Thermal-Hydraulic Design of Replacement Cooling Towers for

Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Station

by Philip outure

May 2010

CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF SYMBOLS............................................................................................................ v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT .................................................................................................... vii
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................viii
1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 1
1.1

Cooling Tower Operating Principles.................................................................... 2

1.2

Types of Cooling Towers ................................................................................... 4

1.3

Vermont Yankee Cooling Towers ...................................................................... 5

2. Methodology .............................................................................................................. 9
2.1

Review of Cooling Tower Theory...................................................................... 9

2.2

Design Parameter Selection ............................................................................. 15

2.3

Methodology for Replacement Counterflow Cooling Tower Design ............... 17

2.3.1

Tower Sizing ...................................................................................... 17

2.3.2

Makeup Water Requirements ............................................................... 19

2.3.3

Tower Demand Curves and Determination of Characteristic Curve ... 20

3. Results

.............................................................................................................. 22

3.1

Counterflow Tower Size .................................................................................. 22

3.2

Tower Demand Curves ....................................................................................... 23

4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 25
5. References................................................................................................................... 26
Appendix A - Mass-Energy Balances ................................................................................ 27
Appendix B - Design Parameter Calculations ................................................................... 31
Appendix C - Tower Demand Curve Excel Spreadsheets Design A ............................ 34
Appendix D - Tower Demand Curve Excel Spreadsheets Design B ............................ 40

ii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 - NPDES Permit Limits (May 16 - June 15)

15

Table 2 - Cooling Tower Design Parameters

17

Table 3 - Tower Height Sizing

18

Table 4 - Counterflow Tower Size

22

Table 5 - Makeup Water Requirements

22

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 - Aerial view of Vermont Yankee

Figure 2 - Counterflow Cooling Tower [6]

Figure 3 - Cross-flow Cooling Tower [6]

Figure 4 - Fill Material

Figure 5 - Water droplet interaction with air [6]

Figure 6 - Vermont Yankee Circulating Water Flow Diagram

Figure 7 - Cooling Tower Heat Balance [6]

12

Figure 8 - Example Tower Characteristic Curves [6]

13

Figure 9 - Nomograph of cooling tower characteristics [4]

14

Figure 10 - Counterflow Induced Draft Tower Sizing Chart [4]

18

Figure 11 - Fan Horsepower Sizing Chart [4]

19

Figure 12 - Tower Demand Curves: Design A

23

Figure 13 - Tower Demand Curves: Design B

24

LIST OF SYMBOLS
K = tower characteristic or enthalpy transfer coefficient (lbm/hr-ft2)
a = contact area/tower volume (ft2/ft3)
V = active cooling volume/plan area (ft3/ft2)
L = water flow rate (lbm/hr-ft2)
T1, Tthw = Cooling tower hot water (inlet) temperature (F)
T2, Ttcw = Cooling tower cold water (discharge) temperature (F)
hw, h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at bulk water temperature (Btu/lbm dry air)
ha, h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at wet bulb temperature (Btu/lbm dry air)
G= air flow rate, (lbm dry air/hr-ft2)
Cp = specific heat capacity of water (Btu/lbm-F)
x1, x2 = absolute humidity of the inlet and outlet air
b = blowdown rate (gal/min)
e = evaporation loss (gal/min)
r = ratio of solids in blowdown to solids in makeup, cycles of concentration
d = drift loss (gal/min)
M = makeup rate (gal/min)
Tcond = Condenser temperature rise (F)
Tcwp = Circulating water pump temperature rise due to pump work (F)
Tcwbp = Circulating water booster pump temperature rise due to pump work (F)
Tt = Cooling tower range (F)
& c = Condenser mass flow rate (lbm/hr)
m
& csw = Combined condenser and service water exit mass flow rate (lbm/hr)
m
& evapdrift = Cooling tower evaporation and drift losses (lbm/hr)
m

& fe = Circulating water mass flow rate exiting facility (lbm/hr)

m
& fi = Circulating water mass flow rate entering facility (lbm/hr)
m
& re = Downstream river mass flow rate (lbm/hr)
m
& ri = Upstream river mass flow rate (lbm/hr)
m
& recirc = Recirculation mass flow rate = R/100* m
& c (lbm/hr)
m

& sw = Service water mass flow rate (lbm/hr)

m
& ti , L1= Cooling tower inlet mass flow rate (lbm/hr)
m
& te , L2= Cooling tower outlet mass flow rate (lbm/hr)
m
& = Service water heat load (Btu/hr)
Q
sw

Tce = Condenser exit temperature (F)

Tci = Condenser inlet temperature (F)
Tcsw = Service water and condenser discharge mixed temperature (F)
Tfe = Circulating water temperature exiting facility (F)
Tri = Upstream river temperature (F)
Tre = Downstream stream river temperature (F)
& ri = River volumetric flow rate (ft 3/s)
V

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to thank my family, friends, employers and professors for their support
while I worked on my Masters program.

vii

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this Engineering Project is to complete the thermal-hydraulic design of
replacement cooling towers for the Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Station, located in
Vernon, VT. The need for new cooling towers is driven by State of Vermont
environmental discharge permit limitations and operation of the station at a higher power
rating. The cooling towers reduce the heat input to the river but are not always capable
of handling the increased heat load generated by the plant due to the power uprate
combined with the river temperature increase restrictions imposed by the discharge
permit.

