx
The spatial derivatives can be approximated using the finite difference method [18] as

2 w 2 w
1
3 w1 w2 5w3 w4 w5 5w6 w7 w8 ;
x x2 y2
(1)
(2a)
2 w
1
w1 w3 w6 w8 ;
x2 22
(2b)
2 w
1
w2 2w3 w4 w5 2w6 w7 ;
y2 22
(2c)
2 w
1
w2 w4 w5 w7 ;
xy 22
(2d)
w 1
_ 6 ;
_ 3 w
w
t
2
(2e)
2 w 1
_ 6 ;
_ 3 w
w
tx
(2f)
2 w
1
_ 4 w
_ 5 w
_ 7 :
_ 2 w
w
ty 4
(2g)
_ T , Mx U _ x T and M xy U _ y T as follows:
Substituting Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we can obtain expressions for Q x U w
_ T
Q x U w
D
_ 3 w1 w
_ 6 w2 w
_ 3 w2 w
_ 6 w3 w
_ 4 w3 w
_ 5 10w3 w
_6
w1 w
3
2
_ 7 w3 w
_ 8 w4 w
_ 6 w5 w
_ 6 w6 w
_ 7 w6 w
_ 8 T ;
w3 w
D
D
_ 3 w1 w
_ 6 2w3 w
_ 6 w3 w
_ 8 w6 w
_ 8 T
_ 3 w2 w
_6
w2 w
M x U _ x T 3 w1 w
3
2
2
_ 4 w3 w
_ 5 4w3 w
_ 6 w3 w
_ 7 w4 w
_ 6 w5 w
_ 6 w6 w
_ 7 T ;
w3 w
D1
_ 5 w2 w
_ 7 w4 w
_ 5 w4 w
_ 7 T :
w2 w
M xy U _ y T
3
4
(3a)
(3b)
(3c)
If we sum (3a), (3b) and (3c), then we get the expression for px x; y; tT as follows:
_ T Mx U _ x T M xy U _ y T
px x; y; tT Q x U w
D
_ 3 w6 4w1 w
_ 6 4w3 w
_8
83 w
3
4
_ 3 w2 w
_ 5 w2 w
_ 7 w3 w
_ 4 w4 w
_ 5 w4 w
_ 7 2w5 w
_ 6 2w6 w
_ 7
1 2w2 w
_ 5 w3 w
_ 7 w2 w
_ 6 w4 w
_ 6 T ;
21 w3 w
(4)
where px x; y; t is the instantaneous vibratory power flux, D Eh =121 is the flexural rigidity of the plate in which h is
_ i are the
the plate thickness, E is Youngs modulus and is the Poissons ratio, is twice of the grid space and wi and w
vertical displacements and velocities respectively at points i.
Eq. (4) shows that the average power flux can be obtained from the cross correlations between displacements and
velocities if these quantities are stationary [18]. In the frequency domain, a cross correlation can be expressed as a cross
spectrum between accelerations [19,33]. Thus quantity px x; y; , the cross spectral density function, can be defined for
average vibratory power as
3
px x; y;
D
4
3

Im 83 G36 4G16 4G38 1 2G23 G25 G27 G34 G45 G47 2G56 2G67

21 G35 G37 G26 G46 :
(5)
where Gij denotes the cross spectra between accelerations at the i-th and j-th grid points and Im{ } means taking the
imaginary part of { }. The contribution to px x; y; may be decomposed into three components due to Q x , M x and Mxy as
follows:
px;Q x x; y;
px;Mx x; y;
D
23
D
23
ImfG13 G23 G34 G35 G37 G38 G16 G26 10G36 G46 G56 G67 G68 g;
ImfG13 G16 2G36 G38 G68 g
px;Mxy x; y;
D
23
D1
4 3
fG23 G26 G34 G35 4G36 G37 G46 G56 G67 g;
ImfG25 G27 G45 G47 g:
(6a)
(6b)
(6c)
The time average of vibratory power can be recovered by integrating the cross spectral density function from zero to infinity.
Z 1
px x; y; d:
(7)
px x; y; t T
0
If vertical accelerations of a plate are due to a single source of which the spectral density is GFF , then the cross spectra of
accelerations Gij can be written as follows [20]:
Gij H nFi H Fj GFF ;
(8)
where HFi is the acceleration response at the i-th grid point due to a harmonic force of unit amplitude and GFF is the auto
spectrum of the source. HnFi is the conjugate of HFi.
We can estimate the vibratory power in y direction in a similar way. Instead of accelerations at the black dots we can use
those at white dots indicated as 1 ; 2; :::; 8 in Fig. 2. We can calculate py x; y; and subsequently py x; y; t T as well.
Consequently we can define cross spectral density vector px; y; at a point as
px; y; px x; y; i py x; y; j:
(9)
Moreover the average powers px x; y; t T and py x; y; t T can be considered as two components of the vector quantity. We
are going to name it vibratory power and express it as
px; y; t T px x; y; t T i py x; y; t T j:
The magnitude of the vibratory power can be written as
r
2

