Protectiverelay

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inelectricalengineering,aprotectiverelayisarelaydevicedesignedtotripacircuitbreakerwhenafaultis
detected.[1]:4Thefirstprotectiverelayswereelectromagneticdevices,relyingoncoilsoperatingonmoving
partstoprovidedetectionofabnormaloperatingconditionssuchasovercurrent,overvoltage,reversepower
flow,overfrequency,andunderfrequency.[2]Microprocessorbaseddigitalprotectionrelaysnowemulatethe
originaldevices,aswellasprovidingtypesofprotectionandsupervisionimpracticalwithelectromechanical
relays.Electromechanicalrelaysprovideonlyrudimentaryindicationsofinvolvedphaseandzonetargets.[3]In
manycasesasinglemicroprocessorrelayprovidesfunctionsthatwouldtaketwoormoreelectromechanical
devices.Bycombiningseveralfunctionsinonecase,numericalrelaysalsosavecapitalcostandmaintenance
costoverelectromechanicalrelays.[4]However,duetotheirverylonglifespan,tensofthousandsofthese
"silentsentinels"[5]arestillprotectingtransmissionlinesandelectricalapparatusallovertheworld.Important
transmissionlinesandgeneratorshavecubiclesdedicatedtoprotection,withmanyindividual
electromechanicaldevices,oroneortwomicroprocessorrelays.
Thetheoryandapplicationoftheseprotectivedevicesisanimportant
partoftheeducationofanelectricalengineerwhospecializesinpower
systems.Theneedtoactquicklytoprotectcircuitsandequipmentas
wellasthegeneralpublicoftenrequiresprotectiverelaystorespondand
tripabreakerwithinafewthousandthsofasecond.Insomeinstances
theseclearancetimesareprescribedinlegislationoroperatingrules.[6]
Amaintenanceortestingprogramisusedtodeterminetheperformance
andavailabilityofprotectionsystems.[7]
Basedontheendapplicationandapplicablelegislature,various
standardssuchasANSIC37.90,IEC2554,IEC602553,andIAC
governtheresponsetimeoftherelaytothefaultconditionsthatmay
occur.[8]

Contents
1 Operationprinciples
2 Typesaccordingtoconstruction
2.1 Electromechanical
2.2 Inductiondiscovercurrentrelay
2.3 Static
2.4 Digital
2.5 Numerical
3 Relaysbyfunctions
3.1 Overcurrentrelay
3.2 InverseDefiniteMinimumTime
3.3 Distancerelay/Impedancerelay
3.4 Currentdifferentialprotectionscheme
3.5 Directionalrelay
3.6 Synchronismcheck
4 RelaysbyPowerSource
4.1 AuxiliaryPowered
4.2 SelfPowered
4.3 DualPowered
5 References

Electromechanicalprotectiverelaysat
ahydroelectricgeneratingplant.The
relaysareinroundglasscases.The
rectangulardevicesaretest
connectionblocks,usedfortesting
andisolationofinstrument
transformercircuits.

Operationprinciples
Electromechanicalprotectiverelaysoperatebyeithermagneticattraction,ormagneticinduction.[9]:14Unlike
switchingtypeelectromechanicalrelayswithfixedandusuallyilldefinedoperatingvoltagethresholdsand
operatingtimes,protectiverelayshavewellestablished,selectable,andadjustabletimeandcurrent(orother
operatingparameter)operatingcharacteristics.Protectionrelaysmayusearraysofinductiondisks,shaded
pole,[9]:25magnets,operatingandrestraintcoils,solenoidtypeoperators,telephonerelaycontacts,andphase
shiftingnetworks.
Protectiverelayscanalsobeclassifiedbythetypeofmeasurementtheymake.[10]:92Aprotectiverelaymay
respondtothemagnitudeofaquantitysuchasvoltageorcurrent.Inductionrelayscanrespondtotheproductof
twoquantitiesintwofieldcoils,whichcouldforexamplerepresentthepowerinacircuit.
"Itisnotpracticaltomakearelaythatdevelopsatorqueequaltothequotientoftwoa.c.quantities.This,
howeverisnotimportanttheonlysignificantconditionforarelayisitssettingandthesettingcanbemadeto
correspondtoaratioregardlessofthecomponentvaluesoverawiderange."[10]:92
Severaloperatingcoilscanbeusedtoprovide"bias"totherelay,allowingthesensitivityofresponseinone
circuittobecontrolledbyanother.Variouscombinationsof"operatetorque"and"restrainttorque"canbe
producedintherelay.
Byuseofapermanentmagnetinthemagneticcircuit,arelaycanbemadetorespondtocurrentinone
directiondifferentlyfrominanother.Suchpolarizedrelaysareusedondirectcurrentcircuitstodetect,for
example,reversecurrentintoagenerator.Theserelayscanbemadebistable,maintainingacontactclosedwith
nocoilcurrentandrequiringreversecurrenttoreset.ForACcircuits,theprincipleisextendedwithapolarizing
windingconnectedtoareferencevoltagesource.
Lightweightcontactsmakeforsensitiverelaysthatoperatequickly,butsmallcontactscan'tcarryorbreak
heavycurrents.Oftenthemeasuringrelaywilltriggerauxiliarytelephonetypearmaturerelays.
Inalargeinstallationofelectromechanicalrelays,itwouldbedifficulttodeterminewhichdeviceoriginatedthe
signalthattrippedthecircuit.Thisinformationisusefultooperatingpersonneltodeterminethelikelycauseof
thefaultandtopreventitsreoccurrence.Relaysmaybefittedwitha"target"or"flag"unit,whichisreleased
whentherelayoperates,todisplayadistinctivecoloredsignalwhentherelayhastripped.[11]