The design parameters for the new towers were based on current design and operating
restrictions and developed using mass-energy balances over different portions of the
plant cooling water system, including the river. The sizing and makeup water
requirements were developed using available literature. The tower demand curves were
developed using a solution of the Merkel equation using the Chebyshev method.

The outcome of this project is that a thermal-hydraulic design was developed leading to
a new sizing requirements and demand curves of replacement counterflow cooling
towers that have sufficient heat removal capacity to operate in a closed cycle mode of
operation and therefore offset any need for permit-driven plant power reductions.

viii

1. Introduction
In 2006, Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Station (VY) received approval from the US
Nuclear Regulatory Commission for an Extended Power Uprate (EPU) to operate at
120% of its originally designed core power output (1,912 MWth vs. 1,593 MWth) [1].
One of the limitations brought on by operating at this higher power output is that the
cooling towers at VY cannot adequately handle the entire heat load now generated when
operating at 100% power. As a result, a portion of the heated water from the plant
bypasses the cooling towers and is discharged to the Connecticut River. Limitations
imposed by the State of Vermont National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) permit restrict the temperature rise of the river due to the VY thermal
discharge, as measured at various monitoring stations along the river in the vicinity of
the plant. The most restrictive temperature limitations occur during the period of May 16
through June 15 [2, 3]. During this time, operational restrictions imposed by the permit
can require VY to reduce power output in order to not exceed the thermal discharge
limitations. Figure 1 shows an aerial view of Vermont Yankee. The cooling towers are in
the lower left portion of the photograph.

Figure 1 - Aerial view of Vermont Yankee

1.1 Cooling Tower Operating Principles

Cooling towers are used in industrial applications to remove heat from cooling water. A
cooling tower system consists of a network of heat exchangers and pumps in open or
closed circuits. Additional water is introduced into the system to make up for inherent
losses in the process. The thermal performance of cooling towers plays an important role
in the operation of the system(s) being cooled.

There are two main types of cooling towers, natural draft and mechanical draft. Natural
(or atmospheric) draft cooling towers use large chimney-like structures to draw air
through the cooling water whereas mechanical draft cooling towers rely on fans to force
air through the water, allowing for close control of cold water temperature. There are
two types of mechanical draft cooling towers, counterflow and cross-flow, depending on
the relative flow direction between the air and water, as shown in Figures 2 and 3,
respectively. The analytical portion of this project will focus on counterflow towers.

Figure 2 - Counterflow Cooling Tower [6]

Figure 3 - Cross-flow Cooling Tower [6]

Mechanical draft cooling towers consist of large chambers filled with plastic slats called
fill material. The water to be cooled is pumped up to a distribution header at the top of
the tower and is distributed down evenly across the length of the tower. As the water
drops down and hits the fill material, it disperses into droplets in order to maximize the
heat transfer surface area and exchanges heat with the upward moving air. The cooled
water is then collected in a basin and pumped out to begin the heat exchange process
over again or simply discharged to a body of water. Figure 4 shows a picture of fill
material used in the Vermont Yankee cooling towers.

Figure 4 - Fill Material

Cooling towers operate on the principle of evaporative cooling in which the water that is
to be cooled is exposed to air. The heat transfer process consists of mass heat transfer, in
the form of evaporation, and sensible heat transfer due to the temperature difference
between the air and water. Approximately 80 percent of the heat transfer is due to
evaporation and 20 percent is due to sensible heat transfer [4]. This process is depicted
in Figure 5 [6].

Figure 5 - Water droplet interaction with air [6]

The theoretical possible heat removal per pound of air circulated in a cooling tower
depends on the temperature and moisture content of the air. An indication of the
moisture content of the air is the wet-bulb temperature. Ideally, the wet-bulb temperature
is the lowest temperature to which the water can be cooled. In practical applications, the
cold water temperature approaches but does not equal the air wet-bulb temperature
because it is impossible to contact all the water with fresh air as the water drops through
the fill to the basin. The magnitude of approach to the wet-bulb temperature is dependent
on tower design. Important factors are air-to-water contact time, amount of fill surface
and break up of water into drops [4]. The closer the approach, i.e. the smaller the
difference between wet-bulb temperature and cold water temperature, the more
expensive the cooling tower design will be.

1.2 Types of Cooling Towers

As mentioned in the previous section, there are three types of cooling towers:
counterflow, cross-flow and natural draft. Both the counterflow and cross-flow types fall
under the mechanical draft category.

The counterflow arrangement is the most thermodynamically efficient due to the coldest
water being in contact with the coldest air. This maximizes the enthalpy potential. The
4

advantages of the counterflow type are that greater cooling ranges and more difficult
approaches are able to be utilized.

Increasing the air flow to lower the L/G ratio and therefore reducing the tower
characteristic at very low approaches is the advantage of the cross-flow tower. The
increase in air flow is accomplished by lengthening the tower to increase the air flow
cross-sectional area. The disadvantage of doing this is an increase in fan power
requirements [4].

The natural draft tower relies on a difference density between cool inlet air and the hot
outlet air to drive air flow, rather than using fans. The advantages of this type are that no
electric power is necessary, except for pump head requirements, and no mechanical
equipment is necessary, which reduces maintenance costs. The disadvantages are that
they are dependent on atmospheric conditions, which can limit the cooling capacity; they
are inefficient at low wind velocities; they have relatively high water losses when wind
velocities are high and high pump head requirements to achieve maximum air-water
contact times [6].