2
px; y; t T

p x; y; t T p x; y; t T :
x
(10)
(11)
2.2. Damage index

It is our goal to identify the location of damage by investigating the distribution of vibration power in the neighborhood
of the damage. Hence we can safely assume that the flexural rigidity D in Eq. (5) remains constant in both damaged and
undamaged plates. Therefore, we can normalize Eq. (5) by assigning a unit value to the flexural rigidity D. The damage index
that we are going to introduce shortly will be independent of the flexural rigidity D.
In the previous study [16], the damage index was demonstrated to be a useful quantity for identifying damage location
and its severity. The concept is extended further to plate problems.
For plates, we may have to define damage indices in two orthogonal directions, i.e., in x and y axes. The x component of
the damage index at a grid point (xk, yk) will be defined as follows:
R up

up

lw px2 xk ; yk ; d

lw px1 xk ; yk ; d
i
h
R
;
i; j 1; ; k; :::; n:
(12)
DI x xk ; yk

max
lwup px1 xi ; yj ; d
where px1 and px2 are the spectral densities of undamaged and damaged plates respectively, and up and lw are the
upper and lower limits of integration that are determined by considering the wavelength, and the grid spacing, =2. The y
component of the damage index can be calculated in a similar way at the same point. Thus we will be able to define a scalar
quantity called the damage index at each grid point as the square root of the sum of squares of two damage index
components:
q
(13)
DI DI2x DI2y :
The damage index defined by Eq. (13) will constitute a scalar field in the x; y plane. Graphically the field will be depicted as
a surface in a three-dimensional space. It will be demonstrated numerically and experimentally that damage can be located
and its direction determined from the damage index and its components.
Fig. 3. Support and boundary condtions for a plate model.
2.3. Damage index ratio

As we will see later, the distribution of the damage index is capable of narrowing the damage location within a small
region but may not be sufficient to identify the damage direction. To this end we are going to define a new indicator named
the damage index ratio denoted as DIR. First, by dividing the components by the damage index we can define normalized
damage index components, Rx and Ry as follows:
DIx
Rx q ;
DI2x DI2y
(14a)
DI y
Ry q:
DI2x DI2y
(14b)
Second, the damage index ratio will be defined as the ratio of Ry to Rx or DI y to DI x :

DIR
Ry DIy
:
Rx DI x
(15)
The damage index ratio DIR will be used later in determining the damage direction.
2.4. Two local principal axes of damage index peak in the neighborhood of a damage
As mentioned before the damage index defined in Eq. (13) may constitute a surface in a three-dimensional space. It will
be demonstrated later that this damage surface takes the shape of a semi-ellipsoidal peak in the local region surrounding a
damage. Then we can define two principal axes for this semi-ellipsoid using the method of least-square fitting. We can use
either the damage index values obtained from the measurements or values interpolated using a smoothing algorithm such
as the spline.
First, we find a smoothed index surface. On this surface we can draw several contour lines of equal index value in the
range from 40 percent to 90 percent of the peak value. This particular range is chosen in order to get closed contour lines
around the damage.
Second, we project those contour lines to the x; y plane. Then using data points on these projected contour lines we can
find a straight line that best fits these data points using the method of least-square fitting. We may take this line as the
major principal axis. Another principal axis, called the minor axis can be determined uniquely to be orthogonal to the major
principal axis direction by the method of least square fitting.
In application examples both numerical and experimental, we will show that the major axis obtained by this method
coincides with the damage direction. The accuracy of this method is comparable to that of the method based on the damage
index ratio, DIR. But the method based on the local principal axes seems to be more reliable than the method based on
damage index ratio.
Fig. 4. An analysis model with equivalent boundary conditions.

