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Examination of
Genital System

General considerations
Male reproductive system
Anatomical considerations
Examination for disorders
Scrotum
Testes
Seminal vesicles
Bulbourethral glands
Prostate glands
Penis and prepuce
Libido
Collection of semen
Female reproductive organs
Ovary
Disorders of ovary
Oviduct/Fallopian tube
Disorders of oviduct/Fallopian tube
Uterus
Uterine disorders
Cervix
Cervical disorders
Vulva and vagina
Disorders of vagina and vulva
Abortion
Sexual urge
Mammary gland
Acute/subacute mastitis
Chronic mastitis
Pregnancy diagnosis
Cow
Mares
Ewes
Sows
Bitch

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The genital system includes male reproductive and female reproductive organs,
which differ anatomically and physiologically
from species to species. The main function of
this system is to reproduce new individuals.
The life begins when female reproductive cell
(ovum) is fertilized by male reproductive cell
(sperm). The examination of genital system
is performed in order to find out the malady
which prohibit its basic function of producing
new individuals. The male and female reproductive organs are discussed in relation to
their anatomy, physiology and pathological
alterations separately. The mammary gland
is also described under female genital system
as it is related with reproduction and feeding
of new ones.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Anatomical Considerations
The male reproductive system includes
scrotum, testes, epididymis, seminal vesicle,
penis and prepuce. The scrotum of bulls is
a diverticulum of abdomen and situated in
the prepubic region. The scrotum is long,
pendulus and divided vertically in two parts
by a external lining on skin. Scrotum contains
testicles, which are oval and elongated
vertically. The epididymis covers the dorsal

94 Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

pole of the testicles. The penis is a round
tubular structure, forms S shaped sigmoid
flexure just behind the scrotum. In bulls, the
glans penis is about 6-10 cm long and twisted
anteriorly. The external orifice of urethra
opens in a groove of glans penis. Prepuce is
the skin fold which becomes narrow and is
situated just posterior to the umbilicus and
surrounded by the long hairs.
In horses, the scrotum is located in the
prepubic region and contains two testicles
which are oval, and compressed. The long
axis of the testicles is vertical and epididymis
is situated at the dorsal pole of the testicle.
The left testicle is larger than right which
gives asymmetrical balance to the scrotum.
The penis starts from ischial arch compressed
laterally and it is made up of erectile tissue.
The diameter of penis is much larger than
bulls. The penis is covered with 50 cm long
prepuce, which increases its length during
erection. The glans penis is convex and has
urethral opening in a deep depression. The
prepuce consists of skin folds which covers
the penis from scrotum to umbilicus; at
umbilicus it forms an orifice.
In rams, the genital organs are like the
bulls except the terminal part of urethra which
forms a twisted process urethra 3 cm apart
from glans penis. The scrotum of boar is
situated at the ventral side of anus. The
testicles are comparatively larger in size
having the tail of epididymis at the dorsal
end. The sigmoid flexure is found in
prescrotal region. The glans penis is absent
and the anterior end of the penis is spirally
twisted and have slit like urethral opening
in ventro-lateral position. The prepuce is long
and its orifice is surrounded by long hairs.
In dogs, the scrotum is situated between
the anus and inguinal region. The testes are
obliquely situated, vertically with little
backward ventral end. In larger breeds, the
free position of penis covering os penis is

about 10 cm long. Comparatively the glans

penis is very long with a pointed anterior end;
just behind the anterior end, the rounded
bulbus glandis is present which swells during
erection. The prepuce covers the entire free
portion of penis.
Examination for Disorders
Scrotum
Enlarged scrotum is seen in the inflammatory
conditions of testes and epididymis. The
enlarged scrotum, on palpation, is hot and
painful indicating an acute orchitis (Fig. 12.1).
The accumulation of water or serus fluid in
scrotal sac gives rise to the condition
hydrocele. The inflammation of scrotum is
known as scrotitis, in which the thickness of
wall of the scrotum increases significantly.
Hematocele is a condition in which the blood
is accumulated in tunica vaginalis layers and
causes enlargement of scrotum; it has been
observed in leptospirosis, infectious canine
hepatitis and trauma. The enlargement of
scrotum may also occur due to deposition of
fat. The inflammation of scrotum may occur
due to trauma, and/or infection leading to