1.3 Vermont Yankee Cooling Towers

The cooling tower system at Vermont Yankee (VY) currently consists of two cooling
towers, a deep water basin, three circulating water booster pumps and associated piping,
valves and instrumentation. Each tower consists of eleven partitioned cells containing an
individual fan unit. The fans are used to draw in air from outside of the towers [7].

A simplified schematic of the flow of circulating water through the intake structure,
circulating water pumps, main condenser, service water system, circulating water
booster pumps, cooling towers and discharge structure (forebay and afterbay) is depicted
in Figure 6. The service water system provides cooling to various pumps and auxiliary
heat exchangers throughout the plant. Water is drawn in from the Connecticut River into
the intake structure by the circulating water pumps. The discharge of the pumps is

directed to the main condenser where it removes heat from the reactor steam after it has
passed through the main turbine. The heated water leaving the condenser enters the
forebay in the intake structure where flow can then be directed to the cooling towers via
the circulating water booster pumps, depending on the mode of operation of the cooling
tower system. There are three circulating water booster pumps, each with a capacity of
122,000 gpm [7]. Water enters the cooling towers through two parallel discharge headers
at the top of the towers and flows down through the fill, exchanging heat with the air that
is drawn in by a 200-hp fan located at the top of each cell. The cooled water collects in
the deep basin and is gravity discharged to the afterbay in the discharge structure for
return to the river or recirculation back to the intake structure.

There are three modes of operation for the cooling towers. In the closed cycle mode
circulating water is supplied to the discharge structure where the bypass line is closed.
All flow is then directed to the cooling towers via the circulating water booster pumps to
the cooling towers. Return water from the cooling towers is directed from the afterbay to
through the recirculation line back into the intake structure and circulating water pumps.
This is the mode in which the heat transfer cycle is considered self-contained as no water
is discharged to the river. The increase in design heat load from the main condenser from
3.605 x 109 Btu/hr to 4.4 x 109 Btu/hr, due to the power uprate to 1912 MWth, has
resulted in the inability of the power plant to operate at 100% power in the closed cycle
mode during periods of high wet bulb temperature that occur primarily during the
summer months [7]. In the Recirculation or Hybrid mode of operation, circulating water
from the condenser is pumped from the discharge structure by the circulating water
booster pumps and through the cooling towers. Part of the flow is then directed back to
the river and the rest is diverted through the recirculation line back to the intake
structure. The closed cycle mode is actually a special case of the Hybrid mode. The third
operating mode is the Helper, or discharge mode, which is the same as the recirculation
mode except that all of the cooled water leaving the cooling towers is discharged straight
to the river. An additional mode, open cycle, occurs when all of the circulating water
discharged from the condenser bypasses the cooling towers altogether and is discharged

straight to the river. The four mass-energy balances (MEB 1-4) depicted in Figure 6 are
detailed in Appendix A.
The cooling towers have a 366,000 gpm and 2.6 x 109 Btu/hr design capacity. The
discharge from the towers was originally designed to be 87F with a 101.2F inlet and
75F ambient wet-bulb temperature [7]. The design heat removal capacity is now
insufficient to meet the operational needs of VY since EPU was approved. A new set of
towers would allow closed cycle operation during the summer months when thermal
discharges to the Connecticut River are permit restricted and thus eliminate the need for
unnecessary power reductions due to these restrictions.

Construction of new cooling towers is an expensive proposition. Recently, the Oyster

Creek nuclear power plant in New Jersey has been threatening to close down if the NJ
Department of Environmental Protection requires it to build cooling towers at that site.
The new towers are estimated to cost between $700 million and $800 million [8].

Evaporative
Losses
mevapdrift

Cooling Tower

Tt
Ttcw, mte

Basin

Qsw
Tri, msw

Tthw, mti

Service
Water

Tcond

Tce, mc

MEB-2

Tci, mc

Condenser

Tcsw, mcsw

Circulating
Water Pumps

MEB-3

Tcwbp

Tcwp

Tri, mfi

Circulating
Water
Booster
Pumps

Forebay

Intake

Afterbay
bypass

Trecirc, mrecirc

Tfe, mfe

recirculation

T ,m ,V
ri

re

Blowdown (not modeled)

River
ri

MEB-1

Figure 6 - Vermont Yankee Circulating Water Flow Diagram

Tre, mre

2. Methodology
2.1 Review of Cooling Tower Theory
Cooling tower heat transfer analysis combines the sensible and mass heat transfer
mechanisms into an overall process that uses enthalpy potential as the driving force for
heat transfer. The combined sensible and mass heat transfer processes that are depicted
in Figure 6 are represented by the tower characteristic equation [6]
T

1
KaV
dT
C

p
h h a
L
T2 w

where

K = tower characteristic or enthalpy transfer coefficient (lbm/hr-ft2)

a = contact area/tower volume (ft2/ft3)
V = active cooling volume/plan area (ft3/ft2)
L = water flow rate (lbm/hr-ft2)
Cp = specific heat capacity of water (Btu/lbm-F)
T1 and T2 = entering and leaving water temperatures (F)
hw = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at bulk water temperature
(Btu/lbm dry air)
ha = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at wet bulb temperature
(Btu/lbm dry air)

The heat balance across the cooling tower itself, where the laws of thermodynamics
require that the heat discharged by the water falling through the cooling tower equal the
heat absorbed by the air rising up through the tower, is governed by
h 2 h 1
L

G C p T1 T2
Where

L = water flow rate (lbm/hr-ft2)