Table 1
Natural frequency of the plate with respect to the element size of finite element model.
Element size (mm)
150
75
40
20
10
Natural freq. (Hz)

Convergence rate (%)a
52.01
50.49
3.01
49.80
1.39
49.59
0.42
49.54
0.10
49.53
0.02
Convergence rate 100 (the decrement of natural freq.)/(the current result of natural freq.).
Fig. 5. The finite element model: (a) whole model; (b) magnified model.
3. Identication of damage location and direction: numerical applications

3.1. Finite element model
A square aluminum plate of 1.2 m 1.2 m with 3 mm thickness is chosen as the model. The elastic modulus and density
are assumed to be 70 GPA and 2710 kg/m3, respectively. This particular model is chosen because a model with the same size
and material properties will be studied experimentally and the present model is appropriate to the laboratory conditions.
Fig. 6. Magnitude of vibratory power: (a) undamaged plate; (b) damaged plate.
Fig. 7. Power flow: (a) undamaged plate; (b) damaged plate.
In the experiment, each side of the plate will be buried up to a length of 0.3 m in sand in order to suppress waves reflected
by the boundary as shown in Fig. 3. To duplicate these conditions in a numerical model, the plate is divided into two regions
and each region is modeled differently. The inner square region of 0.6 m 0.6 m is modeled using finite elements and the
outer square ring region buried in sand is modeled using distributed springs and dampers as in Fig. 4. The spring and
damping coefficients that are appropriate to experimental conditions are determined by trial and error as 96 N/m and
3.847 103 N/ms 1.
The origin of the coordinate system is defined at the center of the plate. CQUAD4 elements with 4 nodes and CTRIA3
elements with 3 nodes are used for finite element modeling of the plate by MSC/PATRAN [34]. The element size in the finite
model is determined by considering the convergence in the fundamental frequency of the plate model. The change in
natural frequency is studied whenever the element size is being halved. The results are shown in Table 1. When the element
size is reduced from 40 mm to 20 mm, the change in natural frequency is only 0.42 percent. Hence the element size of
20 mm may be small enough for our purpose. However, we used the 5 mm as the element size to model the geometry of
damage more accurately. The damage is assumed to be located at 0.125 m to the left of the origin along the x axis and its
direction is perpendicular to the x axis. The length and width of the damage are 60 mm and 2 mm. The damage is simulated
numerically by deleting the elements belonging to the damaged region. The finite element models are shown in Fig. 5.
3.2. Estimation of vibratory power from the acceleration responses
The plate is assumed to be excited by a harmonic force of unit amplitude applied at the origin in the frequency range
between 370 Hz and 1490 Hz. This range is determined considering the wavelength and finite difference grid space =2
[16]. The acceleration responses are calculated in frequency domain using MSC/NASTRAN [35]. The auto spectrum of the
source GFF is taken as 1.0 because the excitation force has a unit amplitude, therefore the cross spectra at grid points can be
written as
Gij H nFi H Fj
(16)
Fig. 8. Damage index by FEM: (a) damage index; (b) the x component; (c) the y component.
The x component of the vibratory power can be obtained from Eqs. (5), (7) and (8). The y component will be obtained in a
similar way. The damage index can be calculated from Eq. (13).
The vibratory powers are estimated in a rectangular region between 0.27 mrxr 0.03 m and 0.27 m ryr0.27 m
near the damage. The interval between the adjacent points is 20 mm, hence the total number of points are 364 (13 28
mesh lines). In Fig. 6, the magnitude of vibratory power in the undamaged plate is compared with that in the damaged one.
The power flow is plotted as a vector field in Fig. 7. The contour lines in Fig. 7 connect points of the same magnitude. In
Fig. 7, arrows indicate the direction and magnitude of the vector field. In the undamaged plate, we can observe that the
power flows out radially. The magnitude decreases gradually and smoothly with distance from the source. On the contrary,
in the damaged plate, the magnitude of the power changes abruptly in the neighborhood of the damage forming a sharp
peak. The change in power flow is most pronounced along the x axis. This change in the power is dominated by the rapid
change in the x component. In comparison, the change in the y component is quite moderate. It may be due to the fact the
damage direction is perpendicular to the x axis. This phenomenon indicates that vibratory power can identify not only the
location but the direction of the damage.
3.3. Damage index
The damage index and its components are calculated for the damage plate model and plotted in Fig. 8(ac). The values of
the index are so high in the neighborhood of the damage compared with the rest of the plate that we can pinpoint the
damage location correctly. Not only the damage index but also the x and y components are also very pronounced in that
10
Fig. 9. Finite element models for inclined damage: (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; (c) inclined by 451; (d) inclined by 1351.
region. In this particular example the contribution of the x component is predominant. The maximum value of the index is
DI 0:69 and values of corresponding x and y components are DI x 0:68 and DIy 0:18. Even though DI y is many times
smaller than DI x , it is still large enough to stand out from the rest of the plate. The large contrast between DI x to DI y may be
related to the direction and length of the damage. This phenomenon will enable us to identify the direction of the damage
which will be described in the following section.
3.4. Identification of the damage direction