Fig. 12.1: Orchitis in a camel

Examination of Genital System 95

orchitis and epididymitis. Inguinal hernia
may also contribute to enlargement of
scrotum, which is manifested by hot, painful,
unilateral swelling of scrotum. In percussion,
it may give the tympanic sounds indicating
the presence of gas along the intestinal loop.
Palpation may reveal the presence of intestinal
loop in the scrotum; however, it is sometimes
difficult to determine the presence of intestinal folds in scrotum due to occurrence of
inflammatory exudate and adhesions.
Testes
The skin of scrotum is freely movable over
testes, one can easily palpate the testicles and
epididymis. Usually, the palpation of testes
is resisted by the animal which can be avoided
by proper restraining of the animal. A
thorough palpation reveals the size, shape,
consistency, position and sensitivity of testes.
The absence of testes in the scrotum should
be noted, as it occurs in cryptorchidism. The
cryptorchidism may be unilateral or bilateral.
The testes are situated in sublumbar region
in fetal life, but in later stage of gestation,
these come down into scrotum normally.
Sometimes, it does not happen and the condition of cryptorchidism occurs. If cryptorchidism is bilateral, the animal becomes sterile
because of high temperature of body cavity
which arrests the spermatogenesis. The
cryptorchid stallion may develop increased
sexual urge which is termed as satyriasis. In
certain breeds of dogs it occurs as hereditary
predisposition.
The inflammation of testes is known as
orchitis (Fig. 12.2) which occurs due to trauma,
or as a result of systemic infection. In horses,
strangles may result in orchitis. Brucella abortus
causes orchitis, epididymitis or seminal
vesiculitis in bulls while Brucella ovis causes
infectious epididymitis in rams, which can be
palpated as enlarged and firm due to inflammation. The enlargement of spermatic cord

Fig. 12.2: Orchitis in ram. Note the enlargement of

testes (Courtsey Dr NK Mahajan, CCSHAU, Hisar)

with edema of epididymis and orchitis may

occur due to bovine herpes virus infection.
The size of both testes may also vary in same
animal which may be due to unilateral orchitis
or epididymitis, hypoplasia, atrophy of testes
and tumors. The tumors of testes are common
in dogs which occurs in old age; cryptorchidism is the main predisposing factor of
testicular neoplasms. Most of the neoplasms
of testes are benign including interstitial cell
tumor, seminoma and sertoli cell tumor. The
interstitial cell tumor is most common in dogs
and bulls but it is difficult to detect it clinically.
Seminoma is manifested by pain, crouching
posture, lameness and abnormal gait. The
sertoli cell tumor gives the femine characters
to animal such as alopecia, reduced libido,
sexual attractions for other male dogs,
enlargement of prepuce, atrophy of testicle
and increased deposition of melanin on scrotal
and abdominal skin.
Seminal Vesicles
There are two pear shaped elongated blind
sacs of about 10 cm length and 5 cm in
diameter present at the dorsal surface of the

96 Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

urinary bladder towards its neck. Each of the
seminal vesicle is located at medial to the
prostate gland. The inflammation of seminal
vesicle is known as vesiculitis. This can be
palpated through rectal examinations. In
horses, the vesiculitis is not observed
frequently. However, it may occur as a
sequelae to strangles. In bulls the vesiculitis
is caused by Corynebacterium pyogenes,
Streptoccoci, Brucella abortus; which may be
unilateral or bilateral and manifested by fever,
abdominal pain, and constipation. On rectal
examination, the affected animal feels pain,
as one touches the seminal vesicles. Chronic
vesiculitis is characterized by firmness due
to fibrosis. The affected animal is impotent
and unable to ejaculate. The semen of such
animal contains large number of neutrophils,
due to streptococcal infection.
Bulbourethral Glands
These glands are located at the both side of
pelvic urethra near ischial arch. These glands
are of 5-6 cm length and 2 cm in diameter.
In rams, well marked melanosis has been
observed in bulbourethral glands which are
also known as Cowpers gland. This does not
have much clinical importance. But at times
due to trauma it may show edema. The infections of brucellosis, vibriosis or trichomoniasis
may rest in these glands being their
complicated structure and poor drainage.
Prostate Glands
The prostate glands are situated at the
anterior part of the pelvic urethra, which is
about 4 cm long and 1-2 cm wide across the
neck of urinary bladder and origin of urethra.
In dogs, the prostate gland is comparatively
large and divided into 2 lobes. Normally, it
is very difficult to palpate the prostate
glands. However, in case of prostate hyperplasia in older dogs it can be palpated through

rectal examination. The inflammation of

prostate is prostatitis, caused by ascending
pyogenic infection and characterized by pain
and arched back condition. The pain reaction
is severe on rectal palpation. The neoplasms
of prostate rarely occurs in animals. The
neoplasms in prostate gland is manifested by
pain, strain during and after defecation. On
palpation, the prostate is firm and irregular
in shape due to presence of tumors which may
also cause dysuria and dribbling of urine.
Penis and Prepuce
Penis can be examined through palpation,
but the animal resists the examination of
genital organs. It is, therefore, advisable to
administer any sedative/tranquillizer before
examination and restrain the animal properly.
In horses, the penis is examined by inserting
hand into prepucial cavity and pulling the
penis by capturing it at glans penis. In bulls,
the use of teaser cow is recommended for
the examination of penis. The pudendal nerve
is blocked using anesthesia, to extend out the
whole penis for examination. Dogs are
examined at dorsal or lateral recumbency and
their penis can be exposed by pushing the prepuce. The veterinarian should examine the
prepucial cavity for adhesions, fibroplasia,
abscess, sebaceous concretions, hematomas
and neoplasms. Sebaceous concretions may
occur in horses and bullocks causing
obstruction in urination and interferes with
protrusion of penis. In pudic nerve paralysis,
the penis is permanently protruded; such
penis is swollen due to increased hydrostatic
pressure. Prolapse of mucous membrane of
prepuce may occur due to lesions like papule,
vesicles and ulcers. In phimosis, the penis
cannot be extended from prepuce due to
inflammatory swelling while in contrast to
this, in paraphimosis, the extended penis
cannot be withdrawn into prepuce. Pustules

