BORANG INVENTORI SKEMA USULAN

(PROPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS)
1.
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Seon-Kyoung An & Doohwang Lee

(2010)
An integrated model of parental mediation: The effect of family communication on childrens perception of
television reality and negative viewing effects

Tujuan Kajian

To propose and test an integrated model of parental mediation involving family communication, parental
mediation styles, childrens perceptions of televised realities and the actual world, and perceptions of the negative
effects of television viewing.

Persoalan Kajian/
Hipotesis

H1:
H2:
H3:
H4:
H5:
H6:
H7:

Teori/Model yang
digunakan
Metode Kajian

Integrated model of parental mediation

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)
Instrumen Kajian

348 students from two middle schools and two high-schools in Seoul, South Korea, ranging in age from12-17
years. Multi-stage sampling method.

Open family communication will be positively related to all three types of parental mediation
Parental restrictive mediation will be negatively related to childrens perceived reality
Parental instructive mediation will be negatively related to childrens perceived reality
Parental co-viewing mediation will be negatively related to childrens perceived reality
Parental restrictive mediation will be positively related to childrens negative effects of TV
Parental instructive mediation will be positively related to childrens negative effects of TV
Parental co-viewing mediation will be positively related to childrens negative effects of TV

Nationwide Survey

Questionnaire using (a) Parents-Adolescents Communication Scale; (b) Valkenburg et.als typology (1999);
(c) Potters scale of perceived reality (1992); and (d) Bybee et als Perceived negative effects of television (1982).

Teknik Analisis
Data

Pearson product-moment correlation; Path analysis technique using AMOS 5.0 -- Goodness of Fit Index (GFI),
Normed Fit Index (NFI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA).

Hasil Kajian

H1: Open family communication was positively related to all three types of parental mediation;
Open family communication was negatively related to childrens perceived reality
Open family communication was positively related to childrens perceived negative effects of television.
H2: Parental restrictive mediation was negatively related to childrens perceived reality
H3: Parental instructive mediation was negatively related to childrens perceived reality
H4: Parental co-viewing mediation was negatively related to childrens perceived reality
H5: Parental restrictive mediation was positively related to negative effects of TV
H6: Parental instructive mediation was positively related to negative effects of TV
H7: Parental co-viewing mediation was positively related to negative effects of TV

Kesimpulan

Lain-lain Catatan

Parental, instructive mediation, in combination with open family communication, increased not only childrens
perceived disparity between televised realities and the actual world, but also childrens perceptions of the
potentially negative effects of television.
Restrictive parental mediation styles were also found to mediate the role of open family communication on
childrens perception of negative effects of television.
Co-viewing mediation was not found to directly affect either the childrens perceived reality or their perception of
negative effects of television viewing.

2.
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Lindsey Meeks
(2012)
Is she Man Enough? Women candidates, executive political offices, and news coverage.

Tujuan Kajian

To analyze news coverage, across a decade, of the same female candidates as they compete across two elections.

Persoalan Kajian/
Hipotesis

How do the news media portray women and men in three important, gendered rhetorical domains that dominate
US politics, that is, novelty labels, political issues, and character traits?
H1a: News articles in electoral campaigns will be more likely to contain novelty labels for women than for men.
H1b: Gender gap in news will be greater when candidates run for higher office.
H2a: News articles in electoral campaigns will be more likely to include feminine and masculine issue coverage
for women than for men.
H2b: Gendered issue gaps in news will be greater when candidates run for higher office.
H3a: News articles in electoral campaigns will be more likely to include character trait coverage for women than
for men.
H3b: Gendered character trait gaps in news will be greater when candidates run for higher office.

Teori/Model yang
digunakan
Metode Kajian
Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

Social role theory

Content analysis
706 articles in eight newspapers between 1999 and 2008, in TWO types of US elections selected for 4 female
candidates running for US Senator (Legislative), Governor, Vice President, or President (Executive), viz.
Elizabeth Dole [March Oct 1999; 2002], Claire McCaskill [2004, 2006], Hillary Clinton [2000, Jan 2007- June
2008], and Sarah Palin [2006, 2008].

8 Newspapers:
Charlotte Observer and News & Observer for Dole;
St Louis Post-Dispatch and Kansas City Star for McCaskill;
New York Daily News and Buffalo News for Hilary Clinton;
Anchorage Daily News and Fairbanks Daily News-Miner for Palin.
Instrumen Kajian

Coding Sheet

Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Descriptive statistic; One-tailed difference of proportions test.

How do the news media portray women and men in three important, gendered rhetorical domains that
dominate US politics, that is, novelty labels, political issues, and character traits?
Moving from legislative to executive, the amount of gender and uniqueness labels for women increases.
Candidates running for the White House received considerably less feminine and masculine issue coverage.
There is approximately three times more masculine issue coverage than feminine issue coverage for the
White House.

H1a: News articles in electoral campaigns contained more novelty labels for women than for men.
H1b: As women ran for executive offices, the gender gap in news coverage grew.
H2a: News articles in electoral campaigns included more feminine and masculine issue coverage for women
than for men.
H2b: Gendered issue gaps in news were greater when candidates ran for higher office.
H3a: News articles in electoral campaigns include more character trait coverage for women than for men.
H3b: Women received more masculine trait coverage than men especially when running for higher, executive
level office.

Kesimpulan

Lain-lain Catatan

Overall news coverage emphasized womens novelty more so than mens, and regardless of perceived gender
congruence, women received more political issue and character trait coverage than men.
Analysis across election contexts revealed that gendered news gaps were consistently greater when women
sought higher, more executive offices, indicating an increasing emphasis in discussion regarding these women
in the study.
News media continue to cast women as novelties and norm breakers more often than men.
Women in this study also received more feminized and masculinized political issue and character trait
coverage than men.
Politics in the USA has been and remains a gendered space.

3.
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Hyoung-Do Lim
(2010)
A case study on the degree of internationalization in the mobile telecommunications industry

Tujuan Kajian

To measure the degree of internationalization within the mobile telecommunications industry.

Persoalan Kajian/
Hipotesis

How is internationalization measured?

How many Multinational Organizations exist in the mobile telecommunications industry?

Teori/Model yang
digunakan

Multidimensional index of transnationality using three different composite indicators of internationalization:

(structural, performance, attitudinal); and geographical indicators

Metode Kajian

Case study

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)
Instrumen Kajian

N=52 MNO groups in first quarter of 2010.

Nine zones of 46 countries

Teknik Analisis
Data

Descriptive

Wireless Intelligences database of world-wide leading MNO groups including individual MNOs by setting a
minimum threshold of percent ownership of mobile operators, and present in at least one foreign country.