We saw in the previous section that the distribution of the damage index and the contrast between its components
might enable us to identify the damage direction. To study this possibility further, we analyzed four types of damage
inclined by 01, 451, 901 and 1351 from the x axis. The length and width of the damage are prescribed to be 60 mm and 2 mm.
Finite element models are shown in Fig. 9.
The damage index is estimated at 16 grid points in the vicinity of the horizontal and vertical damage configurations but
at 9 grid points for the damages inclined by 451 and 1351. Since the damage index can be considered as a scalar field, the
contour lines of an equal damage index can be interpolated from the index values at grid points and are plotted in Fig. 10.
The contour lines of equal index value around the damage can be considered as projections of level curves on the index
surface in three-dimensional space. From the shape of contour lines we can guess that the peak is similar to a semi-ellipsoid
or a semi-ovoid near the damage. In this particular model, for the horizontal and vertical damage configurations, the semiellipsoid is definitely oblong in shape. But for the inclined damages this tendency is not so pronounced as in the horizontal
and vertical cases but still the shape of the surface is close to a semi-ellipsoid and the principal axis of the longest diameter
coincides with the damage direction. However, in order to identify the damage direction definitely we may need another
indicator.

We may plot Rx ; Ry as a vector in the polar coordinate system as in Fig. 11. The values of cot 1 DIR corresponding to

Rx ; Ry are listed in Table 2. For horizontal damage, the vector Rx ; Ry is almost vertical. But for vertical damage this
vector is horizontal. Therefore, to get an inclined angle we have to calculate cot 1 DIR. But for damages inclined by 451 or
1351, the damage index ratios are almost equal and consequently cot 1 DIR will be almost the same. Consequently
cot 1 DIR cannot tell whether the damage is oriented at 451 or 1351. The information that we can get from the damage
index ratio is whether the damage is horizontal, vertical, or oblique.
11
Fig. 10. Contour lines of damage index for inclined damage: (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; (c) inclined by 451; (d) inclined by 1351.
3.5. Identification of damage direction from the local principal axes of damage index peak
Using cubic spline interpolation we generate a smooth surface of damage index from the data used to obtain the contour
lines in Fig. 10. The results are shown in Fig. 12. Damage index forms a sharp peak in the neighborhood of the damage.
Following the procedure described in Section 2.4 we generate three contour lines corresponding to 40 percent, 60 percent,
and 80 percent of the maximum value. Of course we may use more contour lines at much smaller intervals than before. But
as we can see in Fig. 13 the results obtained using 11 contours lines are almost equal to those with 3 contour lines.
The projections of these contours are plotted in Fig. 14 for four damage configurations with different inclined angles 01,
451, 901, and 1351. In general the contour lines have an oval shape with one line of symmetry. In particular, for two inclined
damage configurations, asymmetry is more pronounced with respect to the minor axis. This is due to the existence of small
peaks not shown in Fig. 10.
In plots of Fig. 14, the major axes are denoted by solid blue lines and the minor ones by broken red lines. We can calculate
the inclined angles easily and the results are listed in Table 3. The deviations in the horizontal and vertical damage
configurations are quite small but the deviation in the inclined damage is rather large at 15 percent. But still, the results
enable us to distinguish the damage inclined by 451 from that inclined by 1351 angle without any ambiguity.
These results are in good agreement with those in the previous section. Therefore we can conclude that this approach is
reliable and may be a better alternative to the method utilizing damage direction.
12

Fig. 11. Directions of Rx ; Ry : (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; (c) inclined by 451; (d) inclined by 1351.
Table 2
Direction by damage index ratio, cot1 (DIR).
Damage length
60 mm
Damage width
2 mm
cot1 (DIR) (deg)