Examination of Genital System 97

may occur on glans penis due to bovine herpes
virus. Fibropapillomatosis observed on glans
penis are caused by papilloma virus in bulls
and are responsible for paraphimosis or
phimosis. In rams, ulcers are present on
prepucial orifice due to inflammation of
prepuce also known as posthitis. Suppurative
balanitis, inflammation of penis, is common
in dogs in which purulent discharge oozes
out from prepucial orifice. Balanoposthitis is
responsible for ulceration on skin surrounding prepucial orifice and is manifested by
pain, purulent discharge and difficult and
painful urination. For confirmatory diagnosis,
prepucial secretions should be examined
which can be obtained by inserting a pipette
in prepucial cavity or by flushing the cavity
by sterile normal saline solution. The prepucial washings or secretions should be
examined for Trichomonas fetus and
Campylobacter fetus through microscopic and
cultural examinations.
Libido
Libido is the sexual impulse which may be
increased or decreased due to diseases of the
genital system or systemic disorders. The
libido is characterized by frequent erections,
mounting other animals of same species and
masturbations. In young animals in which
sexual maturity is developing, the libido is
increased but it should be differentiated
from frequent erections of penis due to
inflammatory conditions. The increased
sexual urge of the male animal is known as
satyriasis.
The decreased libido is manifested by
unwillingness to copulate, altered manner of
mounting and loss of vigour for sex drive.
It may also occur in painful conditions of legs,
vertebral column, abdominal cavity and
arthritis. The reduced libido generally reflects
the abnormality in gonads.

In bulls, it can be tested by allowing the

bull to mating the partner from behind; the
best partner is cow in estrus or if it is not
available a phantom or any cow or heifer can
be used. The mating partner should be in the
special stall or service stock. The libido is
tested by assessing the time taken by bull
from first contact with mating partner and
first attempt to mount. Normally, in healthy
bulls, it is upto 10 minutes, in other conditions
it should be classified as in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1: Assessment of libido
Sr.No.

Time in minutes

Assessment

1.
2.
3.
4.

Less than 30 sec

30 sec to 5 min
5 min to 10 min
10 min to 30 min

5.

More than 30 min

Excellent libido
Good libido
Adequate libido
Weak libido
(Partial lack of libido)
No libido
(complete lack of libido)

Collection of Semen
The entire ejaculate must be collected for
examination of semen. For this the bull is
allowed to mate on cow or phantom and the
semen is collected in artificial vagina. After
collection it should be immediately transferred to laboratory. For examination of semen
see page 208.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system includes
ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina
and vulva. The mammary gland is also
included in this system due to its physiological
relationship.
Ovary
Ovaries are about 3 cm long and 2 cm wide
and are situated anterior to external iliac
artery near the lateral margin of pelvic inlet
in cows. In mares, the ovaries are bean shaped
and 7-8 cm long and 2-3 cm wide. The location

98 Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

of ovaries is in the sublumbar region, ventral
to the fourth or fifth lumbar vertebrae. In
sows, the ovaries are situated in ovarian
bursae near the lateral margin of pelvic inlet.
The ovaries in bitch are in ovarian bursae
situated 1-2 cm posterior to the kidneys,
opposite to the 3rd and 4th lumbar vertebrae.
Disorders of Ovary
Aplasia or agenesis occurs as a congenital
defect in sheep and sows, in which the ovaries are absent. The hypoplasia of ovary is
failure to develop a mature ovary due to
hereditary predisposition. Such ovaries are
small and rudimentary in the form of a thin
band with rough and wrinkled surface.
Oophoritis is the inflammation of ovary,
which is very rare in animals. Sometimes
abscess may present in ovaries due to extension of infection from peritonitis. Cystic
ovaries is an important disease condition
which can also be characterized clinically; six
types of cysts are present in ovary.
1. Follicular cyst: Follicular cysts are known
to occur much frequently in cattle, pig and
dogs. These cysts arise from follicle that
fails to ovulate. These cysts are difficult
to distinguish from normal graffian
follicle; generally they do not have ovum.
The main cause of follicular cysts is
excessive and continued secretion of FSH
by pituitary gland and lack of LH also
leads to formation of follicular cysts. If the
follicular cysts are one or two, they do
not have much significance but they secrete estrogen for prolonged time which
leads to infertility, continuous estrus,
nymphomanic condition and cystic
hyperplasia and endometrium.
2. Lutein cyst: The lutein cysts are partial or
complete lutenized follicles. These are difficult to differentiate from corpus luteum.
Due to abnormal pituitary functions, they

3.
4.
5.
6.

secret progesterone for a prolonged period

which in turn may cause pyometra.
Endometrial cyst: Endometrial cysts are
observed in ectopic endometrium, which
is rare in animals.
Inclusion cyst: Inclusion cysts are common
in older animals. They develop from small
segment of ovarian surface epithelium.
Dermoid cyst: These are seen in ovaries.
They contain hair.
Parovarian cyst: These are the hydatid cysts
occur in mesoovarian or mesosalpinx
region.