Hasil Kajian

Degree of internationalization is measured based on 3 indicators:

MNO groups firstly centered their investment on affiliates located in the home country and then expanded to
foreign countries that are culturally close. 20 MNOs are grouped in Group 1:
Vodafone, Telefonica, Hutchison, Weather Investment, Telenor, Singtel, Qtel, TeliaSonera, Axiata, MTN, Etisalat,
France Telecom, Portugal Telecom, Deutsche Telekom, Millicom International Cellular, America Movil, Zain,
Orascom Telecom, Wataniya Telecom, KPN
Vodafone is the most internationalized MNO group; has investments in 38 countries in 9 regions and has majority
ownership shares in 22 countries spread over 5 continents.
Group II represents MNO groups that have a high score of psychic dispersion but low percentage of foreign
subscribers
Group III and IV include most newcomers entering into one or two culturally close regions in recent years.
When they expand globally, they tend to follow a three-stage evolutionary pattern, from an overwhelmingly
domestic focus to a regional focus to a truly global focus.

Kesimpulan

Lain-lain Catatan

Numerous MNO groups can be considered international by measuring the degree of internationalization of MNO
groups around the globe.
MNO groups around the world have undergone rapid international expansion in the 2000s, but there were still
large variations in the degree of internationalization achieved by 2010.

4
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Rodney Benson, Mark Blach-Orsten, Matthew Powers, Ida Willig & Sandra Vera Zambrano
(2012
Media systems online and off: Comparing the form of news in the United States, Denmark and France.

Tujuan Kajian

To examine how media system differences in the form of news change or stay the same as newspapers in the
United States (liberal), Denmark (democratic corporatist), and France (polarized pluralist) move from print to
online.

Persoalan Kajian/
Hipotesis

H1: Because media systems shape both internet and print newspaper content, internet and print newspapers should
be substantially the same within each country (US, Denmark, France);
There should be substantial cross-national media differences, with the liberal US media especially in relation to
polarized pluralist French media, offering (a) greater prevalence (amount of content as a proportion of the whole)
and prominence (hierarchical ordering of content) or advertising, (b) lesser prevalence and prominence of
opinion genres, (c) lesser prevalence and prominence of deliberative genres, (d) lesser prevalence and prominence
on non-journalist produced content, and (e) lesser prevalence and prominence of government and international
topics, and higher prevalence and prominence of light and sensational topics.
Given that the democratic corporatist Danish media system mixes structural elements generally opposed in the
liberal and polarized pluralist systems, Danish newspaper form should be a mix of elements found in the US and
France.
H2: Because internet technology facilitates the mixing of advertising content with editorial content as well as the
continual updating of news, there should be the prevalence and prominence of advertising and news should be
higher in online news media than in print news media in all three countries. If there are cross national differences,
these should be less for online media than for print media.
H3: because internet technology facilitates interactive debate and easier access to non-journalist produced content,
we should expect that the prevalence and prominence of deliberative genres and non-journalist produced content
should be higher in the online than in the print versions of newspapers, for all three countries.
Because online competition creates incentives for greater partisan differentiation, there should be a greater
prevalence and higher prominence of opinion in online than in print editions. If there are cross-national
differences, there should be less for online media than for print media.

Teori/Model yang
digunakan
Metode Kajian

New institutionalist or field theory; Medium theory

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)
Instrumen Kajian

US media system (liberal), French media system (polarized pluralist), and Danish media system (democratic
corporatist)

Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Qualitative analysis

Content analyses of print and online media

Coding sheet

Advertising is most prevalent in Danish newspapers; Prevalence of advertising increases from print to online US
newspapers and stays about the same for French newspapers. Prominence of advertising sharply increases from
print to online for all three countries.
Moving from print to online, cross-national differences diminish in both prevalence and prominence of
advertising.
News and Information
In PRINT, US newspapers have the most news; ONLINE, Danish newspapers have the most news.
News prevalence decreases from print to online for US and French newspapers, while holding steady for Danish
newspapers.
Most other information genres increase from print to online lessening the overall decline in information.
Prominence of news in print compared to online increases for both US and French newspapers, while it declines
for Danish newspapers.
From print to online, high-low percentage point gaps decline for both prevalence and prominence of news, but as
with advertising prevalence, convergence cannot be interpreted as a unified movement in a single direction.
Opinion and deliberation
In PRINT, French and Danish newspapers have the most opinion; In ONLINE, US newspapers have the most
opinion. Prevalence of opinion increases from print to online for US newspapers, stays about the same for French
newspapers, and decreases for Danish newspapers.

Prominence of opinion also increases most dramatically for US newspapers; increases for French newspapers,
while falling sharply for Danish newspapers. Across the three countries, moving from print to online, the opinion
high-low percentage point gap increases for both prevalence and prominence.
Deliberation is most common in French newspapers, remaining steady moving from print to online.
Deliberative genres increase very slightly from print to online for US newspapers and stay about the same for
Danish newspapers.
Prevalence of deliberative genres stays the same or increases lightly from print to online for all three countries.
Deliberation increases in prominence from print to online for French newspapers while decreasing for Danish
newspapers; Increase in prominence cannot be measured for the US given that there is no deliberative content in
the print media.
Nonjournalistic voices
Nonjournalistic authorial voices (academic, religious, labour, other civil society, business, government) as a whole
are more likely to appear in French newspapers than in their US or Danish counterparts, a gap that overall
increases in the shift from print to online.
Journalists are by far the dominant authorial voice in newspapers (both print and online) in all three countries.
Prevalence of non-affiliated individuals increases in France from print to online, and the cross-national differences
for both print and online with the US and Denmark are substantial.
Prominence of these non-affiliated individuals also increases from print to online for French newspapers.
Topical Focus
For both PRINT and ONLINE, international news is higher in Denmark and France than US, while domestic
government news is higher in US.
International news decline from print to online.
Government news drops slightly or is steady.
H1: Danish newspapers, both print and online, emphasize advertising and information about as much or more than
US; While Danish print newspapers highlight opinion and deliberation more than US newspapers, this gap
disappears online. Cross-national differences continue to hold online: French tendency to emphasize deliberation
and make room for non-authorial voices.
Some types of media systems are better equipped than others to limit internet-led change.

Partial support for H2 and H3

H2 and H3: Increased advertising and opinion and deliberative genres are related to increased commercial
pressures and market competition. Of the three countries in this study, state subsidies and regulation are arguably
most extensive in France, and in fact, French press changes least from print to online in its mix of genres. Print to
online changes provide some support for H2 and H3.
Prominence of advertising is higher online than in print for newspapers in all three countries, and cross-national
differences are less online than for print. While written news reports decline in prevalence, other information
genres (databases, documents, photos and multimedia) generally increase.
Online news in general tends to be lighter and slightly more sensationalistic .
There is a print to online decline in the proportion of news, a steady amount or slight rise in the amount of
deliberative genres in all three countries, an increase in the amount and prominence of opinion in the US and
France, and an increase in the amount of nonjournalistic authored content in France and the US.
Kesimpulan

More advertising and more localized, light news; slightly more deliberation, more opinion, and more
nonjournalistic voices. Danish print and online newspapers are heavy in commercial content and news and light in
opinion and deliberation
Technology is the engine of change and portrays institutional field or media system factors as tending to maintain
the status quo, an alternative field explanation of change is also possible. Internet technological affordances are
posited to move online news toward more advertising and information (liberal model) and more opinion and
deliberation (polarized pluralist).
In the liberal direction, advertising and more localized, light news increase; toward polarized pluralism, news as a
whole declines while deliberation, opinion, and nonjournalistic voices increase slightly.
A lesser degree of change in France may be due to greater state insulation from market pressures; some
contradictory tendencies in Denmark indicate that technological influences are shaped by contextual national
factors.