01
901
451
1351
8.3
74.8
49.5
49.6
4. Experimental studies
4.1. Experiment set up
A specimen is manufactured to have dimensions and mechanical properties identical to the model for numerical study.
The elastic modulus and density are found to be 70 GPA and 2710 kg/m3, respectively. A square wooden box is used to
support the plate. The length, width and height of the box are 1.6 m, 1.6 m and 0.5 m. A cuboid region of 0.6 m 0.6 m
dimensions is emptied to place the plate. The outer space of the box is filled with sand. The plate is placed at mid height of
the box. Strips of 0.3 m width from the 4 edges of the plate are buried in sand at a length of 30 cm. After the plate is properly
13
Fig. 12. Smoothed damage index surface by FEM: (a) damage index; (b) the x component; (c) the y component.
placed and supported, the holes of inner panels are sealed with soft sponge to prevent leaking of sand from the box.
The support conditions are described in Fig. 15.
The responses of the plate are measured at the unsupported 0.6 m 0.6 m region. For convenience the origin is defined
at the center of the plate. An exciter, B&K Type 4827, is installed underneath the origin. An impedance head, B&K Type 8001,
is attached between the exciter and plate to measure the force signal. The impedance head is connected to the exciter using
a steel bar with a 2 mm diameter. It is fastened tightly to the fixture of the exciter. The signals measured at the impedance
head pass through the conditioning amplifier, B&K NEXUS Type 2692-D-001, and are transmitted to the signal analyzer, LMS
SCADAS Mobile System. A lightweight accelerometer, PCB 352C22, is used to measure accelerations of the plate. The weight
of an accelerometer is approximately 0.5 g. The accelerometers are adhesively mounted on the top surface of the plate using
beeswax. The exciter is driven by signals from an internal function generator of a signal analyzer, B&K Pulse, and the signal
from the analyzer is amplified by a power amplifier, B&K Type 2721. The diagram of the measurement systems is
schematically shown in Fig. 16.
The plate is subjected to random excitations with frequencies ranging from 2 Hz to 6.4 kHz. The sampling frequency is
set at 51.2 kHz and the frequency resolution at 3.125 Hz. The ensemble average is taken for 200 samples. Before estimating
the cross spectra, the coherence function between the force and acceleration is monitored to check whether there exists an
interference of external noise to two signals. As a typical example, a coherence function estimated at x 0.2 m, y0.05 m
is given in Fig. 17. The coherence function is close to 1.0 above 372 Hz, which confirms that there is no meaningful
interference.
4.2. Inflicted damage and acceleration measurement

Damage is applied on the surface of the plate with an NC machine. The length and width of the damage is 60 mm and
2 mm. The damage direction is perpendicular to the x axis and its center is located at x 0.115 m on the x axis. Fig. 18
shows the inflicted damage on the plate.
14
Fig. 13. Comparison of the result of local principal axes according to the number of contour lines: (a) vertical damage of eleven contour lines in 5% interval;
(b) vertical damage of three contour lines in 20% interval; (c) inclined damage of eleven contour lines in 5% interval; (d) inclined damage of three contour
lines in 20% interval.
A rectangular region of 0.2 mrx r0.0 m and 0.12 m ryr0.12 m surrounding the damage is selected to measure
vertical accelerations due to the excitations. To facilitate the measurement operation even further, a grid is marked on the
plate surface in advance. This grid consists of 25 lines parallel to the x axis and twenty one lines parallel to the y axis
resulting in a total of 525 grid points at 10 mm apart.
As explained before and illustrated in Fig. 2, we need a set of 8 accelerometers to estimate the cross spectra at a grid
point. By locating the set of accelerometers at various points, we may be able to measure the cross spectrum and ultimately
the average power and damage index at any point of interest. It can be easily seen that the area where responses are
measured and estimated is smaller than the grid as compared in Fig. 19.
To minimize the spacing error that may occur while attaching accelerometers to the plate, an auxiliary fixture is specially
developed and utilized. This fixture is immediately removed from the plate after the completion of the attachment. Hence it will
not introduce any interference to the measured responses. Fig. 20 shows the attachment of accelerometers using this fixture.
4.3. Power estimation from the measured accelerations