Oviduct/Fallopian Tube
In animals the fallopian tube starts from the
vicinity of ovaries and end in uterus.
Generally, it is difficult to palpate through
rectal examination. It is a tubular structure
which carries ovum from ovaries and send
it to uterus for implantations.
Disorders of Oviduct/Fallopian Tube
1. Agenesis: Agenesis of fallopian tube is
characterized by its absence in body.
2. Hypoplasia: When the oviduct is under
developed, it is called as hypoplasia. It has
been seen in hermaphrodite or bovine free
martins.
3. Salpingitis: Salpingitis is the inflammation
of the oviduct characterized by swelling,
congestion, and adhesion with adjoining
organs/tissues. The inflammation of
oviduct leads to occlusion, lethal effect on
ova and destruction of cilia resulted into
infertility of animal. The salpingitis is
caused by Streptococcus, Staphylococcus,
Mycoplasma, irritant medicines, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Brucella sp. in
animals and Salmonella pullorum is
considered main cause of salpingitis in
poultry. The infection gets entry through
blood, peritonitis or endometritis.

Examination of Genital System 99

4. Pyosalpinx: Pyosalpinx is characterized by
the presence of pus in fallopian tube. The
affected oviduct is distended due to
accumulation of pus. It is caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Trichomonas
fetus. It leads to infertility.
5. Hydrosalpinx: The oviduct is distended due
to accumulation of water/serus secretions.
Any obstruction or damage to the oviduct
leads to infertility as it is not able to transport
ovum properly to the uterus for implantation.
Fertilization is also affected due to oviduct
disorders as the inflammatory exudate is toxic
or lethal to both sperms as well as ovum.

5.

6.

Uterus
Uterus is situated in the abdomen of adult
cow. It is a hollow muscular organ consisting
two horns of about 40 cm in length and are
in spiral coil. The body of uterus is measuring
about 3-5 cm long. In mares the horns of
uterus are about 25 cm in length. The body
of uterus is situated partly in pelvis and partly
in abdomen with a length of about 20 cm and
diameter of about 10 cm. In sows, the uterine
horns are 120-150 cm long and freely movable
due to long broad ligament. The body of
uterus is only 5 cm long. In bitch, the uterine
horns are 12-15 cm long, narrow and are
situated in the abdomen. The body of uterus
is about 2 cm in length.
Uterine Disorders
1. Aplasia or Agenesis: Agenesis is failure of
uterus to develop. It is a developmental
defect in which the uterus is absent in
animal.
2. Hemiuterus: In this conditions, only one
horn of uterus is present.
3. White heifer disease: In this condition, the
partial aplasia of uterus is seen.
4. Uterus didelphys: In this condition, there is
failure of mllerian duct to fuse at distal

7.

8.

9.

end resulting in two uterine bodies and

two cervix.
Rupture: Uterus may get rupture due to
violent movements or obstetrical manipulations of dystocia. The damaged mucosa
may heal but all layers of uterine wall are
damaged and then it leads to hemorrhages, inflammatory reaction and entry
of placenta into abdominal cavity.
Uterine torsion: Uterine torsion is common
in cows during its terminal stage of
pregnancy. It can be examined through
rectal palpation and can be corrected by
minor twisting of animal. The untreated
and undiagnosed torsion may lead to
peritonitis, sepsis and gangrene formation.
Hernia: Hernia is the displacement of
uterus through diaphragm into thoracic
cavity. It may occur in canines due to
accidents. Perineal and inguinal hernia are
also seen in bitches.
Prolapse: Due to strong uterine contractions
for expelling the fetus, placenta or exudate;
forced traction during dystocia; hypocalcemia and retained placenta, prolapse
of uterus occurs in animals which is
characterized by congestion, hemorrhages,
necrosis, gangrene and death of animal.
Inflammation of uterus: The inflammation
of uterus is known as metritis. The endometritis is termed for the inflammation of
endometrium (the inner layer of uterus)
while perimetritis is used for inflammation
of outer serus layer of uterus.

Endometritis: Endometritis occurs after parturition and is caused by Trichomonas fetus,

Campylobacter fetus, Brucella sp., and Actinomyces pyogenes. The other causes responsible
for endometritis are Leptospira sp., Listeria
monocytogenes, Salmonella sp., Aspergillus sp.,
Absidia sp., Chlamydia and bovine herpes virus.
Infection occurs during coitus or artificial
insemination, after parturition or manual