5
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)

Sally J. McMillan & Margaret Morrison.

(2006)

Tajuk Kajian

Coming of Age with the internet: A qualitative exploration of how the internet has become an integral part of
young peoples lives.

Tujuan Kajian

To investigate how coming of age concurrently with the internet and related technologies has influenced young
peoples lives

Persoalan Kajian/
Hipotesis
Teori/Model yang
digunakan
Metode Kajian

How is the Internet (technology) integrated into the daily lives and social interactions of young people?

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)
Instrumen Kajian

Autobiographical essays (narrative accounts of interactive media use) written by 72 young adult college
communication students. Participants are born between 1975-1980; Essays written between 1998-2000

Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Themes

Grounded theory; Domains and duality model

Content analysis.

Coding sheet: 1. Open coding compile all 72 accounts into 1 computer file. 2. Break down data into units of
information (axial coding) key topics and themes; Selective coding

Online identities are not substantially different from those developed offline. Participants focused more on
instrumental rather on hedonic uses of the internet. Participants were goal-driven in their media use, the goals they
followed were their own rather than the mandate of an educator, parent or other outside force.
Participant viewed the internet expertise of younger generations in positive terms; many also recognize value in
older ways of doing things. Real communities existed offline.

Kesimpulan

Internet is pervasive. The internet evokes yin and yang feelings for young adults. The yin and yang attitudes
toward the media technologies in their lives are manifest within a context of dependency.
There are clear differences in the way young generation use technologies compared to generations of their parents
and grandparents. Older generations do not understand the potential of interactive technologies. Young adults
build community around interactive technologies.
The family plays a key role in their introduction to interactive technologies with parents and siblings being
especially important. Fathers are characterized as primary facilitators and mothers as laggards. Even within
groups of siblings, media use differs. Older siblings are less adept at using interactive technologies while younger
siblings are described as far ahead of participants in their use of the technologies.
Young adults build and form social relationships online. Many bonds formed online migrate offline to more
traditional settings. The computer is taking on an increased social role for young adults. Dependency on the
internet is so heightened.
Media technologies may threaten to overwhelm young adults. Young adults are aware of both the benefits and
dangers associated with interactive technologies

Lain-lain Catatan

6
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Amani Ismail
(2010)
Making sense of a barrier: US news discourses on Israels dividing wall

Tujuan Kajian

To investigate how mainstream US newspapers construct the Palestinian resort to political violence as a tool
of struggle from nationhood to statehood within one key moment of the intifada: Israels construction of the
370-450 mile dividing wall.
To explore the role of news media as agents of social control and influence

Persoalan Kajian/
Hipotesis

RQ1: How do mainstream US newspapers construct Palestinian and Israeli political violence within the context of
the second intifada, and how can news constructions be understood in light of primordial- and instrumental-type
explanations of national identity and mobilization?

Teori/Model yang
digunakan
Metode Kajian

News Factory analogy

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

Selected news text from mainstream US newspapers available through Lexis-Nexis and EBSCOhost databases.
Purposive sampling of newspapers conducted for wall, West Bank, Israel from August 1 through September
1, 2003.
38 articles from selected newspapers which have (i) correspondents in Israel or the occupied Palestinian
territories, and (ii) selected newspapers have to be among the top 50 US newspapers in terms of daily circulation
figures
Starting point: construction of the dividing wall on June 16, 2002

Instrumen Kajian

Semantic contrast

Teknik Analisis
Data

Descriptive (qualitative)

Textual analysis (Qualitative)

Hasil Kajian

In invoking the nationalism dimension, the news did not handle the primordial element adequately, and that
emphasis on violence and revenge as well as the tragedy of child victimization was particularly prominent.

Kesimpulan

While social control and influence may be significant, the adequacy with which media perform this role is
questioning.

Lain-lain Catatan

7
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Summer Harlow
(2011)
Social media and social movements: Facebook and an online Guatemalan justice movement that moved offline

Tujuan Kajian

To examine how Facebook comments help mobilize and advance an online justice movement that activated an
offline movement; To explore the role of various interactive Facebook features

Persoalan Kajian/
Hipotesis

RQ1a: Who were the organizers of Guatemalas Facebook justice movement?

RQ1b: What were their motivations and expectations?
RQ2a: When considering Gerhards and Ruchts (1992) three collective action frames, were Guatemalan Facebook
users more likely to employ diagnostic, prognostic or motivational frames?
RQ2b: Which thematic frame was most stressed among Facebook comments: an agency frame, values frame,
adversarial frame, or a reflective frame?
RQ3: What topical and functional subframes emerged among Facebook comments?
RQ4: How is the frequency of users posts related to the frames and subframes of a comment?
RQ5: What kinds of news information did Guatemalan Facebook users post?
RQ6: What kinds of interactive comments and interactivity between the real world and virtual world did
Facebook engender?

Teori/Model yang
digunakan
Metode Kajian

Gerhards and Ruchts (1992) collective action frames

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

Content Analysis:
Users comments posted to two Facebook pages leading the movement Justuce Rodrigo Rosenberg and
Movimiento Civico Nacional
In-depth interviews (in Spanish):
with 4 leaders of the Facebook movement (summer 2009) in Guatemala created after the release of the Rosenberg
postmortem video

Instrumen Kajian

Coding Sheet
In-depth Interview Questions

Content analysis; In-depth interview

Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Qualitative/Descriptive Analysis
RQ1: Who were the organizers of Guatemalas Facebook justice movement, and what were their
motivations and expectations?
Young males in their 20s, educated at the countrys elite private universities.
Aim was to inform the public about Rosenbergs murder;
Facebook was the common communication means among Guatemalan youth;
SNS has become one of the main ways to communicate and interact with others, and to give an outlet for the
indignity felt.
RQ2a: When considering Gerhards and Ruchts (1992) three collective action frames, were Guatemalan
Facebook users more likely to employ diagnostic, prognostic or motivational frames?
Most comments were motivational frames.
RQ2b: Which thematic frame was most stressed among Facebook comments: an agency frame, values
frame, adversarial frame, or a reflective frame?
Majority comments fell into the agency frame
RQ3: What topical and functional subframes emerged among Facebook comments?
Topical subframes: Support for the movement/ general encouragement
Functional subframes: Most called for action (encouraging others to attend a protest, sign a petition, spread word
about the movement, or conveyed information)
RQ4: How is the frequency of users posts related to the frames and subframes of a comment?
Most were low-frequency posters who posted just once in a day;
Among collective action frames, more high-frequency posters wrote comments with a motivational frame.
RQ5: What kinds of news information did Guatemalan Facebook users post?
Textual links mostly to online mainstream news articles and non-mainstream/alternative news articles.
RQ6: What kinds of interactive comments and interactivity between the real world and virtual world
did Facebook engender?
Response to other users comments.