The area where the vibratory powers are estimated is a rectangular region between 0.17 m rxr 0.03 m and
0.09 mry r0.09 m. By using the measured FRFs, two components of the power can be obtained at the regular interval of
15
Fig. 14. Local principal axes for inclined damage by FEM analysis: (a) horizontal; (b) vertical; (c) inclined by 451; (d) inclined by 1351.
Table 3
Inclined angle 1 predicted by FEM analysis based on local principal axes.
Damage direction
Deviationa
Vertical
Inclined by 451
Horizontal
Inclined by 1351
88.561
51.781
4.001
128.661
1.441
6.781
4.001
6.341
a
Deviation is an absolute value of the difference between 1 and each
damage direction.
20 mm. At this stage of calculation, GFF is taken to be 1.0. The frequency bandwidth for the spectral analysis is chosen to
maintain the wavelength from 7 to 14 times longer than sensor spacing [16]. Since the sensor spacing is 20 mm, the required
frequency bandwidth is between 372 Hz and 1.49 kHz. The x component of the vibratory power is obtained from Eqs. (5), (7)
and (8). The y component can be obtained in a similar way.
The experimental results are compared with the numerical results for both undamaged and damaged plates. The
magnitude of the estimated power is shown in Fig. 21 for the undamaged plate and Fig. 22 for the damaged one. In both
cases, the maximum values of vibratory power estimated by FEM are lower than those obtained from the experiments.
16
Fig. 15. Support and boundary conditions of the plate.
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of measurement system.
Fig. 17. Coherence functions at x 0.2 m, y 0.05 m between the force and acceleration signals.
However, both experimental and numerical results share common features. Especially, for the damaged plate, the abrupt
change of vibratory power magnitude and the location of peaks near the damage are almost identical.
The vector fields of the vibratory power are visualized in Fig. 23 for the undamaged plate and Fig. 24 for the damaged
one. The arrow denotes the magnitude and direction of the vector field at the point. The contour lines connect points of
equal magnitude. The three lines in each figure correspond to a magnitude of 40 percent, 60 percent, and 80 percent of the
maximum. The agreement between experimental and numerical results is excellent practically in all aspects. The results for
the damaged plate clearly demonstrate that vibratory power can provide information rich enough to identify both the
damage location and direction.
It may be instructive to know which internal force contributes most to the vibratory power. The cross spectrum of the
power obtained from experiments is separated into contributions from three internal forces. At the location of ( 0.11 m,
0.01 m), the power spectra of shear force, bending moment, twisting moment, and their resultant are calculated according
17
Fig. 18. Inflicted damage of the plate.
Fig. 19. Regions where the accelerations are measured and the power is estimated in experimental studies.
Fig. 20. Accelerometers with a fixture on the surface of undamaged plate: (a) overview; (b) close view.
18
Fig. 21. Comparison of vibratory power of undamaged plate: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 22. Comparison of vibratory power of damaged plate: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 23. Power flow in undamaged plate: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
to Eq. (6) and shown in Fig. 25. The contribution of each internal force to the total average power is calculated and listed in
Table 4. Those quantities of the damaged plate are compared to the ones of the undamaged plate and the ratios are
calculated and displayed also in Table 4. The minus sign means that the power is flowing into the negative x direction. For
this particular example, the contribution of shear force is predominant at over 76 percent, and the contribution of bending
moment is 24 percent. The contribution of the twisting moment is negligible.
19
Fig. 24. Power flow in damaged plate; (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 25. Spectral densities in undamaged and damaged plates: (a) resultant force; (b) shear force; (c) bending moment; (d) twisting moment.
20
Table 4
Contribution of internal forces to vibratory power.
Internal forces
Power (N/s)
Undamaged plate
Shear force
Bending moment
Twisting moment
Total
a
b
4
1.341 10
1.171 10 4
7.105 10 7
2.519 10 4
Power incrementa
Contribution (%)b
6.323 10 4
1.964 10 4
1.070 10 6
8.301 10 4
76.17
23.66
0.13
100.0
Damaged plate
7.664 10 4
3.135 10 4
1.780 10 6
1.082 10 3
Power increment (Power of damaged plate) (Power of undamaged plate).

