Mineralogy12 - Lecture 2 PDF

Crystallography
Introduction to Crystallography
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Most minerals possess an internal ordered

arrangement of atoms that is characteristic
of crystalline solids CRYSTAL:
homogenous solid possessing long-range
three-dimensional internal order
We will initially focus on Morphological
Crystallography
Crystalline Solid
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Grain Shapes
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Crystalline Substances
Euhedral: Grains bounded entirely by crystal

faces
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Subhedral: Few crystal faces
Anhedral: No crystal faces
The term crystal alone refers to a regular

geometric solid bounded by smooth plane
surfaces
Modifiers, with regard to perfection of
development are derived from hedron
which means face
These may be large and can be observed with the

naked eye Macroscopic
These may be very fine-grained and can only be
seen with a microscope Microcrystalline
These may be so fine-grained that X-ray
diffraction methods are needed to detect the
crystals Cryptocrystalline
Some substances lack an ordered internal atomic
arrangement and are termed Amorphous. These
are referred to as Mineraloids.
Crystallization
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Ice is a Mineral
Crystals are
formed from
solutions, melts,
and vapors
Crystal forms are NOT random but are

related by SYMMETRY, which reflects the
internal structure
SYMMETRY is defined as ALL the
elements of order in the arrangement
and orientation
Symmetry
We will first study symmetry in 2
dimensions
Motif: the fundamental part of a symmetric

design that, when repeated, creates the whole
pattern
Operation: some act that reproduces the motif to
create the pattern
Element: an operation located at a particular
point in space
Basic symmetry operations
Inversion
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
a. Two-fold rotation
Reflection
Translation
2-D Symmetry
Symmetry Elements
Operation
1. Rotation
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
2-D Symmetry
Some familiar
objects have an
intrinsic
symmetry
Motif
Element
= the symbol for a two-fold

rotation
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
= 360o/2 rotation
to reproduce a
motif in a
symmetrical
pattern
2-D Symmetry
= 360o/2 rotation
to reproduce a
motif in a
symmetrical
pattern
A Symmetrical Pattern
= 360o/2 rotation
to reproduce a
motif in a
symmetrical
pattern
= the symbol for a two-fold
rotation
second
operation
step
first
operation
step
Rotation
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
Some familiar
objects have an
intrinsic
symmetry
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
Some familiar
objects have an
intrinsic
symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
Some familiar
objects have an
intrinsic
symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
180o rotation makes it coincident

Second 180o brings the object
back to its original position
Whats the motif here??
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
Some familiar
objects have an
intrinsic
symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
Some familiar
objects have an
intrinsic
symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
b. Three-fold rotation
= 360o/3 rotation
to reproduce a
motif in a
symmetrical pattern
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6
Some familiar
objects have an
intrinsic
symmetry
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
6
6
6
6
6
2-D Symmetry
step 2
identity
4-fold
step 3
3-fold
2-fold
1-fold
Objects with symmetry:
step 1
6
6
= 360o/3 rotation
to reproduce a
motif in a
symmetrical pattern
Symmetry Elements
1. Rotation
b. Three-fold rotation
6-fold
5-fold and > 6-fold rotations will not work in combination with translations in crystals
(as we shall see later). Thus we will exclude them now.
2-D Symmetry
Symmetry Elements
2. Inversion (i)
Symmetry Elements
3. Reflection (m)
inversion through a
center to reproduce a
motif in a symmetrical
pattern
= symbol for an
inversion center
Reflection across a
mirror plane
reproduces a motif
= symbol for a mirror

plane
inversion is identical to 2-fold

rotation in 2-D, but is unique
in 3-D (try it with your hands)
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2-D Symmetry
m
We now have 6 unique 2-D symmetry operations:
1 2 3 4 6 m
Rotations are congruent operations
reproductions are identical
Inversion and reflection are enantiomorphic operations
reproductions are opposite-handed
m
Motif with a mirror plane
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Try combining a 2-fold rotation axis with a mirror
Combinations of symmetry elements are also possible

To create a complete analysis of symmetry about a point in
space, we must try all possible combinations of these symmetry
elements
In the interest of clarity and ease of illustration, we continue to
consider only 2-D examples
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Step 1: reflect
Step 1: reflect
(could do either step first)
Step 2: rotate (everything)
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Step 1: reflect
Step 1: reflect
Is that all??
No! A second mirror is required
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Now try combining a 4-fold rotation axis with a mirror
The result is Point Group 2mm

2mm indicates 2 mirrors
The mirrors are different
(not equivalent by symmetry)
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Step 1: reflect
Step 1: reflect
Step 2: rotate 1
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Step 1: reflect
Step 1: reflect
Step 2: rotate 2
Step 2: rotate 3
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Any other elements?
Any other elements?
Yes, two more mirrors
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
Any other elements?
Any other elements?
Point group name??
Point group name??