Kesimpulan

Young educated males who use Facebook to express their frustration with the government and escalating violence
did so never imagining the site would prove to be such a powerful force for uniting tens of thousands of
Guatemalans in protest and prompting a networked social movement.
Without Facebook, such a large movement never would have been mobilized.
The framing, topics and functions of the online comments prompted offline action by emphasizing protests and
calling on others to participate and spread the word.
Comments were framed in such a way as to motivate others to get involved in the movement and participate in
offline activities, whether attending protests or signing petitions.
The topical subframe of most Facebook users comments was protest-related.
The functional subframe -- a call for action
Comments from low-frequency posters expressed values, while high-frequency posters were more about action,
emphasizing protest participation.
The online Facebook movement spurred offline protests, igniting a pro-justice/anti-violence movement that
struggles on today.

Lain-lain Catatan

8
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Louis Leung & Ran Wei

(1999)
Who are the mobile phone have-nots? Influences and consequences

Tujuan Kajian

To examine the non-adoption of a new telecommunications innovation: the cellular mobile telephone

Persoalan
RQ1: In what ways do the mobile phone have-nots differ from the haves in terms of socio-economics, ownership
Kajian/ Hipotesis of other telecommunications technologies, and mass media use?
RQ2: What are the relative influences of socioeconomics, ownership of other telecommunications technologies,
perceived attributes of the mobile phone, change agent contacts, and mass media use in predicting the likelihood
for the have-nots to adopt a mobile phone?
H1:1
H1:2
H1:3
H1:4
H1:5

Mobile phone have-nots who are older will be less likely to have a mobile phone
Mobile phone have-nots whose education level are lower will be less likely to have a mobile phone
Mobile phone have-nots who are older will be less likely to have a mobile phone
Mobile phone have-nots whose incomes are lower will be less likely to have a mobile phone
Mobile phone have-nots whose family size is smaller will be less likely to have a mobile phone

H2: The fewer functionally similar telephone-related technologies or services the mobile phone have-nots own,
the less likely they will have a mobile phone.
H3:1 The more the have-nots perceive mobile phones compatible with their existing values, the more likely they
will have one.
H3:2 The less complex the have-nots perceive mobile phones, the more likely they will have one.
H3:3 The more benefits the have-nots can observe from using mobile phones, the more likely they will have one.
H3:4 The more advantages the have-nots perceive in using mobile phones, the more likely they will have one.
H4:1
H4:2
H5:1
H5:2
H5:3

Have-nots who have spoken to salespeople about mobile phones will be more likely to have one.
Have-nots who have spoken to friends about mobile phones will be more likely to have one.
The more television the have-nots watch, the more likely they will have a mobile phone
The more radio the have-nots listen to, the more likely they will have a mobile phone
The more newspapers and magazines the have-nots read, the more likely they will have a mobile phone

Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Diffusion of innovation theory

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

834 respondents among Hong Kong population (Above 6.3 million; penetration rate 38%), May 1998
[Probability random sample drawn from the most updated edition of the telephone directories territory-wide]
Randomly selected 100 respondents interviewed

Telephone survey; Interview

Instrumen Kajian Interview questions using computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) system
+ One open-ended question about the reasons why they have the perceived attributes of wireless technology
Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Canonical discriminant analysis; Correlation analysis; Hierarchical multiple regression analysis

446 (53.5 %) mobile phone users; 388 (46.5 %) non-users
RQ1: In what ways do the mobile phone have-nots differ from the haves in terms of socio-economics,
ownership of other telecommunications technologies, and mass media use?
The have-nots tended to be older females with lower household income and education attainment;.
They had pagers as an alternative; predominantly blue-collar workers. They do not subscribe to caller ID
display service at home. They earn an average of US$1290 less a month; They read less newspapers and
magazines than the haves.
RQ2: What are the relative influences of socioeconomics, ownership of other telecommunications
technologies, perceived attributes of the mobile phone, change agent contacts, and mass media use in
predicting the likelihood for the have-nots to adopt a mobile phone?
Owning or subscribing to other telecommunications technologies not important in contributing to the likelihood
for the have-nots to adopt a mobile phone; The more observable benefits the mobile phone offered and the less
incompatible values it possessed, the higher the likelihood for the have-nots to adopt a mobile phone; The only
significant change agent contact was friends. Mass media was not significant in predicting the likelihood for the
have-nots to adopt a mobile phone. Socioeconomics, especially age, were the most influential; Influence of
friends in the have-nots circle was of secondary importance;

H1: 1-5 Supported

H1:1 Mobile phone have-nots who are older will be less likely to have a mobile phone
H1:2 Mobile phone have-nots whose education level are lower will be less likely to have a mobile phone
H1:3 Mobile phone have-nots who are older will be less likely to have a mobile phone
H1:4 Mobile phone have-nots whose incomes are lower will be less likely to have a mobile phone
H1:5 Mobile phone have-nots whose family size is smaller will be less likely to have a mobile phone
H2 Supported
H2: The fewer functionally similar telephone-related technologies or services the mobile phone have-nots own,
the less likely they will have a mobile phone.
H3: 1-3 Supported; H3:4 Rejected
H3:1 The more the have-nots perceive mobile phones compatible with their existing values, the more likely they
will have one.
H3:2 The less complex the have-nots perceive mobile phones, the more likely they will have one.
H3:3 The more benefits the have-nots can observe from using mobile phones, the more likely they will have one.
H3:4 The more advantages the have-nots perceive in using mobile phones, the more likely they will have one.
H4: 1-2 Supported
H4:1 Have-nots who have spoken to salespeople about mobile phones will be more likely to have one.
H4:2 Have-nots who have spoken to friends about mobile phones will be more likely to have one.
H5: 1-3 Rejected
H5:1 The more television the have-nots watch, the more likely they will have a mobile phone
H5:2 The more radio the have-nots listen to, the more likely they will have a mobile phone
H5:3 The more newspapers and magazines the have-nots read, the more likely they will have a mobile phone
Kesimpulan

Socioeconomic characteristics are still useful predictors in differentiating the haves and have-nots.
When people did not have a mobile phone, it is likely that they would be bypassed by other telephony technologies
due to the lack of educational and financial resources. When attributes of mobile phones were perceived positively,
these qualities had the power to convert non-adopters. There is a polarizing phenomenon in owning new
communication technologies; there is a widening gap between haves and have-nots