Typesaccordingtoconstruction
Electromechanical
Electromechanicalrelayscanbeclassifiedintoseveraldifferenttypesasfollows:
attractedarmature
movingcoil

induction
motoroperated

mechanical
thermal

"Armature"typerelayshaveapivotedleversupportedonahinge[12]orknifeedgepivot,whichcarriesa
movingcontact.Theserelaysmayworkoneitheralternatingordirectcurrent,butforalternatingcurrent,a
shadingcoilonthepole[9]:14isusedtomaintaincontactforcethroughoutthealternatingcurrentcycle.Because
theairgapbetweenthefixedcoilandthemovingarmaturebecomesmuchsmallerwhentherelayhasoperated,
thecurrentrequiredtomaintaintherelayclosedismuchsmallerthanthecurrenttofirstoperateit.The
"returningratio"[13]or"differential"isthemeasureofhowmuchthecurrentmustbereducedtoresettherelay.

Avariantapplicationoftheattractionprincipleistheplungertypeorsolenoidoperator.Areedrelayisanother
exampleoftheattractionprinciple.
"Movingcoil"metersusealoopofwireturnsinastationarymagnet,similartoagalvanometerbutwitha
contactleverinsteadofapointer.Thesecanbemadewithveryhighsensitivity.Anothertypeofmovingcoil
suspendsthecoilfromtwoconductiveligaments,allowingverylongtravelofthecoil.

Inductiondiscovercurrentrelay
"Induction"diskmetersworkbyinducingcurrentsinadiskthatisfreetorotatetherotarymotionofthedisk
operatesacontact.Inductionrelaysrequirealternatingcurrentiftwoormorecoilsareused,theymustbeatthe
samefrequencyotherwisenonetoperatingforceisproduced.[11]Theseelectromagneticrelaysusetheinduction
principlediscoveredbyGalileoFerrarisinthelate19thcentury.Themagneticsystemininductiondisc
overcurrentrelaysisdesignedtodetectovercurrentsinapowersystemandoperatewithapredeterminedtime
delaywhencertainovercurrentlimitshavebeenreached.Inordertooperate,themagneticsystemintherelays
producestorquethatactsonametaldisctomakecontact,accordingtothefollowingbasiccurrent/torque
equation:[14]

Where

and

arethetwofluxesand isthephaseanglebetweenthefluxes

Thefollowingimportantconclusionscanbedrawnfromtheaboveequation.[15]
Twoalternatingfluxeswithaphaseshiftareneededfortorqueproduction.
Maximumtorqueisproducedwhenthetwoalternatingfluxesare90degreesapart.
Theresultanttorqueissteadyandnotafunctionoftime.
Therelay'sprimarywindingissuppliedfromthepowersystemscurrenttransformerviaaplugbridge,[16]
whichiscalledtheplugsettingmultiplier(psm).Usuallysevenequallyspacedtappingsoroperatingbands
determinetherelayssensitivity.Theprimarywindingislocatedontheupperelectromagnet.Thesecondary
windinghasconnectionsontheupperelectromagnetthatareenergisedfromtheprimarywindingand
connectedtothelowerelectromagnet.Oncetheupperandlowerelectromagnetsareenergisedtheyproduce
eddycurrentsthatareinducedontothemetaldiscandflowthroughthefluxpaths.Thisrelationshipofeddy
currentsandfluxescreatestorqueproportionaltotheinputcurrentoftheprimarywinding,duetothetwoflux
pathsbeingoutofphaseby90.
Inanovercurrentcondition,avalueofcurrentwillbereachedthatovercomesthecontrolspringpressureonthe
spindleandthebrakingmagnet,causingthemetaldisctorotatetowardsthefixedcontact.Thisinitial
movementofthediscisalsoheldofftoacriticalpositivevalueofcurrentbysmallslotsthatareoftencutinto
thesideofthedisc.Thetimetakenforrotationtomakethecontactsisnotonlydependentoncurrentbutalso
thespindlebackstopposition,knownasthetimemultiplier(tm).Thetimemultiplierisdividedinto10linear
divisionsofthefullrotationtime.
Providingtherelayisfreefromdirt,themetaldiscandthespindlewithitscontactwillreachthefixedcontact,
thussendingasignaltotripandisolatethecircuit,withinitsdesignedtimeandcurrentspecifications.Dropoff
currentoftherelayismuchlowerthanitsoperatingvalue,andoncereachedtherelaywillberesetinareverse
motionbythepressureofthecontrolspringgovernedbythebrakingmagnet.