4mm
Why not 4mmmm?
2-D Symmetry
3-fold rotation axis with a mirror creates point group 3m
2-D Symmetry
6-fold rotation axis with a mirror creates point group 6mm
Why not 3mmm?
2-D Symmetry
2-D Symmetry
All other combinations are either:
Incompatible
(2 + 2 cannot be done in 2-D)
Redundant with others already tried
m + m 2mm because creates 2-fold
This is the same as 2 + m 2mm
The original 6 elements plus the 4 combinations creates

10 possible 2-D Point Groups:
1 2 3 4 6 m 2mm 3m 4mm 6mm
Any 2-D pattern of objects surrounding a point must
conform to one of these groups
The 10 2D point groups
Herman-Maugin Notation (2D)

z
4mm
First digit is the main rotosymmetry

element
Second digit says if a mirror element is
present.
2m = 2-fold symmetry axis + intersecting
mirror plane.
Now add translation:

2-D Point Groups become
Plane Groups
High resolution transmission electron microscope

image of the structure of the mineral cordierite.
Mineralogy 2 :
Figure 2
Distance between black spots is approximately 9.7 angstrom
A simple two-dimensional repeat pattern
Mineralogy 2 :
Unit Mesh ( Unit Cell)
Figure 3
PERIODIC REPEAT - TWO DIMENSIONS
Fundamental unit of repetition containing

all motifs present in a structure.
Mineralogy 2 :
Figure 4
Primit ive and mult iple unit mesh

( lat t ice in 3 -d)
Unit mesh
PRIMIT IV E
ORIGIN
TRANSLATIONAL VECTORS
Each vect or has lengt h and direct ion
Z=2
Represent ing each mot if by a point yields a mesh
Unit mesh
MULTIPLE
Mineralogy 2 : Figure 5
Ref erence axes
The lattice is an array of points in 3-D where each

point represents an arrangement of atoms (a motif).
Each lattice point has identical surroundings. The
lattice point and the lattice itself are geometric
abstractions representing the basic geometry (and
symmetry) of the repeat. The number of possible
lattice types is limited (14) i.e. there are only so many
ways you can arrange points in space given that they
must show a 3-D repeat pattern determined by the unit
translational vectors.
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Symmetry
Translations (Lattices)
A property at the atomic level, not of crystal
shapes
Symmetric translations involve repeat
distances
The origin is arbitrary
1-D translations = a row
Plane Lattices and Unit Mesh
Symmetry
A property at the atomic level, not of crystal shapes
Symmetric translations involve repeat distances
The origin is arbitrary
1-D translations = a row
Symmetry
2-D translations = a net
a
b
a is the repeat vector
Symmetry
Symmetry
b
a
b
Unit cell
Unit Cell: the basic repeat unit that, by translation only,

only, generates the entire pattern
Pick any point
How differ from motif ??
Every point that is exactly n repeats from that point is an equipoint to the original
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Translations
Translations
Which unit cell is

correct ??
Conventions:
Exercise: Escher print

1. What is the motif ?
2. Pick any point and label it with a big dark dot
3. Label all equipoints the same
4. Outline the unit cell based on your equipoints
5. What is the unit cell content (Z) ??
Z = the number of motifs per unit cell
Is Z always an integer ?
1. Cell edges should,

whenever possible,
coincide with
symmetry axes or
reflection planes
2. If possible, edges
should relate to each
other by lattice
lattices
symmetry.
3. The smallest possible
cell (the reduced cell)
which fulfills 1 and 2
should be chosen
Translations
Translations
The lattice and point group symmetry interrelate, because

both are properties of the overall symmetry pattern

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6
9
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6
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9
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6
6
9
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9
6
6
9
Good unit cell choice. Why? What is Z?