9
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian
Tujuan Kajian

Emily K. Vraga, Stephanie Edgerly, Bryan M. Wang, & Dhavan V. Shah

(2011)
Who taught me that? Repurposed news, blog structure, and source identification
To examine how the manner in which information is organized and the motivations that readers bring to such
communication contexts affect the subsequent encoding process

Persoalan
H1a: Among individuals who are lower in need for cognition, those exposed to an interspersed commentary will
Kajian/ Hipotesis have significantly lower total source identification compared to those exposed to a global commentary, but this
difference will not be evident among people with higher need for cognition.
H1b: Among individuals who are exposed to blog commentary congruent with their partisan identity, those
exposed to an interspersed commentary will have significantly lower total source identification compared to those
exposed to a global commentary, but this difference will not be evident among people exposed to incongruent blog
commentory.
RQ1a: Will the structure of the commentary have differential effects on news and blogger source identification
among those lower in need for cognition?
RQ1b: Will the structure of the commentary have differential effects on news and blogger source identification
among those exposed to a congruent partisan message?
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian
Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

Nil
Experiment (embedded in a web survey)
Content: a fictitious news story (attributed to AP) about global climate change policy accompanied by
commentary from a political blogger
877 Undergraduate students at a large university in Midwestern USA; with political affiliations to Democrat or
Republicans. (minus Independent/third-party affiliation Final Total = 773)
Predominantly female, average just over 20 years old. Spring 2007

Instrumen Kajian Brief questionnaire on Need for Cognition and General Media Trust.
Source Identification of News Story
Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Two-way ANOVA, Pairwise comparison, Fact recall

H1a Supported
H1a: Among individuals who are lower in need for cognition, those exposed to an interspersed commentary will
have significantly lower total source identification compared to those exposed to a global commentary, but this
difference will not be evident among people with higher need for cognition.
H1b Supported
H1b: Among individuals who are exposed to blog commentary congruent with their partisan identity, those
exposed to an interspersed commentary will have significantly lower total source identification compared to those
exposed to a global commentary, but this difference will not be evident among people exposed to incongruent blog
commentory.
RQ1a: Will the structure of the commentary have differential effects on news and blogger source
identification among those lower in need for cognition?
RQ1b: Will the structure of the commentary have differential effects on news and blogger source
identification among those exposed to a congruent partisan message?
An interspersed structure may hinder the process of correctly identifying the source of information among those
less engaged in processingthose lower in need for cognition or in a politically congruent message environment

Kesimpulan

Lain-lain Catatan

While changes in format do not significantly affect peoples fact recall, it can affect their ability to correctly
identify the source of their learning.
Among people with a lower need for cognition or those confronted with congruent partisan messages, the change
in structure from a global to an interspersed structure, affects their ability to correctly identify information,
leading to misidentification of whether facts emanated from a news report or from blog commentary.
Those motivated to process the information thoroughly, either by individual differences or contextual differences,
are able to navigate the more complex intermingle structure without confusion.

10
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Scott W. Campbell
(2007)
A cross-cultural comparison of perceptions and uses of mobile telephony

Tujuan Kajian

To explore the cultural similarities and differences in perceptions and uses of mobile telephony

Persoalan
RQ1: To what extent do perceptions and uses of the mobile phone differ among a sample of mobile phone users
Kajian/ Hipotesis from Hawaii, Japan, Sweden, Taiwan, USA?
RQ2: To what extent do perceptions and uses of the mobile phone differ among age and gender groups in the
sample of mobile phone users from Hawaii, Japan, Sweden, Taiwan, USA?
To assess the following:
(i)
perceptions of the mobile phone as fashion;
(ii)
attitudes about mobile phone use in public settings;
(iii)
use of the mobile phone for safety/security;
(iv)
use of the mobile phone for instrumental purposes,
(v)
use of the mobile phone for expressive purposes
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Social Influence model of technology use

Survey

Sampel/Subjek
318 College students from Hawaii (53), Japan (26), Sweden (29), Taiwan (34), USA (89)
Kajian + Lokasi
Average age =25; 50 % undergraduates, 42 % postgraduates, 8% taking courses
Kajian (+N)
Instrumen Kajian Self-report survey with 61 items developed by Campbell & Russo (2003)
Teknik Analisis
Data

A one-way factorial multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA); Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Hasil Kajian

RQ1: Some significant differences and similarities in how phone users from Hawaii, Japan, Sweden,
Taiwan, USA perceive and use mobile phones.
Participants from USA and Hawaii used their mobile phones significantly more for safety/security than those from
Sweden;
Participants from Sweden and Hawaii were significantly more tolerant of mobile phone use in public than
participants from Japan;
RQ2: To what extent do perceptions and uses of the mobile phone differ among age and gender groups in
the sample of mobile phone users from Hawaii, Japan, Sweden, Taiwan, USA?
Lack of homogeneity of variance, so variables removed from study.

Kesimpulan
Lain-lain Catatan

There are some significant differences and several similarities in how users from Hawaii, Japan, Sweden, Taiwan,
USA perceive and use mobile phones.

11
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian
Tujuan Kajian

Jaana Hujanen & Sari Pietikainen

(2004)
Interactive uses of journalism: Crossing between technological potential and young peoples news-using practices
To examine the interactive uses of journalism, focusing on the changes brought by new communication technology
in the everyday news media uses of young Finns.

Persoalan
What are the general patterns and tendencies of the interactive use of journalism among Finns?
Kajian/ Hipotesis How do young Finns participate in the news media?
What is the role of new communication technology in interaction?
What meanings do they give to the interactive use of journalism?
What hinders or reinforces interaction?
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Media Culture
Survey (Autumn 1999); In-depth interviews (Autumn 2001)

Sampel/Subjek
698 Finns born in 1980,1982, 1984,1986 -- 337 males and 361 females;
Kajian + Lokasi
Indepth interviews with 11 young Finns who were free to make their own media choices.
Kajian (+N)
Instrumen Kajian Questionnaire with 121 questions; Interview questions
Teknik Analisis
Data

Descriptive statistics

Hasil Kajian

New communication technologies have not changed the use of journalism among young Finns at the turn of the
millennium; vast majority of young Finns preferred printed newspapers (39%) and TV news (42%) as the primary
forum of following news because they were user-friendly.
65% were familiar with news on the internet but only 3% read news on the internet daily.
The technical nature of digital forums also contributed to favouring the more traditional news media among the
young Finns.
Young Finns were familiar with new communication technologies and recognized their potential for easier
interactive communication but were not used interactively to any great extent.
About 85% followed the news media regularly.
Interaction with newsroom favoured by young Finnish girls;
18 participants had taken part in competition or polls; 14 participants had expressed their opinions by writing
letters to the editor or the youth section, or participating in the news media; 5 % had given feedback, 3% had sent
hints for journalists, 2 % had sent questions,

Kesimpulan

Young Finns have easy access to new communication technology;

Interactive use of journalism seems to be individualized entertainment for the majority of the young people that
were studied, and only for few was it a platform for active citizenship.
The young participated more often with printed journalism rather than online versions or TV news (untouchables).
Participation of young Finns is a mixture of heterogeneous activities, including quizzing, voicing opinions and
commenting on journalism.