100

Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

handling of uterus during therapeutic management. In mares the endometritis is caused

by Corynebacterium equi, E. coli, Pseudomonas
pyocyanea, Salmonella abortus equi, Shigella
equilaris, Streptococcus equigenitalium and
Haemophilus equigenitalium. The affected
uterus becomes edematus and congested. In
cows, pus is accumulated in uterus giving rise
to pyometra which comes out, during
compression of uterus, through vulval
openings and soil the thigh muscles and tail.
On rectal examination, the uterine wall is thin,
flaccid and atonic in pyometra while in
pregnancy it is thick, having tonicity and fetal
movements. In cattle, endometritis is characterized by edematous uterine horn, edema
and redness of cervix and purulent discharge
from vagina and vulva. In chronic endometritis, the discharge may be non-purulent
in nature.
Metritis occurs in sows following dystocia,
and/or abortion and manifested by fever,
edema, hot swelling of mammary glands
alongwith watery or yellowish or serosanguinous discharge from vulva which has foul
odour. In sheep the infection sets during
mating or later stage of pregnancy due to
Brucella meletensis, Br. abortus, Br. ovis,
Campylobacter fetus, Salmonella sp., Listeria
monocytogenes, Chlamydia and Toxoplasma
gondii. In brucellosis the retention of placenta
occurs. In bitches, the metritis occurs following
abortion, retention of placenta or fetus and
characterized by mucopurulent discharge from
vulva. Pyometra occurs in bitches which is
manifested by enlargement of uterus, distention of abdomen leading to its pendulous form
and caused by E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus.
The pus flakes discharges from vulva on
compression of uterus. In camels, the pyometra
has been found to be associated with Actinomyces pyogenes and characterized by discharge
of pus flakes through vulva and vagina which
soil the tail and skin over thigh region.

Cervix
In cows the cervix is a tubular structure of
about 10 cm long with a diameter of about
2 cm. The lumen of cervix forms a spiral canal.
The cervix of mare is about 5-7 cm long and
2 cm in diameter. The posterior part of cervix
opens into vagina while anteriorly it is
connected with body of uterus. In sows the
cervix is about 10 cm long while in bitches
it is very short.
Cervical Disorders
1. Double external os: Double external os has
been observed due to presence of a dorsoventral adjustment to external cervical os.
It may lead to dystocia. However, it does
not interfere with conception.
2. Double cervix: It may occur due to the
persistence of the median wall of the
mllerian ducts, which lead to incomplete
or complete duplication of cervix. It does
not interfere in conception. However, it
is responsible for dystocia.
3. Hypoplasia of cervix: In this condition, a
small cervix is present with a less number
of cervical rings. Smaller cervix may lead
to uterine infection frequently.
4. Prolapse of cervix: The prolapse of cervix
occurs due to repeated parturition and is
manifested by presence of prolapsed
cervical rings in vagina, enlargement of
cervical rings, laceration, hemorrhages and
formation of excess fibrous tissue.
5. Cervicitis: Cervicitis is the inflammation of
cervix which may occur due to ascending
infection from vagina or descending
infection from uterus. It may result into
abortions or premature birth, retained
placenta and pneumovagina. Cervicitis is
predisposed by trauma during mating or
parturition and due to phooka practices.
The infection of uterus and vagina is responsible for cervicitis which is manifested

Examination of Genital System 101

as enlargement and in duration of cervix
and redness of os when examined by using
a vaginal speculum.
Vulva and Vagina
The vulva is about 10-12 cm long dorsally of
which, the rectum and anus are situated and
the pelvic floor forms its ventral aspect. The
labia of vulva are thick, muscular and both
the commissure forms antiangles in cows and
ewes. In mares, the vulvular cleft forms a
vertical slit which is about 15 cm in length
and lined by labia of the vulva. In the mares
and cows, the external urethral orifice is situated 10 cm from ventral commissure. In sows
and bitches, the vulva is projecting a pointed
ventral commissure.
Vagina of cow is about 25-40 cm long,
which may increase in size during pregnancy.
In mares, it is a tubular structure of 15-20 cm
in length and 10-12 cm in diameter. The
vagina of ewe is about 10 cm long and
posteriorly opens into vulva. In sows, the
vagina is of about 10-12 cm long while the
vagina of bitch is relatively long. In animals,
the vagina starts from the cervix or neck of
uterus and extends to the vulva.
Disorders of Vagina and Vulva
The vulva and vagina can be examined by
inspection and palpation. However, the examination of the deeper parts of vagina are
performed with the use of vaginal speculum
(Fig. 12.3). The tail is raised upward for examination of vulva and vagina. Double vagina
is seen in cows due to a developmental defect.
Persistent hymen is generally associated with
abnormal development of other genital organs
and sometimes it may be confused with free
martinism. The free martinism is characterized
by hypoplasia of vulva and vagina with
prominant clitoris and have a history of twins
consisting one male and one female calf.