Contribution 100 (Power increment of each component)/(Power increment of resultant).
Fig. 26. Damage index of the plate: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 27. The x component of damage index: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
4.4. Damage index

The damage index and its components are calculated from experimental results. They are plotted in Figs. 26, 27 and 28
along with the corresponding plot from the FEM analysis. In the damage index is distinctly high in the vicinity of the
damage as in the result from the FEM analysis. This feature enables us to identify the damage location without ambiguity.
As to the components, the x component is predominant. It may be because the damage is perpendicular to the x axis.
21
Fig. 28. The y component of damage index: (a) FEM analysis; (b) experiment.
Fig. 29. Profile of the damage applied to plate: (a) vertical; (b) inclined by 451.
Fig. 30. Damage applied to plate: (a) vertical; (b) inclined by 451.
Even though the contribution of the damage index may be small, still the y component stands out in the neighborhood of
the damage from the rest of the plate. The damage index ratio defined as DIR DIy =DI x is much smaller than 1 implying that
the damage direction is vertical. As we discussed for numerical results, this feature may be utilized to identify the damage
direction.
22
Fig. 31. Contour lines of damage index: (a) FEM result for vertical damage; (b) experimental result for vertical damage; (c) FEM result for the damage
inclined by 451; (d) experimental result for the damage inclined by 451.
4.5. Damage direction

In the numerical study, we saw that by using two indicators, the damage index and the damage index ratio, we may be
able to locate the damage and identify its direction. Because of the limit in resources, only two types of damage direction are
investigated experimentally. One is the vertical damage and the other is damage inclined by 451 as shown in Fig. 29 and
Fig. 30. The damage index is estimated at 16 grid points in the vicinity of the vertical damage but at 9 grid points for the
damage inclined by 451.
The contour lines of equal index are calculated by interpolating values at grid points and are plotted in Fig. 31 along with
the corresponding plotting from the FEM analysis. A contour line of equal damage index value around the damage can be
visualized as a level curve on the index surface of a three-dimensional space. For the vertical damage, the contour lines are
clearly elliptic with the principal axis coinciding with the damage direction. But for the inclined damage as we observed
already from the numerical results, the shape of contour lines appears to be elliptic but not as definite as with the vertical
damage. Therefore by visual inspection alone we cannot identify the damage direction clearly. In order to identify the
damage direction with certainty we may need another indicator.
In Section 2.3 we introduced the damage
index
ratio DIR which was used in Section 3.4 to determine whether the

damage is inclined or not. We may plot Rx ; Ry as a vector in the polar coordinate system as in Fig. 32. The values of

cot 1 DIR corresponding to Rx ; Ry are listed in Table 5. For the vertical damage, the vector Rx ; Ry is almost horizontal
23

Fig. 32. Comparison of directions of Rx ; Ry plots between experiment and FEM analysis: (a) vertical damage; (b) damage inclined by 451.
Table 5
Comparison of cot1 (DIR) between experiment and FEM analysis.
Damage index
Rx
Ry
cot1 (DIR) (deg)
901
451
FEM
Experiment
FEM
Experiment
0.96
0.26
74.8
0.97
0.24
76.1
0.76
0.65
49.5
0.77
0.64
50.3
and the direction cot 1 DIR is almost vertical agreeing roughly with the damage direction. But for the oblique damage with