Static
Applicationofelectronicamplifierstoprotectiverelayswasdescribedasearlyas1928,usingvacuumtube
amplifiersandcontinuedupto1956.[17]Devicesusingelectrontubeswerestudiedbutneverappliedas
commercialproducts,becauseofthelimitationsofvacuumtubeamplifiers.Arelativelylargestandbycurrentis

requiredtomaintainthetubefilamenttemperatureinconvenienthighvoltagesarerequiredforthecircuits,and
vacuumtubeamplifiershaddifficultywithincorrectoperationduetonoisedisturbances.
Staticrelayswithnoorfewmovingpartsbecamepracticalwiththeintroductionofthetransistor.Measuring
elementsofstaticrelayshavebeensuccessfullyandeconomicallybuiltupfromdiodes,zenerdiodes,avalanche
diodes,unijunctiontransistors,pnpandnpnbijunctiontransistors,fieldeffecttransistorsortheir
combinations.[18]:6Staticrelaysoffertheadvantageofhighersensitivitythanpurelyelectromechanicalrelays,
becausepowertooperateoutputcontactsisderivedfromaseparatesupply,notfromthesignalcircuits.Static
relayseliminatedorreducedcontactbounce,andcouldprovidefastoperation,longlifeandlow
maintenance.[19]

Digital
Digitalprotectiverelayswereintheirinfancyduringthelate1960s.[20][21]Anexperimentaldigitalprotection
systemwastestedinthelabandinthefieldintheearly1970s.[22][23]Unliketherelaysmentionedabove,digital
protectiverelayshavetwomainparts:hardwareandsoftware[24]:5.Theworld'sfirstcommerciallyavailable
digitalprotectiverelaywasintroducedtothepowerindustryin1984.[3]Inspiteofthedevelopmentsof
complexalgorithmsforimplementingprotectionfunctionsthemicroprocessorbasedrelaysmarketedinthe
1980sdidnotincorporatethem.[25]Amicroprocessorbaseddigitalprotectionrelaycanreplacethefunctionsof
manydiscreteelectromechanicalinstruments.Theserelaysconvertvoltageandcurrentstodigitalformand
processtheresultingmeasurementsusingamicroprocessor.Thedigitalrelaycanemulatefunctionsofmany
discreteelectromechanicalrelaysinonedevice,[26]simplifyingprotectiondesignandmaintenance.Eachdigital
relaycanrunselftestroutinestoconfirmitsreadinessandalarmifafaultisdetected.Digitalrelayscanalso
providefunctionssuchascommunications(SCADA)interface,monitoringofcontactinputs,metering,
waveformanalysis,andotherusefulfeatures.Digitalrelayscan,forexample,storemultiplesetsofprotection
parameters,[27]whichallowsthebehavioroftherelaytobechangedduringmaintenanceofattachedequipment.
Digitalrelaysalsocanprovideprotectionstrategiesimpossibletoimplementwithelectromechanicalrelays.
Thisisparticularlysoinlongdistancehighvoltageormultiterminalcircuitsorinlinesthatareseriesorshunt
compensated[24]:3Theyalsoofferbenefitsinselftestingandcommunicationtosupervisorycontrolsystems.