Fig. 12.3: Diagram of a vaginal speculum

The prolapse of vagina may occur during

late pregnancy of animals. Due to estrum,
vaginal hyperplasia occurs in bitches, which
is sometimes confused with vaginal prolapse.
In this condition, the dome-shaped mass protruded out from floor of vagina between the
lips of vulva. The mucosa of vagina is examined for the presence of congestion, hemorrhages, papules, vesicles, trauma or other
inflammatory conditions. In mares due to
coital exanthemas, acute vaginitis and vulvitis
may occur which is manifested by many small
vesicles on the mucous membrane which
tends to form pustules and ulcers. Such
animals may raise the tail frequently and
urinates. The buttocks and thigh are soiled
with the inflammatory discharge. The
vaginitis and vulvitis may also occur due to
trauma during mating or parturition.
Pneumovagina is the condition in which gas
is filled in vagina. It has been observed in
older animals and occurs due to vices of crib
biting; in mares inspiratory efforts may direct
the air into vagina causing ballooning of
vagina. Alongwith air, urine and dung also
enters into vagina which is responsible for
vaginitis, cervicitis and endometritis.
In cows, the infectious pustular vulvovaginitis may occur due to bovine herpes virus
infection which is characterized by the
presence of smaller nodules of about 1-2 cm
in diameter and composed of lymphoid tissue
beneath the mucous membrane of vagina and

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vulva. The mucous membrane is congested

and discharges the mucopurulent exudate.
Vaginitis may also cause by Trichomonas fetus.
Ulcerative dermatosis may lead to vaginitis
in sheep which is transmitted through coitus
and is characterized by edema of vulva. In
sows, pyelonephritis may cause vaginitis due
to the descending infection through urinary
tract. In bitches, the vaginitis and vulvitis is
manifested by congestion with the presence
of small red elevated nodules and edema of
vulva. The affected bitch becomes restless and
feels difficulty in urination.
ABORTION
Abortion is the expulsion of fetus from uterus
of the dam prior to the full gestation period.
It occurs due to infection or intoxication in
fetus, placenta or uterus, which causes death
of fetus. The dead fetus is recognized as
foreign body and expelled out. The causes
of abortion include Brucella abortus in cattle,
Brucella melensis in sheep and goat and Brucella
suis in pigs. Other causes are Campylobacter
fetus, Trichomonas fetus, Listeria monocytogenes,
Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, Leptospira, Salmonella,
Equinerhino-pneumonitis, equine viral arteritis, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, aspergillus, mucor, rhizopus and absidia. Besides
the causative organisms of metritis may also
be found responsible for abortions in animals.
The confirmatory diagnosis is made by
cultural examination from stomach contents
of the fetus and serological investigations of
dam. Abortions result in retained placenta,
blood mixed uterine discharge, repeat breeding and infertility and thus are responsible
for heavy economic losses.
SEXUAL URGE
In female animals both condition, sexual
excitement and depression have been reported. The sexual excitement is known as

nymphomania, which reportedly occurs due

to presence of follicular cysts in the ovary and
increased amount of estrogen hormone. The
nymphomania is manifested by cry out, switching of tail, back up against persons, kicking,
frequent urination, restlessness, excitement,
bellowing, reduced milk production and
attacking strangers. The taste of milk is altered
and becomes bad.
In depression of sexual urge leading to
anestrus. It occurs due to presence of lutean
cysts in the ovaries. Besides, several other
causes including nutritional deficiency are also
found to be associated with the anestrus. In
this condition animal does not exhibit any sign
of sexual urge or heat.
MAMMARY GLAND
In cow, the mammary gland is known as udder
and is divided in four quarters. This is situated
in prepubic region in between the hind legs.
Each gland has a single lactiferous duct, which
opens with a narrow orifice surrounded by
sphincter. In mares two mammary glands are
present which have one teat in each. The teat
is of pyramidal shape in which two lactiferous
duct orifice are present. In sheep the mammary
glands are two in number which is globular
in shape. Sows are having 10 to 14 mammary
glands which are arranged in two rows
situated from pectoral region to prepubic
region. Each gland has one teat which contains
2 lactiferous duct. In bitch the mammary gland
has same location as in case of sows, but the
teats are short having 6-12 lactiferous duct
orifices at their tips.
Each teat must be examined separately for
withdrawal of milk or other discharges, its
consistency presence of nodules, inflammatory changes and lactiferous openings. The
supramammary lymph nodes should be palpated; if any infection is suspected in
mammary gland. Inflammation of mammary

Examination of Genital System 103

gland is known as mastitis which is characterized by swelling, edema, pain, hot and
congested udder. In chronic mastitis, the
atrophy of udder, fibrosis and reduced milk
yield has been observed. The skin of udder
should be examined for the presence of
eruptions, alterations and traumatic injury.
In older animals the dropped udder is seen
due to increased size of quarters and rupture
of suspensory ligament; such udder is called
as pendulous udder.
In mares the mastitis is not common.
During pregnancy, at the time of termination
of gestation, the udder is affected from
edema, firm and painful swelling, pitting
edema on ventral abdomen due to hypoproteinemia. The mammary gland edema is
predisposed by presence of more amount of
mammary secretions due to not allowing foals
to suck. The causes of edema and other
alterations in mammary glands of mares are
Streptococcus equi, Streptococcus equigenitalium,
Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli. Acute mastitis
in mares is manifested by fever, increased
pulse and respiration rates, anorexia, depression and stiffness of gait.
In cows the udder should be examined
carefully as high yielding animals are more
prone to suffer with mastitis. The palpation
can be performed by holding the tail to one
side, from posterior end of the animal to look
for hind quarter abnormality. Rest of the
udder can be examined from lateral side of
animal by holding its hind legs. The udder
should be examined for its size, symmetry,
level of teat, shape of udder and for the presence of edema/firmness/redness/ swelling/
nodules/scar/induration/fibrosis. Mastitis in
cattle occurs in acute, subacute and chronic
forms.
Acute/Subacute Mastitis
On palpation one can feel hot, painful swelling
on udder and ventral abdomen. It is mani-