Are there other symmetry elements ?
Translations
This is why 5-fold and > 6-fold rotational symmetry
wont work in crystals
Translations
There is a new 2-D symmetry operation when we
consider translations
The Glide Plane:
A combined reflection
repeat
and translation
Step 2: translate
Step 1: reflect
(a temporary position)
12
Translations
There are 5 unique 2-D plane lattices.
There are 5 unique 2-D plane lattices.
Oblique Net
Rectangular P Net
Diamond Net
a b
90o
a b
= 90o
a= b
90o, 120o, 60o
2-D Lattice Types

angles
Compatible Point
Group Symmetry*
ab
90
1, 2
Square
a=b
= 90
Hexagonal
a=b
= 120
Oblique
o
o
o
Hexagonal Net
Square Net
a1 = a2
= 60o
a1 = a2
= 90o
a b
= 90o
b
b
vectors
Name
Rectangular
C Net
a2
a2
a1
a1
4, 2, m, 1, (g)
3, 6, 2, m, 1, (g)
o
Rectangular
ab
= 90
Primitive (P)
Centered (C)
* any rotation implies the rotoinversion as well
2, m, 1, (g)
p2
p2mm
p2mm
p6mm
p4mm
There are also 17 22-D Plane Groups that combine translations

with compatible symmetry operations. The bottom row are
examples of plane Groups that correspond to each lattice type
Plane Group Symmetry
Plane Group Symmetry
Combining translations and point groups
p2
3-D Symmetry
New 3-D Symmetry Elements
4. Rotoinversion
a. 1-fold rotoinversion ( 1 )
3-D Symmetry
4. Rotoinversion
Step 1: rotate 360/1
(identity)
13
3-D Symmetry
4. Rotoinversion
3-D Symmetry
New Symmetry Elements
4. Rotoinversion
b. 2-fold rotoinversion ( 2 )

(identity)
Step 2: invert
This is the same as i, so not a new

operation
Note: this is a temporary

step, the intermediate
motif element does not
exist in the final pattern
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
The result:
Step 2: invert
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
c. 3-fold rotoinversion ( 3 )
This is the same as m, so not

a new operation
14
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
1
Step 1: rotate 360o/3

Again, this is a
temporary step, the
intermediate motif
element does not exist
in the final pattern
Step 2: invert through
center
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
1
Completion of the first

sequence
Rotate another 360/3

2
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
Invert through center
Complete second step to

create face 3
2
15
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
Third step creates face 4
(3 (1) 4)
Fourth step creates face

5 (4 (2) 5)
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
Fifth step creates face 6

(5 (3) 6)
Sixth step returns to face 1
3-D Symmetry
This is unique
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
d. 4-fold rotoinversion ( 4 )
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3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
1: Rotate 360/4
1: Rotate 360/4
2: Invert
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
1: Rotate 360/4
3: Rotate 360/4
2: Invert
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
3: Rotate 360/4
3: Rotate 360/4
4: Invert
4: Invert
17
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
5: Rotate 360/4
5: Rotate 360/4
6: Invert
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
This is also a unique operation
A more fundamental
representative of the
pattern
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
e. 6-fold rotoinversion ( 6 )
Begin with this framework:
18
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
1
2
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
1
1
3
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
1
3
2
1
3
2
19
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
1
5
2
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
1
5
2
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

4. Rotoinversion

4. Rotoinversion
Note: this is the same as a 3-fold

rotation axis perpendicular to a
mirror plane
A simpler pattern
Top View
Top View
(combinations of elements follows)
20
3-D Symmetry
We now have 10 unique 3-D symmetry operations:
1 2 3 4 6 i m 3 4 6
Combinations of these elements are also possible
A complete analysis of symmetry about a point in space requires
that we try all possible combinations of these symmetry elements
3-D Symmetry
3-D symmetry element combinations
a. Rotation axis parallel to a mirror
Same as 2-D
2 || m = 2mm
3 || m = 3m, also 4mm, 6mm
b. Rotation axis mirror

2 m = 2/m
3 m = 3/m, also 4/m, 6/m
c. Most other rotations + m are impossible

2-fold axis at odd angle to mirror?
Some cases at 45o or 30o are possible, as we shall see
3-D Symmetry
3-D symmetry element combinations
d. Combinations of rotations
2 + 2 at 90o 222 (third 2 required from
combination)
)
4 + 2 at 90o 422 (
)
6 + 2 at 90o 622 (
3-D Symmetry
As in 2-D, the number of possible combinations is
limited only by incompatibility and redundancy
There are only 22 possible unique 3-D combinations,
when combined with the 10 original 3-D elements
yields the 32 3-D Point Groups
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry
The 32 3-D Point Groups
But it soon gets hard to

visualize (or at least
portray 3-D on paper)
Every 3-D pattern must conform to one of them.