Numerical
Thedistinctionbetweendigitalandnumericalprotectionrelayrestsonpointsoffinetechnicaldetail,andis
rarelyfoundinareasotherthanProtection[28]:Ch7,pp102.Numericalrelaysaretheproductoftheadvancesin
technologyfromdigitalrelays.Generally,thereareseveraldifferenttypesofnumericalprotectionrelays.Each
type,however,sharesasimilararchitecture,thusenablingdesignerstobuildanentiresystemsolutionthatis
basedonarelativelysmallnumberofflexiblecomponents.[8]Theyusehighspeedprocessorsexecuting
appropriatealgorithms[18]:51.[29][30]Mostnumericalrelaysarealsomultifunctional[31]andhavemultiplesetting
groupseachoftenwithtensorhundredsofsettings.[32]

Relaysbyfunctions
ThevariousprotectivefunctionsavailableonagivenrelayaredenotedbystandardANSIdevicenumbers.For
example,arelayincludingfunction51wouldbeatimedovercurrentprotectiverelay.

Overcurrentrelay

Anovercurrentrelayisatypeofprotectiverelaywhichoperateswhen
theloadcurrentexceedsapickupvalue.TheANSIdevicenumberis50
foraninstantaneousovercurrent(IOC)oraDefiniteTimeOvercurrent
(DTOC)Inatypicalapplicationtheovercurrentrelayisconnectedtoa
currenttransformerandcalibratedtooperateatoraboveaspecific
currentlevel.Whentherelayoperates,oneormorecontactswilloperate
andenergizetotrip(open)acircuitbreaker.TheDefiniteTime
OvercurrentRelay(DTOC)hasbeenusedextensivelyintheUnited
Kingdombutitsinherentissueofoperatingslowerforfaultscloserto
thesourceledtothedevelopmentoftheIDMTrelay[1]:pp3031.The
ANSIdevicenumberfor(TOC)or(IDMT)protectionis51.
IECstandard60255151specifiestheIDMTrelaycurves.

InverseDefiniteMinimumTime
Theinversedefiniteminimumtime(IDMT)protectiverelayswere
developedtoovercometheshortcomingsoftheDefiniteTime
OvercurrentRelays(DTOC)[1]:pp3031[33]:134.

Adigital(numeric)multifunction
protectiverelayfordistribution
networks.Asinglesuchdevicecan
replacemanysinglefunction
electromechanicalrelays,and
providesselftestingand
communicationfunctions.

Ifthesourceimpedanceremainsconstantandthefaultcurrentchanges
appreciablyaswemoveawayfromtherelaythenitisadvantageousto
useIDMTovercurrentprotection[34]:11toachievehighspeedprotection
overalargesectionoftheprotectedcircuit[28]:127.However,ifthe
sourceimpedanceissignificantlylargerthanthefeederimpedancethenthecharacteristicoftheIDMTrelay
cannotbeexploitedandDTOCmaybeutilised[35]:42.Secondlyifthesourceimpedancevariesandbecomes
weakerwithlessgenerationduringlightloadsthenthisleadstoslowerclearancetimehencenegatingthe
purposeoftheIDMTrelay[36]:143.
ThespecificationoftheinversedefiniteminimumtimecurvesisdefinedinIEC60255151asshownbelow.
ThefourcurvesinTable1arederivedfromthenowwithdrawnBritishStandardBS142.[37]Theotherfive,in
Table2,arederivedfromtheANSIstandardC37.112[38]
WhileitismorecommontouseIDMTrelaysforcurrentprotectionitispossibletoutiliseIDMTmodeof
operationforvoltageprotection[39]:3.Itispossibletoprogramcustomisedcurvesinsomeprotective
relays[40]:ppCh29andothermanufacturers[41]:18havespecialcurvesspecifictotheirrelays.Somenumerical
relayscanbeusedtoprovideinversetimeovervoltageprotection[42]:6ornegativesequenceovercurrent
protection[43]:915.
ThecurvesderivedfromBS142aredefinedbelow.
RelayCharacteristic
StandardInverse(SI)
VeryInverse
ExtremelyInverse(EI)
Longtimestandardearthfault

IECEquation

Table1
ThecurvesderivedfromtheANSIstandardaredefinedbelow.ThesearealsoreferredtoastheNorth
AmericanIDMTrelaycharacteristics[28]:126.

RelayCharacteristic

IEEEEquation

IEEEModeratelyInverse
IEEVeryInverse(VI)
ExtremelyInverse(EI)
USCO8inverse
USCO2ShortTimeinverse
Table2
Ir=istheratioofthefaultcurrenttotherelaysettingcurrentoraPlugSettingMultiplier[44]:pp73."Plug"isa
referencefromtheelectromechanicalrelayeraandwereavailableindiscrete[1]:pp37steps.

Theaboveequationsresultina"family"ofcurvesasaresultofusingdifferentTMSsettings.Itisevidentfrom
therelaycharacteristicequationsthatalargerTMSwillresultinaslowerclearancetimeforagivenPMS(Ir)
value.