fested by fever, increased pulse and respiration, loss of appetite, depression, apathy,
recumbency and blood mixed milk come out
from the teats. The milk clots along with blood
or pus followed by watery discharge and
occlusion of teat canal has been observed. In
summer mastitis the subnormal temperature
alongwith fetid odour secretions from teat
has been observed. The summer mastitis is
caused by Actinomyces pyogenes in cattle, when
it is in dry period. There are number of causes
which are associated with mastitis, some of
them are Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli.
Streptococcus agalactiae, Str. dysgalactiae, Str.
uberis, Aerobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Nocardia asteroides, Mycoplasma sp., Cryptococcus
neoformans, and Candida sp. Besides, many viruses including pox, FMD and bovine herpes
virus (IBR) are associated with mastitis.
Acute gangrenous mastitis is manifested
by swollen, cold and bluish discoloured teat
and its skin.
Chronic Mastitis
The chronic mastitis is characterized by
induration in the vicinity of lactiferous sinus.
There is continuous or intermittent discharge
of pus, clots, flakes or watery secretion from
teat. The chronic mastitis occurs as a sequelae
to acute mastitis. Besides, it is caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In this nodular
thickening has been observed around the
lactiferous sinus and induration of udder due
to tubercle formation.
In sheep the mastitis is characterized by
dark bluish discolouration of udder and most
commonly involvement of one side of udder.
It is caused by Staphylococcus aureus and
Staphylococcus albus. Other causes are Pasteurella sp., Streptococci, Corynebacterium sp. and
E. coli.
In sows, the mastitis is most commonly
caused by Actinomycosis which is manifested
by enlargement of gland, hard and painful
swelling, pus containing secretions from teat.

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Various tumors like adenoma and adenocarcinoma are present in the mammary gland
of animals, which is characterized by their
presence as hard, nodular thickening,
reduction of milk and hemorrhages.
PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS
The diagnosis of pregnancy in animals,
particularly in cattle, buffaloes and mares have
special significance as it is directly related to
the production of animal and its related
economy. Various methods including apparent signs of pregnancy are given here for
the benefit of the readers.
Cows
In cows, the estrus is ceased soon after animal
conceived. The size of the abdomen increases
significantly during late stage, however, it can
be observed at 4-5 months of gestation in
heifers. The relaxation of pelvic ligaments
causing mark of sinking on croup can be
observed during last months of pregnancy.
Fetal movements can be observed after
6 months of gestation at abdominal wall which
are more prominent in thin animals. The rectal palpation of the animal reveals soft, pliable,
relaxed uterus with tonicity in early pregnancy while it is complete flaccid and atonic
during anestrus period. The uterine horn
becomes enlarged which contains placental
fluid at 30-90 days of pregnancy. At 30-50 days
of gestation, amniotic vesicle is palpable
through rectum and at 40-90 days of
gestation, there is slipping of fetal membranes
and presence of allantois chorion. At
3-5 months of pregnancy, ballotment of fetus
can be observed in enlarged uterine horn
which also contains fetal membranes and placental fluids. At 70 days of pregnancy,
placentomes are palpable while at 90 days,
palpation of enlarged thin walled uterine
arteries can be done for confirmatory

diagnosis. While making assessment of pregnancy diagnosis, veterinarian should take care
that merely enlargement thin walled uterus
situated in abdominal cavity alongwith
presence of corpus luteum is not sufficient for
diagnosis of pregnancy as these changes may
also occur during inflammatory conditions of
uterus. Therefore, these signs are not considered definite indications of pregnancy.
Mares
In mares the history of animal should also
be taken into account while assessing the
pregnancy. The first sign is lack of estrus in
animal. The visible enlargement of abdomen
appears at 5-6th month, when ventral abdomen looks like pear shaped. In last month,
mammary gland enlarges with distention of
teat 3-4 days before the parturition. In last
month, one can observe the fetal movements
on abdominal wall. The vulva becomes
enlarged, flaccid, edematus prior to parturition. In mares the early diagnosis of pregnancy can be done through rectal examination. In non-pregnant mares the uterus is
pliable, soft, flat, flaccid, 4-7 cm wide and
2-5 cm thick on rectal examination. At 16-21
days of conception, the uterine wall increases
its thickness atleast 3-4 times with round and
tubular uterine horn. At 20-30 days, the
uterine horn becomes enlarged with ventral
bulging and at 40th day of pregnancy it also
shows dorsal bulging. At 60-70 days chorioallantoic vesicle is present while at 60-90 days,
ovoid, tubular sausage shaped outline of
uterus can be felt. The uterus remains on the
floor of pelvis upto 3-4 month of pregnancy,
which moves forward in abdominal cavity at
5-6 month. At 90-120 days, the uterus looks
like a small, heavy, submerged floating object
in abdominal cavity.
In mares the biological test is being done
for early diagnosis of pregnancy, which is