T1=hot-water temperature (F)
T2=cold-water temperature (F)
G= air flow rate, (lbm dry air/hr-ft2)
Cp = specific heat capacity of water (Btu/lbm-F)

h2=enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature

(Btu/lbm)
h1=enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature,
(Btu/lbm)
The term L/G is the liquid to gas ratio. The tower characteristic, KaV/L, can be solved
numerically using the Chebyshev method [5].
T1
1
1
T1 T2
KaV
dT h
1
1

p
h

4
L C p T2w h a
h 2 h 3 h 4
1

Where

h1=value of hw-ha at T2+0.1(T1-T2)

h2=value of hw-ha at T2+0.4(T1-T2)
h3=value of hw-ha at T1-0.4(T1-T2)
h4=value of hw-ha at T1-0.1(T1-T2)

These can also be written as

h1=value of hw-ha at T2+0.1Range
h2=value of hw-ha at T2+0.4Range
h3=value of hw-ha at T2+0.6Range
h4=value of hw-ha at T2+0.9Range
The enthalpy of the air exiting the cooling tower is determined by heat balance
Water HeatIn +Air HeatIn = Water HeatOut + Air HeatOut
This is equivalent to
CpL1T1 + Gh1 = CpL2T2 + Gh2
Where

Cp = specific heat capacity of water

L1 = flow rate of inlet water
L2 = flow rate of outlet water

The difference between the flow rates of the inlet and outlet water is due to evaporation
losses. Evaporation loss is expressed by
G(x2-x1) = L2-L1 => L2=L1-G(x2-x1)
where

x1, x2 = absolute humidity of the inlet and outlet air

From this we have

CpL1T1 + Gh1 = Cp[L1-G(x2-x1)]T2+Gh2
this can be written as

10

CpL1(T1-T2)=G(h2-h1)- CpT2G(x2-x1)
The evaporation rate is small compared to the water flow rates and can be considered to
be equal to zero [5]. Therefore G(x2-x1) 0 and
CpL1(T1-T2)=G(h2-h1)
The value of Cp=1 is valid for temperature ranges between 70F-140F. Solving for the
enthalpy of the exit air
h2=h1+L/G(T2-T1)
(T2-T1) is equal to the range
h2=h1+L/G x Range
Individual values of KaV/L are calculated using the method in Reference 5 as outlined
below:
1. The value of 1/( hw-ha) is determined at four points
1/( hw-ha) @ T2 + 0.1Range
1/( hw-ha) @ T2 + 0.4Range
1/( hw-ha) @ T2 + 0.6Range
1/( hw-ha) @ T2 + 0.9Range

2. The tower characteristic, KaV/L is then found by

KaV
R
1
C p
L
4
h w h a

Plotting several values of KaV/L as a function of L/G produces the tower demand
curves. The tower characteristic curve is then found for the design L/G by field testing
under variable flow and atmospheric conditions.

Figure 7 shows the water and air relationships and driving potential which exist in a
counterflow tower [6]. Line AB is the water operating line and is determined by the inlet
and outlet cooling water temperatures. The air operating line CD begins at C at appoint
with an enthalpy corresponding to the entering wet-bulb temperature. The line BC is the
initial enthalpy driving force. The liquid to gas ratio, L/G, is the slope of the air
operating line. The air exiting the tower is at point D and the cooling range is the

11

projected length of CD on the temperature scale or simply the difference between the hot
water temperature entering the tower and the cold water temperature leaving the tower.
The cooling tower approach is the difference between the cold water temperature leaving
the tower and the ambient wet-bulb. The tower characteristic, KaV/L, is the value of the
integral represented by the area ABCD and varies with the L/G ratio [4]. This value
varies with the rates of water and air flow. An increase in the entering air wet-bulb
temperature moves the origin C up and line CD shifts to the right to establish
equilibrium.

Figure 7 - Cooling Tower Heat Balance [6]

Once the wet-bulb temperature, the range, the approach and the L/G ratio are known, the
tower characteristic, KaV/L is found by referring to charts found in the Cooling Tower
12

Institute Blue Book (Figure 8) or the nomograph in Figure 9 rather than by direct
calculation [4,6]. To summarize, the three important points in cooling tower design to
consider regarding KaV/L are:
1. A change in wet-bulb temperature (due to atmospheric conditions) will not
change the tower characteristic.
2. A change in the cooling range will not change the tower characteristic.
3. Only a change in the L/G ratio will change KaV/L.

These numbers represent the approach (cold

water temperature wet bulb temperature)

Figure 8 - Example Tower Characteristic Curves [6]

Cooling towers are designed according to the highest geographic wet bulb temperatures
for the region of operation. This temperature dictates the minimum performance

13

available by the tower. As the wet bulb temperature decreases, so will the available
cooling water temperature. For example, in the cooling tower represented by Figure 8, if
the wet bulb temperature dropped to 75F, the cooling water would still be exiting 10F
above this temperature (85F) due to the tower design.

Figure 9 - Nomograph of cooling tower characteristics [4]

Mechanical draft cooling towers are normally designed for L/G ratios ranging from 0.75
to 1.50 and values of KaV/L vary from 0.50 to 2.50 [4].

Cooling towers are designed to meet a heat load specification as defined by plant
engineers. Once the cooling water flow rate is selected, the heat load specification can be

14

set. The cooling tower is specified to cool a quantity of water [gal/min] through a
definite temperature gradient (range) to a final temperature which is a certain number of
degrees above the design wet-bulb temperature (approach) [6].