an inclined angle of 451, the damage index ratio is close to one and the vector Rx ; Ry is pointing in the direction of 39.71.
The predicted inclined angles are 49.51 from the FEM analysis and 50.31 from the experiment. But as we mentioned earlier,
cot 1 DIR cannot indicate whether the damage is oriented at 451 or 1351. But the method that will be described in the next
section does not have this shortcoming.
4.6. Identification of damage direction from the principal axes of damage index surface
The two principal axes of a semi-ovoid in the neighborhood of the damage are determined according to the procedure
described already. The results for the two damage configurations are presented and compared in Fig. 33. The predicted
values at the inclined angles are listed in Table 6. As for the vertical damage the prediction by experiment is almost exact. On
the other hand in the case of the damage inclined by 451, the experimental prediction deviates with a wider margin than in
the FEM analysis result. This large error may be attributed to the fact that the damage index is estimated at 9 grid points for
the damage inclined by 451 compared with 16 grid points used for the vertical damage.
The new approach utilizing the principal axes seems to be more promising than the method based on the damage index
ratio. The main shortcoming of the latter is that it involves an inversion of trigonometric functions and relies on the values
at a single point. On the other hand, the principal axes method uses values at many points surrounding the damage.
5. Conclusions
A vibratory power method that was developed for beams is extended further to plate problems. New concepts and
indicators are introduced, defined, and utilized to identify both the location and direction of damage in plates.
It is shown that time average of vibratory power can be obtained from vertical accelerations of a plate using the
frequency domain approach and finite difference approximation. Thus the obtained vibratory power is a vector quantity.
Consequently it will constitute a vector field over the two-dimensional plane. By visual inspection of this vector field we can
have some idea of the damage location. But to be more precise we introduced and defined a damage index that can highlight
only the damaged area. But in order to determine the damage direction we defined another indicator, called the damage
index ratio, DIR; which is the ratio between the components of the maximum damage index. But with this method we
24
Fig. 33. Comparison of local principal axes: (a) FEM result for vertical damage; (b) experimental result for vertical damage; (c) FEM result for the damage
inclined by 451; (d) experimental result for the damage inclined by 451.
Table 6
Comparison of damage direction predicted by experiment and FEM analysis based on local principal axes.
Damage direction
Vertical
Inclined by 451
Horizontal
Inclined by 1351
a
FEM result
Experimental result
Deviation
88.561
51.781
4.001
128.661
1.441
6.781
4.001
6.341
Deviationa
90.061
64.111
Not done
Not done
0.061
19.111
Not done
Not done
Deviation is an absolute value of the difference between 1 and each damage direction.
cannot identify uniquely the direction of an inclined damage. Therefore we proposed an alternative method based on local
principal axes of a damage index peak in the neighborhood of the damage.
First, the methods were applied numerically using the FEM. The damage index singled out the damage location
successfully. The damage index ratio was found to be a useful indicator of the direction of a particular damage. But in the
case of inclined damage, the damage index ratio cannot determine the direction uniquely. On the other hand the method
based on principal axes of damage index surface can identify the direction of an inclined damage without ambiguity.
25
Second, experimental studies were designed and carried out to duplicate the numerical studies. Every effort was made to
realize the support and excitation conditions assumed for a numerical study. Measurement systems and devices were
designed to get responses as accurate as possible.
The measured signals were processed and the results were compared with the numerical counterparts. The agreement
between them was solid, at least, in a general trend. We can say that the experimental results established firmly that the
proposed method can identify not only damage location but also its direction.
Even though the present method has a great potential for real life application, further research may be necessary to
arrive at this goal. The damage considered in this study is a straight crack with a gap around its perimeter. But cracks may
repeat opening and closing during vibration. In this process energy may be dissipated too but it is not taken into account in
this study. Only the point source is considered in this study. Therefore different types of sources including ambient
vibrations may have to be studied in the future. Moreover non-reflecting boundary conditions were assumed in this study.
But these conditions may not be easy to realize in reality. Therefore we may have to consider the effects of waves reflected
from the boundary in future study.
Acknowledgment
This study is part of the research project, Development of risk based design and maintenance technology for a safety of
large complex facility, which has been supported by a grant from the Korea Research Council for Industrial Science &
Technology under the R&D Program of Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy. The authors, also, wish to acknowledge that this
study is supported partly by a grant Development of cutting edge technologies for the multi-faceted representation of
design earthquake ground motions based on analyses of acceleration records (NEMA-NH-2013-71) provided by the Natural
Hazard Mitigation Research Group, National Emergency Management Agency of Korea.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Sound and Vibration

Damage identification in plates using vibratory power

Corresponding author. Tel.: 82 2 880 8387; fax: 82 2 873 2684.

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Fig. 1. Internal forces in a thin plate.

2. Vibratory power method for plates

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

ImfG13 G16 2G36 G38 G68 g

fG23 G26 G34 G35 4G36 G37 G46 G56 G67 g;

ImfG25 G27 G45 G47 g:

2.2. Damage index

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Fig. 3. Support and boundary condtions for a plate model.

2.3. Damage index ratio

Second, the damage index ratio will be defined as the ratio of Ry to Rx or DI y to DI x :

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Fig. 4. An analysis model with equivalent boundary conditions.

Natural freq. (Hz)

3. Identication of damage location and direction: numerical applications

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Fig. 7. Power flow: (a) undamaged plate; (b) damaged plate.

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

3.4. Identification of the damage direction

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

cot1 (DIR) (deg)

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

4.2. Inflicted damage and acceleration measurement

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

4.3. Power estimation from the measured accelerations

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Fig. 15. Support and boundary conditions of the plate.

Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of measurement system.

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Fig. 18. Inflicted damage of the plate.

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Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Power increment (Power of damaged plate) (Power of undamaged plate).

4.4. Damage index

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

4.5. Damage direction

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

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Y.C. Huh et al. / Journal of Sound and Vibration ] (]]]]) ]]]]]]

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