computed from the equilibrium equation(s).

If necessary, displacements can be obtained from the elasticity

relations. It is worth mentioning that the selection of the constraint to be released is quite free and several
options are available even in this simple example. It could have been a cut at any other section or the top or
bottom reaction at the respective support.
2.1.2

Displacement method

1. Displacement v is imposed to the structure at section a, as shown in the rightmost diagram of Sketch 2.
2. The forces in both parts are expressed in terms of v with the aid of elasticity relations
v
N1 = EA1 = EA1
l1

N2 =

v
EA2
l2

3. Equilibrium is requested at section a

N2 N 1 + F = 0
which yields after substitutions
v = F

EA1
l1

1
+

EA2
l2

The basic equation in this method is the equilibrium equation and the primary unknown is displacement v.
The remaining unknown variables (N1 and N2 in this case) are computed from elasticity equations.
The reader is encouraged to check on his own that the solutions obtained by both methods are identical.
It is sufcient to evaluate the secondary unknowns for this purpose.
The displacement method is algorithmically simpler but offers less exibility. Section a could have
been selected somewhere else but not entirely arbitrarily (not at the ends). Besides, the expressions for the
end forces N1 and N2 would be complicated in that case.

Force method

More descriptive names are also used for this method, the deection superposition method or the method
of consistent displacements. Basic steps and terminology are introduced rst on simple structures with a
single redundant or, in other words, on structures statically indeterminate to the rst degree.

3.1 Steps of the force method

An illustrative example is used to introduce the common nomenclature. A simple continuous beam with
two bays is considered. The beam is loaded by two forces.
F1
A

F2
B

The structure is statically indeterminate to the rst degree. There are

numerous options for the constraint to be removed and the one selected
below is not necessarily the most advantageous.

Sketch 3 The task to be solved

Step 1 - select the primary structure

F1
A

F2
C

Sketch 4 Primary structure and

redundant

A constraint is selected and removed, here it is the support B. The structure becomes statically determinate. This modied structure is called the
primary structure. The removed constraint is called the redundant constraint or redundant. The term redundant also is used for the force acting
in the actual structure in the constraint.

It is yet unknown and symbol X is thus introduced for it. In this actual example the symbol B could be
used as well but in order to have the notation sufciently general, X is preferred.
Step 2 - deection o of the primary structure is computed in the direction of the redundant due to
the actual loading.
F1
A

F2
o

Sketch 5 Deection o ,

note
that positive sense agrees with
the positive sense if the redundant.

The principle of virtual forces (PVf) is almost exclusively used for the
purpose for obvious reasons but potentially any another method could
be applied. Note that positive senses of X and o coincide. It is not
an absolute necessity but highly recommendable since it helps to keep
consistent signs.

Step 3 - deection of the primary structure is computed due to the unit redundant force X = 1 in
the direction of the redundant. The term compliance is also used for .

Sketch 6 Deection , note the

positive sense again.

When PVf is used, the virtual and actual load cases to be considered in
this computation apparently are the same and the same virtual load case
is used in step 2, either. The total of only two load cases is to be solved
for the primary structure in this task. It is more apparent in the next
commented example.

Step 4 - superimpose the two deections of the primary structure

The deection due to the actual redundant force is X so that the total deection is obtained by superposition:
(1)
= o + X
In this example the total deection must vanish owing to the support B. Condition
= o + X = 0
delivers the unknown redundant. The superposition is applicable to any quantity (internal force, reaction,
deection) of the two load cases of the primary structure that have been solved in steps 2 and 3.
Step 5 - compute the nal internal forces and/or deections
There are two basic alternatives in this step.
1. Another load case, the nal load case, is solved in the primary structure. It is loaded by the given
external load plus the redundant (now known) and solved as any other statically determinate structure
2. Superposition is used for the required quantity, particularly for the internal forces. If the value of
quantity Q (say an ordinate of an internal force) computed in the actual load case in step 2 is denoted
by subscript o and the value obtained in the virtual load case by subscript 1 then the nal value of Q
is
Q = Qo + X Q1
7

Execution of this step is shown in demonstration examples.

3.2 Single redundant structures

The algorithm specied in the previous section is applied in several demonstration examples. In these
examples, the thermal effects and support settlement are also treated. Recall that in statically indeterminate
structures these effects induce forces. The effect of the shear force on deections is neglected.
The principle of virtual forces is exclusively utilized for the computation of deections forthwith. In the
wake of it, a notation needs to be introduced to distinguish the load cases that occur in the PVf applications.
All load cases refer to primary structure.
Subscript o indicates the load case actual load
Subscript 1 indicates the load case unit force in place and direction of the redundant. This load case
plays two parts:
the virtual load case in PVf (it acts twice in this part in steps 2 and 3), in this role it also can be
distinguished by instead of the subcript 1 ,
the real load case, unit redundant force X = 1
3.2.1

Force load

The algorithm is applied to the structure in Sketch 7. The quantities in step 2, load case 0 (actual load on
the primary structure) get index o in order to distinguish them from the values in other load cases and from
the nal values in particular. Steps 1, 2 and 3 are self-explaining in Sketch 7. It remains to complete the
steps by evaluations of o and :
o =

1
M dx =
EJ
EJ

Z l
Mo
0

Z l
M1
0

EJ

1F lll 1F lll
+
2 2 2 2
3222

M dx =

1 1
l3
l1l1l =
EJ 3
3EJ

5 F l3
48 EJ

STEP 1:

F
A l/2

l/2

L.C.0 actual load

Fl/2
M:

PRIMARY STRUCTURE:

X
L.C.1 virtual
M:

STEP 2:

l/2

l
L.C. 1 real
M1:

STEP 3:
The virtual L.C. is the same
as in STEP 1.

1
l

The final load case in the primary structure:

3/16 Fl

o + X = 0

5
F =B
16

l
5
3
+
F l= F l
2 16
16

and at the center section

F
5/16 F

X=

Step 5:
L.C. 0 and 1 are superimposed, the second one with factor X. For the bending
moment at the clamped end the superposition yields
MA = F

FINAL RESULTS:
M diagram by superposition:

Step 4:
The redundant follows from the compatibility equation:

Mc = 0 +

5
l
5
F =
Fl
16 2
32

5/32 Fl

Sketch 7 Loading by forces, demonstration example

Note that the reaction and internal forces do not depend on the material stiffness (Young modulus) and
cross-section dimensions as far as those are constant in the whole beam. The displacements do, of course.
For later reference, reasonable dimensions, material properties and loading force are introduced:
1 l = 10 m
2 the cross-section 0.5 m (depth) 0.2 m (width), J =0.00808 m4
3 material concrete, E = 30GPa
4 the loading force F = 100kN.
5
F = 31.2 kN.
Then X = 16
3.2.2

Thermal effect temperature gradient

The same structure is analyzed as in the previous section. The structure is specic in the sense that a
homogeneous temperature change does not induce any reactions and internal forces. Indeed, this thermal
effect implies simple extension of the beam which is not restricted by supports. This condition is rather
exceptional in practice. If the roller had not vertical axis, for instance, the homogeneous temperature would
induce reaction. Another thermal effect is equally frequent in practice uneven temperature change when
temperature varies across the depth of the beam. This happens with roof girders and bridge decks for
instance, when the upper face is exposed to sunrays whereas the lower is not. It is usually sufcient to
assume a linear variation of the temperature across the depth. For brevity, this thermal effect is called the
temperature gradient forthwith (although it is not quite correct) and is dened by the temperature difference
t = tupperf ace tlowerf ace