Examination of Genital System 105

quite safe and accurate like rectal examination.
At 40-42 days of gestation, gonadotropin
hormone appears in the blood which remains
upto 150 days with its peak values at 50-80
days pregnancy. At this time, 10-20 ml blood
is collected from the animal and serum is
separated. This serum is injected (2 ml, I/p)
in immature female rats aged 22nd day or
it can be given 5 ml subcutaneously. Alternatively, the serum can be given 0.5 ml
s/c daily for 2-4 days. The rats are then killed
72 hours after the intraperitoneal injection or
96-120 hours after subcutaneous injections
and the ovaries and uterus are examined. In
case of pregnant mares, hemorrhages are
observed at corpora hemorrhagica or ovaries,
edema of uterine horn which is 2-4 times than
normal and the vaginal swab smear shows
the presence of cornified epithelial cells. This
test can also be performed in mouse at 22 days
of age by administration of 0.5 ml serum
subcutaneously and after 48 hours, these are
examined with uterine congestion and
distention of uterus in positive cases. The
presence of gonadotropins in serum can also
be determined by using latex agglutination
test with accuracy over 90%. The biological
test in rats is having 95% accuracy when it
is performed between 50-80 days of
pregnancy.
Ewes
In ewes the first sign of pregnancy is cessation
of estrus. The size of abdomen and udder
increases in later stage of pregnancy. The fetal
movements observed on right side of
abdomen can be observed at 3.5 to 4 months
of pregnancy. Since, it is not possible in ewes
to examine them through rectal examination,
the confirmatory diagnosis of pregnancy is
made through radiological examination or
fetal electrocadiography.

Sows
In sows the pregnancy can be determined at
26-30 days of conception, by measuring urine
progestrone level which is as high as 25.6 mg/
100 ml of urine during 26-30 days and 75-90
days of pregnancy. At 31-90 days of gestation, the vaginal biopsy from anterior vagina
reveals the presence of thin layer of epithelium
having 2-4 layers with a 12-15 micron thickness in pregnant animals. In nonpregnant
sows, it has 4-5 rows of epithelium with
20-24 micron thickness during estrus. At 90
days, the middle uterine artery can be felt
through rectal examination in very large sows.
Bitch
In bitches the size of abdomen increases at
35 days, while teats are enlarged at 35-45 days
of pregnancy. At 50-55 days of gestation,
mammary glands are enlarged. The pregnant
uterus can be palpated through abdominal
wall because rectal examination is not
possible. At 18-21 days of conception, the
presence of chorioallantoic vesicle with
enlarged uterine horn can be felt. At 2432 days, ball type swelling can be observed
which is 2.5 to 4.0 cm in size. The uterine horn
becomes enlarged and increases in its size
with elongation and loss of tenesmus is felt;
the size of uterine horn becomes 5-8 cm. The
size of uterus increases at 45-55 days of
gestation which becomes readily recognizable
at 55-68 days of pregnancy. The confirmatory
pregnancy diagnosis can be performed by
radiography or ultrasonography in bitches.
QUESTIONS
Q 1. Indicate whether the following statements are True or False.
1. ________ In horses, the scortum is located
in the prepubic region and contains two
testicles.

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2. _______ In dogs, the scrotum is situated

between the anus and the inguinal
region.
3. _______ In cryptorchidism, the animal may
become sterile.
4. _______ Follicular cysts arise from the
mature graffian follicle containing ovum.
5. ______ Abortion is the expulsion of live
foetus prior to full gestation period.
Q 2. Fill in the spaces below with most
appropriate word/words.
1. The sexual excitement in female is called
________
.
2. Inflammation of prepuce is called _____.
3. Inflammation of spermatic cord is called
_______
.
4. Pregnancy can be determined by
measuring the ______ hormone in blood or
urine.
5. The inflammation of fallopian tube is
known as ________.
Q 3. Select the most appropriate answer
from the four choices given in each
question.
1. The bulbourethral glands are also known
as:
A. Seminal vesicles
B. Prostate gland
C. Cowpers gland
D. Retropharyngeal glands

2. Increased sexual desire in a cryptorchid

stallion is known as:
A. Libido
B. Sexual urge
C. Oestrus
D. Satyriasis
3. The main cause of follicular cysts is:
A. Increased secretion of FSH and LH
B. Increased secretion of FSH and decreased LH
C. Decreased secretion of FSH and LH
D. Decreased secretion of FSH and increased LH
4. Summer mastitis in cattle is caused
by:
A. Staphylococcus aureus
B. Staphylococcus galactiae
C. Actinomyces pyogenes
D. E. coli
5. Endometritis is the inflammation of:
A. Uterus
B. Endometrium
C. Myometrium
D. Perimetrium
Q
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

4. Define the following terms.

Cryptorchidism
Free martinism
Sexual urge
Still birth
Parovarian cyst