2.2 Design Parameter Selection

Two different cooling tower designs are considered for this project. The first design
(Design A) utilizes the same wet-bulb temperature (75F) and condenser inlet
temperature (75) as the current design. Whereas the current towers are designed for a
12F approach, Design A has a 5F approach, which is the lowest practical value when
taking economic considerations into view as a design approach less than 5F
significantly increases the required size, and therefore cost of the towers. The heat load
removed by Design A is equal to the increased heat load from the condenser due to
power uprate and the heat load due to the service water system (Qsw in Figure 6). The
purpose of Design A is to produce cooling towers that are capable of removing the
required heat loads from the plant while operating in the Helper or Recirculation Modes
(all or a portion of the cooled water is discharged back to the river) without exceeding
the NPDES permit limitations for a river temperature increase during periods of
operation that could require the plant to reduce power under the current design.
Operating experience at the plant has shown that periods of high wet-bulb temperature
(80F) and low river flow (1200ft3/s) can cause the plant to reduce power to avoid
exceeding the NPDES permit limitations [9]. The NPDES permit river temperature
limitations for the most restrictive period of May 16 June 15 are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 - NPDES Permit Limits (May 16 - June 15)

Upstream River
Temperature
Above 63F
>59F, 63F
55F, 59F
Below 55F

Increase in Temperature
Above Upstream
2F
3F
4F
5F

To summarize, the inputs for Design A are the wet-bulb temperature, approach, tower
outlet temperature, water flow rate and heat removal capability. The calculated values
for Design A are the tower inlet temperature and cooling range.
15

The second design (Design B) to be considered is one in which the cooling towers are
capable of removing the entire heat load produced by the plant (condenser and service
water) while operating in the closed cycle mode. Operating experience has shown that
this is not achievable with the current design while operating at full power during
periods of high wet-bulb temperature (80F). Therefore, this high wet-bulb temperature
is one of the design parameters. The other design parameter based on operating
experience is that if the condenser inlet temperature exceeds approximately 90F,
condenser backpressure cannot be maintained at levels high enough to support high
power operation. Therefore, as Figure 6 shows, a maximum condenser inlet temperature
of 90F is achieved by setting the tower outlet temperature to the same value, with an
accounting for the heat added by the circulating water pump. Operating in the closed
cycle mode at 100% power eliminates concerns related to meeting the NPDES permit
limitations. The heat load for Design B is the same as that for Design A.

To summarize, the inputs for Design B are the wet-bulb temperature, tower outlet
temperature, water flow rate and heat removal capability. The calculated values for
Design B are the tower inlet temperature, approach and cooling range.

For both designs, the cooling water flow rate through the towers remains unchanged
from the current design. Table 2 summarizes the parameters for the current design,
Design A and Design B. The mass-energy balances depicted in Figure 6 are solved in
Appendix A. The calculations using these mass-energy balances to determine the
unspecified parameters are in Appendix B. Appendix B also contains the calculations
used to determine if the NPDES permit limitations are exceeded with Design A in the
Helper mode and, if so, what amount of recirculation is required with this design to meet
the permit limitations.

16

Table 2 - Cooling Tower Design Parameters

Parameter

Current Design

Design A

Design B

Ambient Wet-bulb temp

75F

75F

80F

Tower water flow rate

366,000 gpm

366,000 gpm

366,000 gpm

Cooling range

14.2F

18.7F

23.6F

Tower inlet temp

101.2F

98.7F

113.6F

Tower outlet temp

87F

80F

90F

Approach

12F

5F

10F

Heat removal capacity

2.6 x 109 Btu/hr 4.4 x 109 Btu/hr 4.4 x 109 Btu/hr

2.3 Methodology for Replacement Counterflow Cooling Tower Design

There are three fundamental components to the design of cooling towers:
1. Tower sizing
2. Makeup water requirements
3. Tower demand curves and determination of characteristic curve
2.3.1

Tower Sizing

For counterflow cooling towers, required size is determined using the following criteria:
1. Cooling range (hot water temperature minus cold water temperature)
2. Approach to wet-bulb temperature (cold water temperature minus wet-bulb
temperature)
3. Quantity of water to be cooled
4. Wet-bulb temperature
5. Tower height
6. Fan horsepower

Items 1-4 were determined in the previous section and are used to find the active tower
area. The nomograph shown in Figure 10 utilizes the cold water temperature, wet bulb
temperature, and hot water temperature to find the required water concentration in
gal/min-ft2. The tower area is then calculated by dividing the water circulated (tower
17

flow rate) by the water concentration. Reference 4 specifies the rules usually used to
determine tower height and are summarized in Table 3:
Table 3 - Tower Height Sizing

Approach to Wet-bulb (F)

Cooling Range (F)

Tower Height (ft)

15-20

25-35

15-20

10-15

25-35

25-30

5-10

25-35

35-40

Figure 10 - Counterflow Induced Draft Tower Sizing Chart [4]

Once the required tower area is found, the necessary fan horsepower for the tower is
found using the nomograph in Figure 11.

18

Figure 11 - Fan Horsepower Sizing Chart [4]

2.3.2

Makeup Water Requirements

To find the makeup water requirements due to operational losses (evaporation, drift and
blowdown) the following criteria are used [6]:

The evaporation loss is estimated as 0.1% of the circulating water flow rate for
each F of cooling range.

