Chemistry The chemical Earth,

There are four main zones in the Earth:

Lithosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Hydrosphere
The Lithosphere comprises the crust and mantle. Scientists
use this Lithosphere to gain mineral and organic resources.
The Atmosphere is an envelope of gases that surrounds the
Earth in white clouds surrounding the atmosphere consisting of
water vapours.
The atmosphere is made up of O2, N, CO2, and a little argon,
Ne, krypton, xenon and radon.
The Hydrosphere consists of the oceans, lakes, streams,
glaciers, snow, ice and polar sheets and glaciers.
The Earth is a closed sphere that means that matter cant
enter or leave the Earths spheres.
Matter classified at room temp (25C) as:
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Most of the 109 elements are solid
There are two liquids at room temperature:
Bromine (Non-metal)
Mercury (metal)
Kenetic Molecular Theory of Matter says that all matter is
made up of particles that are constantly moving.
Solids and liquids are LOW energy
Gases are HIGH energy
To separate a mixture of:
Solids of different sizes- Sieving
Magnetism
Solids and liquids
Filtration
Boiling
To obtain solid from a
Evaporation
Dissolved solid and
Liquid
To obtain the liquid
From a dissolved solid
And liquid

Distillation

Oil and water

Separation funnel
Ethanol and water
Fractional distillation
Chemical analysis is a process used to determine what is
present in a chemical sample. This can be
Qualitative
Quantitative

Qualitative Determines what substances are present in a

sample
Qualitative Determines how much of each substance is
present in the sample
Gravimetric analysis is used to determine the mass of each
component in a mixture. Gravimetric analysis is used to
determine the percentage composition of a mixture.
Instrumental Analysis determines minor and trace amounts
of elements down to 1%
An example of an Australians scientist using Gravimetric
analysis is Melina Key Wood, an environmental CSIRO scientist.
Examples of industrial Gravimetric analysis include:
Nutritional labels
Soil analysis
Element one type of atom with definite properties that
cannot be decomposed
Compound made up of two or more atoms with a definite
property.
The nucleus is the center of the cell used to produce
chemical energy and nuclear energy eg in a power plant.
The atomic number equals the same number as protons and
electrons
The mass number= protons + neutrons
Ion is formed when atoms lose or gain their electrons.
Ionic compounds are formed when oppositely charged Ions
are attracted and held together by electrostatic forces called
Ionic bonds. They are arranged in a lattice of infinite array
Ionic crystals are neutral because the (+) charge cancels out
the (-).
Lewis electron dot diagrams only show electrons in the
outer most shell
The more reactive an element is, the more unlikely the chance
of finding it existing alone
There are two important trends presented in the Periodic Table
Increasing atomic number left to right along rows
Elements in same column have similar properties.
History of the Periodic Table
330 BC Aristotle Four-element theory
1770 Lavoisier Distinguished first 33 elements
1828 Berzelius Table of atomic weights; element
symbols
1829 Dobereiner triad of elements with similar
properties
1864 Newlands first sixty elements established and
arranged
1869 Meyer Molars and atomic weights
1869 Mendeleev Created the Periodic table and
predicted gaps
1894 Ramsay Discovered noble gases

Metal atoms lose electrons to form positive ions called

cations
Anions are when atoms gain electrons to form negative ions
Ionic Compound formula shows the simplest ratio of the
number of positive and negative ions with no subscript
Empirical formulas show only the simplest ratio of atoms
and not the actual ratio
Radicals are a charged group of atoms AKA polyatomic ions
and the bracket is placed around it to emphasise the charge
The only positive radical is ammonium
Valency is the combining power of an atom- the number of
electrons an atom gains or loses to become a compound
Eg:
Aluminum Chloride
Al3
Cl1
AlCl3
A molecule is the smallest part of a pure substance that can
exist on its own and move independently and found in any
desired number
A monatomic molecule is made up of only one atom eg
Noble gases
Diatomic molecules are two atoms bonded together eg O2
and H2
Covalent bonds form between metals and nonmetals, because
non-metals need to gain an electron to complete their shell
Single covalent bond one pair of shared electrons moving
around the nucleus of both atoms
Double covalent bond- two pairs of shared electrons
moving around the nucleus of both atoms
Covalent molecule is held together by the electrostatic
attraction between the shared pair of electrons and the protons
of the atoms that share electrons
Physical change is when no new substance is produced. The
changes are:
Easily reversed
Relatively small amount of energy required
An example is burning Mg ribbon to form a powder
Chemical change is when a new substance is created:
Gas evolved
Precipitate forms
Change in colour
Change in temperature
Disappearance of solid
Odour produced
An example is electrolysis
The law of conservation says that matter cannot be created or
destroyed by change form

Electrolysis is a chemical change brought about by passing

electricity through water to which a small amount of sulfuric acid
had been added to improved conductivity.
A commercial use of electrolysis is the molten lead bromine
(PbBr)
Electrolysis
Produces two new
substances (O and H)
Difficult to reverse
Requires more energy
Breaks up the particle

Boiling water
Produces no new substance
Easily reversed
Little energy required
Merely separates the
particles from one another

Decomposition reactions are chemical reactions where a

chemical is broken down into two or more substances. During the
reaction, energy must be absorbed to break the tightly held
bond.
Thermal
Light
Electricity
The stronger the bond, the more energy required to break it
A commercial use of decomposition is cement and glass.
Thermal decomposition reactions use the heat to break the
bond and involve the use of a carbonate
Light decomposition reaction eg photography. Thin plastic with
AgBr on it is photo film, and when light hits the paper, the
resulting reaction causes a bromine atom and a silver atom to
form.
Electrical decomposition reaction eg Aluminum extraction.
Electricity is passed through Aluminia (Al2O3) to extract
aluminum
Synthesis reactions are where a chemical compound is
formed from its elements (the opposite of decomposition)
During synthesis reaction, bonds are formed and energy is
released.
Metals are arranged in an orderly lattice, and each atom
releases an electron to become positive. The electrons released
become delocalised and this becomes metallic bonding.
Conduct
Their electrons are delocalised and free to move
throughout the lattice
Hard
the bonds are strong
Malleable because del. Electrons easily adjust to new
arrangement
High m.p
A lot of energy is required to break down bonds
Ionic substances form when a non-metal reacts with a
metal, and the metal become positive and the non-metal become

negative, arranged in a lattice. The attraction between + and

ions is a strong ionic force holding substance together
Not C.
The ions are held together toughly in lattice and
unable to move toward electrode
Hard
strong ionic bond
Brittle
A distortion of lattice when hit, so the ions repel
off each other
High m.p bonds are strong
Covalent molecular substances formed when non-metals
react to form a compound.
N. Con.
No delocalised ions to form a current
Soft solids Easy to be distorted because of weak
intermolecular forces between molecules
Low. Mp
The bonds to be broken down by heat are very
weak and easy to overcome.
Covalent network substances formed when non-metals
react, and arranged in a lattice held together by covalent bonds
(not charges). Eg silicon dioxide and diamond
N.Con
no delocalised electrons to form a current
Hard
covalent bonds cannot be distorted
High mp
strong bond to break by large amount of heat