Distancerelay/Impedancerelay
Distancerelaysdifferinprinciplefromotherformsofprotectioninthattheirperformanceisnotgovernedby
themagnitudeofthecurrentorvoltageintheprotectedcircuitbutratherontheratioofthesetwo
quantities.Distancerelaysareactuallydoubleactuatingquantityrelayswithonecoilenergizedbyvoltageand
othercoilbycurrent.Thecurrentelementproducesapositiveorpickuptorquewhilethevoltageelement
producesanegativeorresettorque.TherelayoperatesonlywhentheV/Iratiofallsbelowapredetermined
value(orsetvalue).Duringafaultonthetransmissionlinethefaultcurrentincreasesandthevoltageatthefault
pointdecreases.TheV/I[45]ratioismeasuredatthelocationofCTsandPTs.ThevoltageatthePTlocation
dependsonthedistancebetweenthePTandthefault.Ifthemeasuredvoltageislesser,thatmeansthefaultis
nearerandviceversa.HencetheprotectioncalledDistancerelay.Theloadflowingthroughthelineappearsan
impedancetotherelayandsufficientlylargeloads(asimpedanceisinverselyproportionaltotheload)canlead
toatripoftherelayevenintheabsenceofafault.[46]:467

Currentdifferentialprotectionscheme
"Thedifferentialprotectionis100%selectiveandthereforeonlyrespondstofaultswithinitsprotectedzone.
Theboundaryoftheprotectedzoneisuniquelydefinedbythelocationofthecurrenttransformers.Time
gradingwithotherprotectionsystemsisthereforenotrequired,allowingfortrippingwithoutadditionaldelay.

Differentialprotectionisthereforesuitedasfastmainprotectionforallimportantplantitems."[47]:15.
Differentialprotectioncanbeusedtoprovideprotectionforplantswithmultipleterminals[48][49]andcanbe
usedtoprotectlines,[50]generators,motors,transformers,andotherelectricalplant.
GFCI(groundfaultcircuitinterrupter)circuitbreakerscombineovercurrentprotectionanddifferential
protection(nonadjustable)instandard,commonlyavailablemodules.

Directionalrelay
Adirectionalusesanadditionalpolarizingsourceofvoltageorcurrenttodeterminethedirectionofafault.
Directionalelementsrespondtothephaseshiftbetweenapolarizingquantityandanoperatequantity.[51]The
faultcanbelocatedupstreamordownstreamoftherelay'slocation,allowingappropriateprotectivedevicesto
beoperatedinsideoroutsideofthezoneofprotection.

Synchronismcheck
Asynchronismcheckingrelayprovidesacontactclosurewhenthefrequencyandphaseoftwosourcesare
similartowithinsometolerancemargin.A"synchcheck"relayisoftenappliedwheretwopowersystemsare
interconnected,suchasataswitchyardconnectingtwopowergrids,oratageneratorcircuitbreakertoensure
thegeneratorissynchronizedtothesystembeforeconnectingit.

RelaysbyPowerSource
Therelayscanalsobedivideddependingonthetypeofpowersourcethattheyusetowork.

AuxiliaryPowered
TheprotectionrelayneedsanAuxiliaryPowerSupplytowork.This
powersourcecanbeeitherDirectCurrent(commonly,batteriesinside
theswitchgear)orAlternateCurrent(commonly48230Vac).Some
relaysincludean"extended"powerinputtoacceptbothACandDC
withthesameHardware

SelfPowered
Thisrelaysusetheoperationcurrentoftheinstallation.Thesame
currenttransformersthatareneededtomeasurethelinecurrentarealso
usedforpoweringonthedevice.Themainadvantageofthesetypeof
relaysisthatnoexternalpowersourceisneeded,soitreducescostsand
maintenance.

ADualpoweredprotectionrelay
poweredbythecurrentobtainedfrom
thelinebyaCT.Thestrikerisalso
shown

DualPowered
Someoftheselfpoweredrelayscanbealsoauxiliarypowered,soallbatteries,chargersandotherexternal
elementsaremaderedundantandusedasabackup.Whenthesubstationisupandrunning,theywillusethe
currentfromtheline.Ifthereisafaultandthesubstationgoesdown,therelaywilltriggerthestrikerbutwill
stayONusingbatteries,ifany.Whenthetechniciansarrivetothesubstation,theycancheckintherelaythe
faulteventandactovertherelay.Ithasalsotheadvantagethatwhencommissioning,therelaycanbe
configuredusinganexternalpowersourcebeforethesubstationisoperative.

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