Lain-lain Catatan

12
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Bayu Sutikno & Julian Ming-Sung Cheng

(2012)
How global companies communicate in host country: a glocalisation strategy in web space

Tujuan Kajian

To study the glocalisation strategies of corporate web sites and depiction of cultural values

Persoalan
H1: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
Kajian/ Hipotesis depiction of features of collectivism
H2: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
depiction of uncertainty avoidance features.
H3: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
depiction of power distance features.
H4: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
depiction of masculinity features.
H5: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
depiction of high context features.
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Hofstedes cultural framework; Halls communication context dimension

Content analysis

Sampel/Subjek
The 100 best global brands selected as sampling frame.
Kajian + Lokasi
Select 47 international brands identified as having Indonesian websites.
Kajian (+N)
Instrumen Kajian Coding sheet
Teknik Analisis
Data

Second step: MANOVA analysis (quantitative)

Hasil Kajian

The 47 international brands web sites from9 different countries of origin: US (23), Germany (8), France (2), UK
(2), Netherlands (2), Switzerland (1), Finland (1), Korea (3), and Japan (5)
29 web sites are durable goods category; 15 websites are services category
H1, H2, H3, H5 supported
H4 NOT supported
H1: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
depiction of features of collectivism (Supported)
H2: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
depiction of uncertainty avoidance features. (Supported)
H3: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
depiction of power distance features. (Supported)
H4: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
depiction of masculinity features. (NOT Supported)
H5: the glocalisation strategies of web site content (high local, high global, truly global, mediocre) differ in their
depiction of high context features. (Supported)

Kesimpulan

Lain-lain Catatan

In general, there are differences in four cultural dimensions, viz., collectivism, high uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, and high context of communication. The majority of international best brands that have Indonesian
versions of their web sites reflected their high global strategy and these websites were adapted to the local cultures
of Indonesia. Cultural sensitivity is a critical factor in communication and must be taken into account if the web
site is to be an effective vehicle for communication in a cross-cultural context.

13
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian
Tujuan Kajian

Nancy K. Baym & Yan Bing Zhang

(2004)
Social interactions across media
To examine the relative place of online social activity among college students and compare to socializing in other
media (face-to-face and telephones) directly

Persoalan
RQ1: What kinds of internet media do college students report using for significant social interactions?
Kajian/ Hipotesis
RQ2: What are the relative frequencies of significant voluntary social interactions that college students report
conducting on the internet in comparison to face-to-face conversations and telephone calls?
RQ3: How many media do students report using for significant social interactions over a 3 to 5-day time span?
RQ4: On average, how many relationships are sustained only through the internet?
RQ5: What are the relative percentages of students social interactions that are maintained through the use of the
internet in comparison to those maintained through face-to-face communication, telephone calls and mail?
RQ6: How does college students use of communication media to maintain relationships are local, long distance,
and close long distance?
RQ7: Does college students use of the internet in their social circles correlate with the use of other media within
those circles?
RQ8: Are media used in different amounts depending on the purpose of the interaction (social vs. non-social)?
RQ9: How do the physical contexts (location, local vs. long-distance, presence of others, and engagement of other
activities) of online interactions differ from those in other media (face-to-face conversations and telephone calls)?
RQ10: Does the perceived quality of interaction depend on medium, relationship, purpose, or interactions among
those variables?

Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Nil

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

51 students taking introductory public-speaking courses at two large midwestern universities

36 females and 14 males/ 35 white, 6 African-American, 5 Hispanic, 3 Asian/Pacific islanders, 2 Others.

Survey

SURVEY: 496 college students from a Midwestern university

203 males, 293 females/ 424 white, 20 African-American, 11 Hispanic, 20 Asian/Pacific islanders, 13 Others, 4
Native Americans, 1 no answer.
Instrumen Kajian Diary
Teknik Analisis
Data

Frequency and %; Correlation; Fishers least significant difference post-hoc analyses;

Tukeys higher significant difference post-hoc analyses

Hasil Kajian

STUDY 1:
RQ1: Almost all of the internet interactions were email (72.79%), chat (19.85%), and instant messaging (7.35%).
No interactions via newsgroups, MUDs,role-playing games, etc.
RQ2: Most (64%) were F2F, 18.4% telephone calls and 16.1% internet interactions.
RQ3: People conducted their social lives through at least two, and often three channels on any given day.
STUDY 2:
RQ1: Almost all of the internet interactions were email (71.1%), and instant messaging (28.9%).
RQ4: Of the average of 36.77 people in their local and long-distance social circles combined, subjects
communicated with an average of 2.65 through the internet alone. Maintained online.
RQ5 and RQ6: Social circles were the local and long-distant and, within each of these, the subset of close
relationships. Single relationships are maintained through multiple media.

Local relationships maintained F2F (73.49%), telephone (49.32%), internet (35.07%), mail(5.6%).
Long distance relationships maintained by telephone (49.61%), internet (48.99%), F2F (41.55%),
RQ7: positive correlation between estimated % on OL interaction with all three other media in all four circles.
RQ8: Interactions in all three media were predominantly social (internet 85.4%, F2F 79.3%, telephone78.9%).
RQ9: Majority of reported F2F (49.1%), telephone calls (75.2%), OL interactions (73.5%) were conducted at
home. Telephone calls mainly at work or school. OL interaction less frequently inpublic places.
RQ10: The social/non-social main effect indicated that interactions facilitating social goals were perceived as
higher quality than those which were not social in purpose.
The main internet medium for social interaction was e-mail (Both Study 1 and Study 2)
The connections between OL and offline social life: the average student reported only 2-3 internet only
relationships, which may well have been established F2F
Local relationship were most likely to use F2F conversation and least likely to use internet.
In long distance relationship, the internet was used in nearly as many relationships as the telephone, more than F2F
conversation.
People were more likely to use F2F conversations and telephone calls in more intimate relationships.
Those who use the internet the most are more sociable in the first place. The more they reported using the internet
to maintain their social relationships, the more likely they were to use F2F conversations, telephone calls, and
mail.
Differences did emerge regarding purposes, contexts, and quality. Internet interactions were more likely to be for
social purpose rather than F2F and telephone calls. There was no interaction effect between social purposes and
perceived quality. The home emerged as the place of internet use. Tel calls and F2F conversations

Kesimpulan

Quantity of interactions in other media does not seem to be threatened by social internet use.
F2F communication was by far the most common mode of local interaction, and was only slightly less common in
long distance relationship than the internet.
The more people the students communicated via the internet, the more they communicated with F2F and
telephone.
The quality of OL interactions was lower than that of F2F conversations, but only by the slimmest of margins.
Students supplement high-quality F2F conversations and telephone calls with good internet interactions.