Drift loss is due to entrained liquid water droplets discharged in the exiting air
and is estimated as 0.008% of the water circulation rate.

Cooling tower blowdown is a portion of the circulating water that is discharged

from the system to prevent excessive buildup of solids. The maximum
concentration of solids that can be tolerated is determined by the effects on the
various components of the cooling system and is a plant specific determination.
The required blowdown rate is calculated by
b

Where

e
r 1

b = blowdown rate (gal/min)

e = evaporation loss (gal/min)
r = ratio of solids in blowdown to solids in makeup, cycles of
concentration

19

d = drift loss (gal/min)

The ratio of solids in blowdown to solids in makeup is assumed to have a value of 25.
The makeup water rate is then determined as
M b e d
Where

M = makeup rate (gal/min)

b = blowdown rate (gal/min)
e = evaporation loss (gal/min)
d = drift loss (gal/min)

2.3.3 Tower Demand Curves and Determination of Characteristic Curve

The tower demand curves are developed using the method described in Section 2.1. For
each design, A and B, the design approach, wet-bulb temperature (WBT), cold water
temperature (CWT) and range (R) are used as the starting point. The enthalpy of water
(hw) is obtained using Reference 10 at each of the four following temperatures:
hw0.1= CWT+0.1R
hw0.4= CWT+0.4R
hw0.6= CWT+0.6R
hw0.9= CWT+0.9R
The enthalpy of air (ha) at the wet bulb temperature (hwb) is obtained using Reference 4
and the following
ha0.1=hwb+0.1*L/G*R
ha0.4=hwb+0.4*L/G*R
ha0.6=hwb+0.6*L/G*R
ha0.9=hwb+0.9*L/G*R
At each increment (0.1, 0.4, 0.6, 0.9) the quantity 1/(hw-ha) is found. These four values
of 1/(hw-ha) are then used to find KaV/L at a discrete value of L/G by
KaV
R
1
C p
L
4
h w h a
Results are then plotted for KaV/L as a function of L/G.

20

With Design B, for approaches less than the design 10F, the cooling range and cold
water temperature are kept constant while the wet-bulb temperature is increased. For
both designs, for approaches greater than design values, the cold water temperature and
range are held constant while the wet-bulb temperature is reduced.

The tower characteristic curve (the straight line in Figure 8) can be determined by field
testing after construction of the towers which results in two characteristic points at
different L/G ratios. Each characteristic point is determined experimentally by
measuring the wet-bulb temperature, air discharge temperature and cooling water inlet
and outlet temperatures. The line through the two characteristic points is the
characteristic curve and defines the design KaV/L and L/G ratio for the tower at a
specified approach. Alternatively, the tower characteristic curve is provided by the
vendor who performs the tower construction [5].

21

3. Results
As shown in Appendix B, Design A was found to exceed the NPDES permit
requirements if operated in the Helper mode. A recirculation rate of 45% is required to
meet the permit limitations for the design wet-bulb temperature of 75F. If this
temperature is increased to 80F, then the required recirculation rate is 74%.

3.1 Counterflow Tower Size

Table 4 shows the counterflow tower size requirements, developed using the methods
described in Section 2.3, based on the new design criteria selected in Section 2.2.
Table 4 - Counterflow Tower Size

Hot
Cold Wetwater water bulb
Temp Temp Temp
(F) (F)
(F)
98.7
80
75

Water
Flow
Rate
(gal/min)
366,000

113.6

366,000

Design

90

80

Water
Concentration
(gal/min-ft2)

Fan
Horsepower

Tower
Area
(ft2)

Tower
Height
(ft)1

2.0

7503

183,000

35-40

2.8

5359

130,714

25-30

Note 1 Tower height approximated from Table 2

Table 5 shows the makeup water requirements, developed from Section 2.3, for the new
tower designs. The flow rate of river water (10,000gal/min) through the service water
system heat exchangers is sufficient to meet the makeup water requirements for either
design as they are both less than the service water flow rate. The evaporation loss as a
percentage of total circulating water flow was found to be 1.8% for Design A and 2.4%
for Design B and supports the approximation G(x2-x1) 0 used in Section 2.1.
Table 5 - Makeup Water Requirements

Design

Cooling
Range (F)

Evaporation
Loss (gal/min)

Drift Loss
(gal/min)

Blowdown
Rate (gal/min)

18.7

6844.2

29

256.2

Makeup
Water Rate
(gal/min)
7129.4

23.6

8637.6

29

330.9

8997.5

22

3.2 Tower Demand Curves

The tower demand curves were developed using the methodology described in Section
2.3. Figure 12 shows the demand curves for Design A and Figure 13 shows the demand
curves for Design B. Appendix C contains a sample spreadsheet used in the
determination of the curves for Design A and Appendix D contains a sample spreadsheet
used to generate the Design B curves. As discussed in section 2.3.3, the tower
characteristic curve would be created based on test data obtained after the new towers
are constructed.

Approach

Range = 18.7F
gpm = 366,000
WBT = 75F
CWT = 80F
HWT = 98.7F
Fan hp = 7503

Figure 12 - Tower Demand Curves: Design A

23

Approach

Range = 23.6F
gpm = 366,000
WBT = 80F
CWT = 90F
HWT = 113.6F
Fan hp = 5359

Figure 13 - Tower Demand Curves: Design B

24

4. Conclusion
Two new proposed designs for replacement cooling towers at VYNPS were investigated.
They consisted of Design A, which utilizes the current design wet-bulb temperature and
lowest practical approach value to reduce the tower outlet temperature to minimize the
increase in river water temperature due to the return of plant cooling water to the river
and Design B, which utilizes the maximum observed wet-bulb temperature and closedcycle operation to eliminate the need to return cooling water to the river.