This includes every crystal, and every point within
a crystal
Increasing Rotational Symmetry
Rotation axis only
Rotoinversion axis only
1 (= i )
2 (= m)
6 (= 3/m)
622
Combination of rotation axes
222
32
422
One rotation axis mirror
2/m
3/m (= 6)
4/m
6/m
One rotation axis || mirror
2mm
3m
4mm
6mm
Rotoinversion with rotation and mirror

Three rotation axes and mirrors
Additional Isometric patterns
Fig. 5.18 of Klein (2002) Manual of

Mineral Science, John Wiley and
Sons
3 2/m
4 2/m
6 2/m
4/m 2/m 2/m
6/m 2/m 2/m
23
432
4/m 3 2/m
2/m 3
43m
2/m 2/m 2/m
Table 5.1 of Klein (2002) Manual of Mineral Science, John Wiley and Sons
21
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry

Regrouped by Crystal System
Crystal System
Triclinic
No Center
Center
After Bloss, Crystallography and

Crystal Chemistry. MSA
Monoclinic
2, 2 (= m)
2/m
Orthorhombic
222, 2mm
2/m 2/m 2/m
Tetragonal
4, 4, 422, 4mm, 42m
4/m, 4/m 2/m 2/m
Hexagonal
3, 32, 3m
3, 3 2/m
6, 6, 622, 6mm, 62m
6/m, 6/m 2/m 2/m
23, 432, 43m
2/m 3, 4/m 3 2/m
Isometric
Table 5.3 of Klein (2002) Manual of Mineral Science, John Wiley and Sons
3-D Translations and

Lattices
3-D Translations and Lattices

z
z
Different ways to combine 3 non-parallel, non-coplanar axes

Really deals with translations compatible with 32 3-D point
groups (or crystal classes)
32 Point Groups fall into 6 categories
Different ways to combine 3

non-parallel, non-coplanar axes
Really deals with translations
compatible with 32 3-D point
Lattice Types
groups (or 3-D
crystal
classes)
Name
z
32
Triclinic
axes
Point Groups afall

b into
c 6
abc
= = 90 90
Orthorhombic
abc
= = = 90
a1 = a2 c
= = = 90
a1 = a2 = a3 c
= 90 = 120
Hexagonal (4 axes)
Rhombohedral
Isometric
b
a
a I
Monoclinic
= = 90
abc
a1 = a2 = a3
= = 90
a1 = a2 = a3
= = = 90
+a
=C
+b
o
o
Axial convention:
rightright-hand rule
rule
a2
a1
a2
a1
Tetragonal
= = = 90 a1 = a2 c
P or C
Hexagonal
Rhombohedral
= = 90 = 120
= = 90
a1 = a2 = a3
a1 = a2 c
a3
a2
b
Triclinic

abc
90
categories
Monoclinic
Tetragonal
Hexagonal
+c
angles
Orthorhombic
= = = 90 a b c
a1
Isometric
= = = 90 a1 = a2 = a3
22
3-D Symmetry
3-D Translations and Lattices
Crystal Axes
Triclinic:
+c
+a
No symmetry constraints.
No reason to choose C when can choose simpler P
Do so by convention,
convention, so that all mineralogists do the same
+b
Axial convention:
right-hand rule
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry
3-D Symmetry
23
3-D Space Groups

As in the 17 22-D Plane Groups,
Groups, the 33-D point group
symmetries can be combined with translations to create
the 230 33-D Space Groups
Also as in 22-D there are some new symmetry elements
that combine translation with other operations
Glides: Reflection + translation
4 types. Fig. 6.52 in Klein
Crystal Morphology
Remember:
)Space groups for atom symmetry
)Point groups for crystal face symmetry
Crystal Faces = limiting surfaces of growth
Depends in part on shape of building units &
physical cond. (T, P, matrix, nature & flow
direction of solutions, etc.)
Screw Axes: Rotation + translation