Lain-lain Catatan

14
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian
Tujuan Kajian

Anne Cooper-Chen
(2012)
Cartoon planet: the cross-cultural acceptance of Japanese animation
To investigate the worldwide spread of Japanese cartoon culture
To explore why there is cross-cultural adaptation and acceptance of Japanese animation

Persoalan
RQ1: Do anime creators intentionally target an international audience?
Kajian/ Hipotesis
Proposition 1: Anime popular outside Japan will differ from anime popular in Japan
Proposition 2: The popularity of specific anime will differ among importing nations
Proposition 3: The popularity of anime will be greatest in Asia
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Hofstedes Dimensions of Cultural Variability

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

China (Asian consumer) and USA (non-Asian consumer).

Survey (Fall 2008-January 2009); Interview (2008. 2009) with persons from other nations at the Tokyo
International Anime Fair, the Tokyo International Book Fair and other meetings/conferences in China, Taiwan,
France, Tunisia and Japan.

INTERVIEWS with:
(i)
Japanese experts on cartoons,
(ii)
Japanese domestic creators of cartoons (artists, publishers and editors),
(iii)
Japanese marketers of the cartoons overseas, overseas merchants who sell Japanese cartoon products,
(iv)
Overseas non Japanese processors (both publishers and translators) of the cartoons for overseas
audiences
(v)
Non Japanese experts on cartoons
(vi)
Overseas consumers of the cartoons
119 freshmen through seniors at a prominent university in Beijing

Instrumen Kajian Questionnaire; TV Ratings data; Cartoon programme schedule by Cartoon Network (Turner Broadcasting) since
1992
Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Descriptive
RQ1: Do anime creators intentionally target an international audience?
The key to ninternational intentions lies with the manga (comic book) artist
Proposition 1: The most popular TV cartoon series in Japan do indeed differ from those that do well overseas in
the USA
Proposition 2: Sazae-san the most watched TV cartoon in Japan for 2008 does not run well in any overseas
markets that the researcher could locate. Crayon Shin-Chan from China is not right for all markets.
Doraemon is popular across Asia but not the USA. There are anime clubs in nearly every university and high
school in China. The second most popular TV cartoon in 2008, Chibi Maruko-Chan has never run on
mainstream USTV
Proposition 3:
Asia ia the no. 1 manga market. Doraemons top markets are Taiwan and Hong Kong. In Korea, a ban on Japanese
anime and manga only created a forbidden fruit syndrome.

Kesimpulan

Lain-lain Catatan

Anime popular outside Japan differs from anime popular in Japan; The popularity of specific anime differs
among importing nations; The popularity of anime is greatest in Asia; Anime creators do not intentionally target
international audiences.

15
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian
Tujuan Kajian

Jae Eun Chung

(2011)
Mapping International Film Trade: Network analysis of International Film Trade between 1996 and 2004
To explore structural changes and continuities in the international film trade during the past decade.
To examine the role of language and geographic location as antecedent conditions that serve to organize world film
trading structure

Persoalan
H1: The flow of global film trade is denser in 2004 than in 1996.
Kajian/ Hipotesis
H2: The global film trade structure is more equalized and less centralized in 2004 than in 1996.
H3: Film trade is more likely to occur in a direction from a country with a larger market size to a country with a
smaller market size
H4: Film trade is more likely to occur within blocs of the same (a) language and (b) geographic region.
H5: Film trade within blocs of the same (a) linguistic affinity and (b) geographic proximity increased from1996 to
2004.
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Media imperialism; Medial imperialism.

Network analysis

Sampel/Subjek
Film trade data obtained from the United Nations Commodity Trade (UN Comtrade) Statistics Database from1996
Kajian + Lokasi
to 2004; Sample 118 countries
Kajian (+N)
Instrumen Kajian Network analysis softwaresUCINET6 and MultiNet for Windows 4.76; Assymetrical directional network
matrices
Teknik Analisis
Data

Network Analysis; t-test, chi square, frequency.

Hasil Kajian

Among 182 countries, 119 countries in 1996 and 125 countries in 2004 exported their films to at least one foreign
country. Among 182 countries, 23 countries in 1996 and 25 countries in 2004 neither imported nor exported films.
USA exported films to the greatest number of countries.
H1: The flow of global film trade is denser in 2004 than in 1996 (Supported)
H2: The global film trade structure is more equalizer and less centralized in 2004 than in 1996. (NOT
Supported). The global film trade structure did not equalize over 8 years between 1996 2004.
H3: Film trade is more likely to occur in a direction from a country with a larger market size to a country with a
smaller market size (Supported)
H4: Film trade is more likely to occur within blocs of the same (a) language and (b) geographic region.
(Supported)
H5: Film trade within blocs of the same (a)language and (b) geographic region increased from1996 to 2004.
(Supported)

Kesimpulan

The structure of global film trade has become denser over time, especially due to the increase in film exchanges
among English and Spanish-speaking countries and among countries located in Asia and Europe. The global film
trade has become more equalized over time.
Countries tend to form linguistic blocs in trading their filmsEnglish and Spanish film blocs. The global film
trade still remains largely the preserve of a few dominant countries; Geo-linguistic factors play important roles in
some geographic regions and linguistic blocs to a greater degree than in others
Cultural imperialism continues to be relevant for the global exchange of films. The dual forceseconomic and
culturalare influencing and working against each other in shaping the structureof the global flow of media
products. There exist more subtle and indirect forms of transactions, such as financial partnerships, sales of script
and format, foreign commissioning and versioning.

Lain-lain Catatan

16
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Sonia Livingstone & Ellen Helsper

(2007)
Gradations in digital inclusion: children, young people and the digital divide

Tujuan Kajian

To examine inequalities in the take-up of online opportunities according to age, gender and socio-economic status

Persoalan
RQ1: Is there a digital divide among children and young people? If so, what role do age, gender and socioKajian/ Hipotesis economic status play in access to and use of the internet?
RQ2: Who makes little or no use of the internet and why?
RQ3: Are there gradations in quality of internet use among children and young people and, if so, how can these be
explained?
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Digital divide; digital inclusion.