Design B is the choice for the new cooling towers based on the following:

Smaller tower footprint (29% less area than Design A)

Lower tower height

Lower fan horsepower requirements (29% less than Design A)

Unrestricted plant operations. The thermal discharge permit does not apply
to the use of closed cycle operations.

All of these bases result in lower construction and/or operating costs. The option for
unrestricted plant operations is especially valuable given that the thermal discharge
permit could be challenged in court by opposition groups, revised to strengthen
discharge restrictions or completely revoked.

25

5. References
1. Letter, USNRC to Entergy Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Station Issuance
of Amendment RE: Extended Power Uprate (TAC No. MC0761), NVY 06028, dated March 2, 2006
2. Letter, State of Vermont Agency of Natural Resources to Entergy Nuclear
Vermont Yankee, LLC Final Amended Discharge Permit #3-1199, dated
March 30, 2006
3. Letter, State of Vermont Agency of Natural Resources to Entergy Nuclear
Vermont Yankee, LLC Renewal of Permit 3-1199, dated September 20, 2005
4. Perry, Robert H., Perrys Chemical Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1994
5. Cooling Tower Thermal Design Manual, Daiel Aqua Co., Ltd.
6. Rosaler, Robert A., Standard Handbook of Plant Engineering, McGraw-Hill,
1995
7. Vermont Yankee Updated Final Safety Analysis Report, Revision 23
8. http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2010/02/oyster_creek_plant_hearings_fo.html
9. Vermont Yankee Calculation, Cooling Water Plant Settings for OP-2180, VYC2403, Rev 0.
10. Cengel, Yunus A. and Turner, Robert F., Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid
Sciences, McGraw-Hill, 2001

26

Appendix A - Mass-Energy Balances

River MEB-1

Tri,msw

Tri,mfi

Tre,mre

Tri,mri

Tfe,mfe

dE

m& o h o m& i h i dt

&
Q& W

dE & W
& 0
Q
dt

& sw h ri m
& fi h ri m
& ri h ri m
& fe h fe 0
m

Open cycle
& fe m
& fi m
& sw
m
& re m
& ri m
&r
m
Tfe Tcsw
& fi m
&c
m
& fe m
& c m
& sw
m
so

& sw h ri m
& c h ri m
& r h re m
& r h ri m
& c m
& sw h fe 0
m
& r h re h ri m
& c h fi h fe m
& sw h swi h fe 0
m
substitute h=CpT, Cp=1 Btu/lb-F
& r Tre Tri m
& c Tri Tcsw m
& sw Tri Tcsw 0
m

& c Tcsw TTri m

& sw Tcsw Tri
Tre m
T
ri
m& r

27

(1)

Helper mode
& fi m
&c
m
& fe m
& te m
& fi m
& sw m
& evapdrift
m
& re m
& ri m
& evapdrift
m
Tfe Ttcw
from Eq 1
& c h ri m&
& sw h ri m
m

evapd
rift

m&
re

ri
ri

h m m&
&

evapdrift

fe

sw

&

&

ri

collect terms and substitute h=CpT, Cp=1 Btu/lb-F

Tre

m&

& sw m&
m

evapdrift

tcw

m& c m&

m& ri m&

sw

Tri

m& ri
evapdri
ft

Hybrid cycle
& fe m
& fi m
& sw m
& evapdrift
m
& re m
& ri m
& evapdrift
m
Tfe Ttcw

from Eq 1
& sw h ri m& fi h ri m&
m

evapd
rift

m&
re

ri
ri

h m m&
&

evapdrift

sw

&

&

ri

fi

collect terms and substitute h=CpT, Cp=1 Btu/lb-F

m& m& sw m& evapdrift Ttcw m& ri m& fi m& sw Tri
Tre fi
m& ri m& evapdrift

28

fe

Condenser/Service Water MEB-2

Tswe,msw

Tce,mc

Tcsw,mcsw

dE

m& o h o m& i h i dt

&
Q& W

dE & W
& 0
dt Q

& csw h csw m

& c h ce m
& sw h swe 0
m

29

& csw m
m
& sw m
&c
&
Q sw m
& sw C p Tswe Tri
Q& sw
Tswe
Tri
& sw C p
m
& csw h csw m
& c h ce m
& sw h swe 0
m

m& sw m& c h csw m& c h ce m& sw h swe 0

& c h csw h ce m
& sw h csw h swe 0
m
substitute h=CpT, Cp=1 Btu/lb-F

&
& sw Tcsw
m& c Tcsw Tce m

T
Q
r
sw

m
&
sw

& T m
& c Tce Q& sw
m
Tcsw sw ri
& sw m
&c
m
TCWP

where TCWP is the temperature rise due to the work of the circulating water pumps
Tthw Tcsw TCWBP
where TCWBP is the temperature rise due to the work of the circulating water booster
pumps

Recirculation MEB-3

Tci,mc

30

Tri, mfi

Trecirc,mrecirc

dE

m& o h o m& i h i dt

&
Q& W

dE & W
& 0
Q
dt

& c h ci m
& fi h ri m
& recirc h recirc 0
m

31

R %Recirc
& fi 1R m
&c
m
& recirc Rm
&c
m
Trecirc Ttcw
& c h ci m
& fi h ri m
& recirc h recirc 0
m
& c h ci 1R m
& c h ri Rm
& c h recirc 0
m
& c h ci m
& c h ri Rm
& c h ri Rm
& c h recirc 0
m
substitute h=CpT, Cp=1 Btu/lb-F
& c Tci Tri Rm
& c Tri Ttcw 0
m

Tci Tri RTtcw Tri

Closed Cycle
The closed cycle mode is a special case of Hybrid operation in which the circulating
water system is operating at 100% recirculation flow. The full cooling tower discharge
flow is directed back to the circulating water intake structure (R=1).