Fig. 5.67 in Klein
Crystal
Morphology
Observation:
The frequency with
which a given face in a
crystal is observed is
proportional to the
density of lattice nodes
along that plane
Crystal Morphology
Because faces have direct relationship to the
internal structure, they must have a direct and
consistent angular relationship to each other
Crystal Morphology
Observation:
The frequency
with which a
given face in a
crystal is observed
is proportional to
the density of
lattice nodes along
that plane
Crystal Morphology
Nicholas Steno (1669): Law of Constancy of
Interfacial Angles
120o
120o
120o
Quartz
120o
120o
120o
120o
24
Crystal Morphology
Diff planes have diff atomic environments
Crystal Morphology
Crystal symmetry conforms to 32 point groups 32 crystal classes
in 6 crystal systems
Crystal System
No Center
Triclinic
Monoclinic
Orthorhombic
Tetragonal
2/m
222, 2mm
2/m 2/m 2/m

4/m, 4/m 2/m 2/m
3, 32, 3m
3, 3 2/m
6, 6, 622, 6mm, 62m
6/m, 6/m 2/m 2/m
23, 432, 43m
2/m 3, 4/m 3 2/m
Isometric
Crystal Axes: generally taken as parallel to the edges

(intersections) of prominent crystal faces
2, 2 (= m)
4, 4, 422, 4mm, 42m
Hexagonal
Crystal Morphology
Center
Crystal Morphology
Crystal Axes: generally taken as parallel to the edges
(intersections) of prominent crystal faces
The more faces the better prism faces & quartz c-axis, halite
cube, etc.
b
a
We must also keep symmetry in mind: c = 6-fold in hexagonal

With x-ray crystallography we can determine the internal structure
and the unit cell directly and accurately
Crystal Morphology
How do we keep track of the faces of a crystal?
The crystallographic axes determined by XRD and by the face

method nearly always coincide
This is not coincidence!!
Crystal Morphology
Remember, face sizes may vary, but angles can't
Note: interfacial
angle
angle = the angle
between the faces
measured like this
120o
120o
120o
120o
120o
120o
120o
25
Crystal Morphology
Crystal Morphology
Given the following crystal:
Remember, face sizes may vary, but angles can't

Thus it's the orientation & angles that are the best source
of our indexing
2-D view
looking down c
b
a
Miller Index is the accepted indexing method
It uses the relative intercepts of the face in question with

the crystal axes
c
Crystal Morphology
Crystal Morphology
Given the following crystal:
Suppose we get another crystal of the same mineral with

2 other sets of faces:
How do we reference them?
How reference faces?

a face?
b face?
-a and -b faces?
w
x
y
Miller Index uses the relative intercepts of the faces with

the axes
Which one?
Either x or y. The choice is arbitrary. Just pick one.
Pick a reference face that intersects both axes
Suppose we pick x
Which one?
b
b
w
x
x
y
a
z
y
a
26
MI process is very structured (cook book)
What is the Miller Index of the reference face?
unknown face (y
(y)
reference face (x
(x)
1
2
1
1
invert
2
1
1
1
clear of fractions
Miller index of
face y using x as
the aa-b reference face
(2 1 0)
unknown face (x
(x)
reference face (x
(x)
1
1
1
1
invert
1
1
1
1
clear of fractions
(1 1 0)
Miller index of
the reference face
is always 1 - 1
(2 1 0)
What if we pick y as the reference. What is the MI of x?

a
unknown face (x
(x)
reference face (y
(y)
2
1
1
1
invert
1
2
1
1
clear of fractions
Which choice is correct?

1)
y = (2 1 0)
2)
y = (1 1 0)
The choice is arbitrary
Miller index of
the reference face
is always 1 - 1
(1 1 0)
x = (1 2 0)
x
(1 2 0)
x = (1 1 0)
What is the difference?

a
What is the difference?
The technique above requires that we graph each face

A simpler (?) way is to use trigonometry
b
b
unit cell
shape if
y = (1 1 0)
unit cell
shape if
x = (1 1 0)
Measure the
interfacial angles
b
w
x
148o
b
y
y
a
interfacial angles
141o
y
a
axial ratio = a/b = 0.80
axial ratio = a/b = 1.60
27
The technique above requires that we graph each face
What are the Miller Indices of all the faces if we choose x

as the reference?
A simpler (?) way is to use trigonometry
Face Z?
b
b
w
x
58o
148o
tan 39 = a/b = 0.801

tan 58 = a/b = 1.600
w
(1 1 0)
(2 1 0)
39o
141o
a
a
The Miller Indices of face z using x as the reference
b
w
(1 1 0)
(2 1 0)
unknown face (z)

reference face (x
(x)
1
1
invert
1
1
clear of fractions
Can you index the rest?

(1 1 0)
(2 1 0)
(1 0 0)
a
Miller index of
face z using x (or
any face)
face) as the
reference face
(1 0 0)
a
z
3-D Miller Indices (an unusually complex example)
unknown face (XYZ

(XYZ))
reference face (ABC
(ABC))
2
1
2
4
2
3
invert
1
2
4
2
3
2
(1
3)
(0 1 0)
(1 1 0)
(1 1 0)
C
(2 1 0)
(2 1 0)
(1 0 0)
a
(1 0 0)
clear of fractions
A
X
(2 1 0)
(2 1 0)
(1 1 0)
(0 1 0)
(1 1 0)
Miller index of
face XYZ using
ABC as the
reference face
Y
B
28
We can get the a:b:c axial ratios from the chosen (111) face
We can also determine the true unit cell by XRD and of course
determine the a:b:c axial ratios from it
If the unit face is correctly selected, the ratios should be the
same
If not, will be off by some multiple - i.e. picked (211) and
called it (111)
Best to change it
Mineralogy texts listed axial ratios long before XRD
We had to change some after XRD developed
Form = a set of symmetrically equivalent faces

braces indicate a form {210}
Multiplicity of a form depends on symmetry
b
(1 1)
(0 1)
(1 1)
(2 1)

(2 1)
{100} in monoclinic, orthorhombic,

tetragonal, isometric
(1 0)
a
(1 0)
(2 1)
(2 1)
(1 1)
(0 1)
(1 1)

F. 2.36 in your text (p. 49-52)
pinacoid prism
pyramid dipryamid
related by a mirror
or a 22-fold axis

Quartz = 2 forms:
Hexagonal prism (m = 6)
Hexagonal dipyramid (m = 12)
related by nn-fold
axis or mirrors
29
Isometric forms include
All three combined:
Cube
Octahedron
001
011
_
111
_
111
111
__
111
_
111
101
111
_
110
010
100
110
Dodecahedron
011
101
__
111
_
110
_
101
110
_
101
_
111
_
011
_
011
Zone
BUT doesn't say which face
Any group of faces || a common axis

Use of h k l as variables for a, b, c
intercepts
(010)
(h k 0) = [001]
If the MIs of 2 non-parallel faces are
added, the result = MI of a face between
them & in the same zone
(110)?
Which??
(110)?
(100)
BUT doesn't say which face

(010)
(010)
(110)
(210)
(110)?
Which??
(100)
(110)?
(010)
(100)
(120)
(110)
Either is OK
(100)
30

Mineralogy12 - Lecture 2 PDF

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Crystallography

Most minerals possess an internal ordered

Euhedral: Grains bounded entirely by crystal

Subhedral: Few crystal faces

Anhedral: No crystal faces

The term crystal alone refers to a regular

These may be large and can be observed with the

Crystal forms are NOT random but are

Motif: the fundamental part of a symmetric

Basic symmetry operations

= the symbol for a two-fold

180o rotation makes it coincident

Objects with symmetry:

= symbol for a mirror

inversion is identical to 2-fold

We now have 6 unique 2-D symmetry operations:

Combinations of symmetry elements are also possible

Try combining a 2-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Try combining a 2-fold rotation axis with a mirror

(could do either step first)

Step 2: rotate (everything)

Try combining a 2-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Try combining a 2-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Step 2: rotate (everything)

Step 2: rotate (everything)

No! A second mirror is required

The result is Point Group 2mm

Now try combining a 4-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Now try combining a 4-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Now try combining a 4-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Now try combining a 4-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Now try combining a 4-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Now try combining a 4-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Any other elements?

Any other elements?

Yes, two more mirrors

Now try combining a 4-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Now try combining a 4-fold rotation axis with a mirror

Any other elements?

Any other elements?

Yes, two more mirrors

Yes, two more mirrors

Point group name??

Point group name??

Why not 3mmm?

The original 6 elements plus the 4 combinations creates

The 10 2D point groups

Herman-Maugin Notation (2D)

First digit is the main rotosymmetry

Now add translation:

High resolution transmission electron microscope

Distance between black spots is approximately 9.7 angstrom

A simple two-dimensional repeat pattern

Unit Mesh ( Unit Cell)

PERIODIC REPEAT - TWO DIMENSIONS

Fundamental unit of repetition containing

Primit ive and mult iple unit mesh

Represent ing each mot if by a point yields a mesh

Ref erence axes

The lattice is an array of points in 3-D where each

Plane Lattices and Unit Mesh

a is the repeat vector

Unit Cell: the basic repeat unit that, by translation only,