30

Appendix B - Design Parameter Calculations

Constants and Conversion Factors
1 gallon = 0.13368 ft3

CWBPhead = 73 ft

1 Btu = 778.171 lbf-ft

Cp=1.0 Btu/lbm-F

1 lbf= 1 lbm

Tsw= 10F

75 = 0.016062 ft3/lbm

& sw = 10,000 gal/min

V

90 = 0.016099 ft3/lbm

& c = 366,000 gal/min

V

CWP = 0.86

&
Q

= 4.4x109 Btu/hr

cond

CWPhead = 86 ft
CWBP = 0.89

Btu
0.1285F
TCWP = CWPhead 86ft lbm F
C p CWP 0.86 1Btu 778.171lbf ft
Btu
73ft lbm F
TCWBP = CWBPhead
0.1054F

C p CWBP 0.89 1Btu 778.171lbf ft

Design A
Tci = 75F
Twb = 75F
Tri = Tci - TCWP = 74.8715F
3

m&
sw

lbm
V& 75 10000gal 60min 0.13366ft
4.993x106 lbm/hr
sw
min
hr
gal
0.016062ft3

Q& sw m&

4.993x10
sw C p Tsw
hr

lbm

1Btu 10F
4.994x10 7 Btu/hr
lbm F
3

m&
cw

lbm
V& 75 366000gal 60min 0.13366ft
1.828x108 lbm/hr
c
min
hr
gal
0.016062ft3

T
cond

9
&
hr
lbm F
Q cond 4.4x10 Btu
24.07F
8
& cw C p
m
hr
1.828x10 lbm 1Btu

Tce Tci Tcond 75F 24.07F 99.07F

31

Tcsw

& sw Tri m
& cw Tce Q& sw
m
& sw m
& cw
m

TCWP 98.58F [MEB - 2]

Tthw Tcsw TCWBP 98.69F

Ttcw 80F Range Tthw - Ttcw 18.7F, Approach Ttcw - Twb 5F
Check to see if NPDES limit from Table 3 is exceeded in Helper Mode (no recirculation)
with minimum river flow:
3

lbm
3600s
1200ft
&
2.69x108 lbm/hr
ri V 75
3
0.016062ft
ri
hr
s
& evapdrift 6844gal/min 29gal/min 6871gal/min [Table 4]
m

&
V& ri 1200ft 3 /s m

lbm
60min 0.13368ft 57054lbm/hr
6871gal
m& evapdrift
3
min 0.016099ft
gal
hr
& sw Tri 78.45 F [MEB -1]
m& sw m& evapdrift Ttcw m& ri m& c m
T m& c

re

& evapdrift
m& ri m
Trmax= 2F => Tre Tri = 3.58F > Trmax => No Helper Mode allowed
where Trmax is the maximum allowed river temperature increase as specified by the
NPDES permit
What % Recirculation is required to get Trmax = 2F?
Need Tre = 76.87F to get Trmax = 2F
& fi
& fi 1 R R 1 m
m
[MEB-3]
m& c
m& c
m& evapdrift Ttcw m& ri m& fi m& sw Tri 76.87 F [MEB -1,3]

& evapdrift
m& ri m

& c
m& fi 1 R m
T m&
re

fi

m&

sw

& fi , m
& fi = 9.9915x10 7 lbm/hr
Solve for m
R 1

9.9915x10 7 lbm
hr

hr
0.45 45%
1.828x108 lbm

What if Twb = 80F?

T

4.816x10 7 lbm/hr R 1

&
85F m
tcw

fi

4.816x10 7
1.828x108

32

0.74 74%

Design B
This design utilizes closed cycle operation of the circulating water system with all of the
plant heat rejected by the cooling towers. This is equivalent to operating with 100%
recirculation.
Input assumptions:

Tci max = 90F Loss of condenser backpressure above this temperature leads to a
required reduction in reactor power

Twb = 80F Maximum observed by operating experience at VY

Tri = 75F Consistency with Design A

3
60min
lbm
1.82348x108 lbm/hr
m& V& 90 366000gal 0.13368ft
c
c
min
gal
0.016099ft3
hr

T
cond

9
&
hr
lbm - F
Q cond 4.4x10 Btu
24.13F
& cC p
m
hr
1.82348x108 lbm Btu

Tce = Tci max + Tcond = 114.13F

& T m
& c Tce Q& sw
m
T
113.48F [MEB-2]
T csw sw ri
CWP
&
m sw m& c
Tthw = Tcsw + TCWBP = 113.6F

For 100% recirculation, the tower exit temperature needs to be equal to the condenser
inlet temperature
Ttcw = Tci max = 90F => Range = Tthw - Ttcw = 23.6F
Approach = Ttcw Twb = 10F

33