National survey UK Children Go Online (UKCGO); In-home, 40-minute, F2F, multi-media computer-assisted
personal interview (with children); [Field work research conducted by a reputable market research company
(BMRB International)

Sampel/Subjek
1511 Children and young people age 9-19 Effective sample = 1375; Random location sampling across the UK
Kajian + Lokasi
1077 parents of those aged 9-17 N=920
Kajian (+N)
Instrumen Kajian Interview Questions; Questionnaire
Teknik Analisis
Data

Descriptive

Hasil Kajian

RQ1: Is there a digital divide among children and young people? If so, what role do age, gender and socioeconomic status play in access to and use of the internet?
Majority children and young people access the internet at home (74%) or at school (92%). Only 3 % are non-users
22% of parents are non-users. In UK 1/3 lack access to the internet
Boys use internet more than girls; have been online longer, and spend longer online. Middle-class children make
systematically more use of the internet than the working class. Children from lower SES homes who have home
internet access use it just as much as those from higher SES homes.
A binary divide between haves and have-nots no longer applies to young people as it does to the adult
population.
RQ2: Who makes little or no use of the internet and why?
Youngest age group who lacks access and stopped using
Among the oldest age group of 18-19 year-olds: while lack of access is still a problem, some drop out voluntarily
Among younger teenagers, most non-users are voluntary drop-outs.
The proportion of drop-outs rises with age, and access remains an issue, especially for the oldest group.
REASONS:
Limited access,
Lack of interest
Parental restriction
Lack of skills (has bigger impact than age)
RQ3: Are there gradations in quality of internet use among children and young people and, if so, how can
these be explained?
Going online is a staged process.
Step 1 -- information seeking (Basic users)
Step 2 add games and email (Moderate users)
Step 3 add IMS and downloading music (Broad users)
Step 4 adds wide range of interactive and creative uses (all-rounders)

Kesimpulan

Non-users or occasional users are more likely to be from working class households and from 9-11 or 18-19 year
old age group
Those who go online at least weekly are spread across SES categories, mainly for school work, information,
games and e-mail
The daily users come from middle class homes and benefit from better quality internet access.

Lain-lain Catatan

17
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Trisha T.C. Lin & Yu-li Liu

(2011)
The development of mobile broadcasting TV: A socio-technical comparison of Singapore and Taiwan

Tujuan Kajian

To investigate market trials of mobile broadcasting TV in Singapore and Taiwan

To examine complex relations between the co-evolving subsystems of industry/market, policy, and technology
Persoalan
How will this mobile technology evolve?
Kajian/ Hipotesis How would the driving forces shape the development of mobile broadcasting in Singapore and Taiwan?
Teori/Model
yang digunakan

Socio-technical framework;
Subscription model, Free-to-air model (FTA), Cross-country comparisons; Social construction of technology
(SCOT) theory.

Metode Kajian

Case Study/In-depth interviews

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

Policy makers in MDA (Singapore), NCC and MOTC (Taiwan); Industrial leaders who participated in the mobile
broadcasting TV market trials in two countries; Key stakeholders in industry players and regulators. MTVS market
trial reports, the proposed policy plans, and second-hand data (critics comments on news reports)

Instrumen Kajian Observation guide, Interview Questions

Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Descriptive

Kesimpulan

The cultural factor is considered as the underlying shaping power of the three subsystems and subtly affects
technological development

Lain-lain Catatan

Singapore is likely to chose the DVB-H standard and adopt the subscription model; Taiwan will adopt DVB-H
and Media-FLO and apply a hybrid model

18
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian
Tujuan Kajian

Adcharawan Buripakdi
(2012)
The marginalized positions of Thai professional writers on the global hegemony of English
To explore how Thai professional writers conceptualized their English in relation to Thai English and the concept
of World Englishes.

Persoalan
RQ1: How do Thai professional writers position themselves in relation to the discourse of Thai English?
Kajian/ Hipotesis
RQ2: What are the underlying assumptions that Thai professional writers have toward the concept of Thai
English?
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

World Englishes paradigm; Text analysis framework; Grounded theory approach; Rhetorical move analysis

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

20 Thai bilingual fiction and non-fiction writers (10 English newspaper columnists, 5 fiction writers (poets,
novelists, short story writers writing in Thai and English) and 5 non-fiction writers (textbooks, business columns
in both English and Thai) in Bangkok

In-depth interviews

Instrumen Kajian Interview questions (4 thematic areas)

Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Descriptive
Most of the writers had different ways to distant themselves from Thai English. Majority of the participants
expressed a marginalized view toward their English; Their attitudes were greatly influenced by Standard English.
RQ1: Thai professional writers have negative construction of self in relation to the discourse of Thai English and .
positive lexicalization toward English
RQ2: Majority perceived Thai English as not international, not professional not acceptable not proper,
not standard not original type of English to be used in English contexts.

Kesimpulan

Thai perceptions of the English language conformed to a colonial, hierarchical standpoint which privileged the
types of English spoken and written within the US and Great Britain and denigrated spoken and written Thai
English.
Theres interaction of power, discourse, position of authority and attainment in standard English. Theres global
hegemony of English in Thailand.
Discourse of self-marginalization stereotype move and the negative construction of self move.
Theres a deep and pervasive underlying prejudice against Thai English and other non-English varieties.

Lain-lain Catatan

19
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian
Tujuan Kajian

Caitlin McLaughlin and Jessica Vitak

(2011)
Norm evolution and violation on Facebook
To explore how norms on social network sites evolve over time and how violations of these norms impact
individuals self-presentational and relationship goals.

Persoalan
RQ1: What are the overarching norms of use for college-aged social network site (SNS) users?
Kajian/ Hipotesis
RQ2: How do users norms of behavior change over time, and what motivates this change?
RQ3: What norm and expectancy violations do college students observe on SNSs?
RQ4: How do college student SNS users react to norm and expectancy violations from differently valenced
communication partners?
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Expectancy Violations Theory

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

26 participants divided into 5 groups of 3-7 Undergraduate students at a large Midwestern university;
Majority male (53.8%), White (61.5%), entering their senior year. Duration -- 90 minutes each FGD, held on
campus, June 2010. Audio and video recorded

Focus Group Discussion

Instrumen Kajian Group interview questions

Teknik Analisis
Data

Situational analysis

Hasil Kajian

RQ1: The overarching norms of use for college-aged social network site (SNS) users are the norm of
consideration or privacy among friends; Females are more concerned than males with self-presentation goals on
Facebook.
RQ2: Behavioral norms changed over time. The content of users profiles changed over time. They increased
their privacy settings once the media began publishing stories about negative consequences resulting from
Facebook posts; The older users more likely to have profiles aimed at impressing employers than younger users;
profiles were typified by less personal information, more job-related information on the profile, and more
professional profile pictures.
RQ3: Theres a desire to conform to the norms of the site and be considerate of other members, and to have others
demonstrate the same respect by being conservative with status updates. Heated interactions, fights, name calling,
airing private or sensitive grievances through Facebooks public features are common norm violations.
Posts or pictures that might reflect negatively on an individual should not be tagged on Facebook
RQ4: For close, communicative friends, tagging a photo or sending a supporting message is fulfillment of
positive expectations, but for acquaintances it is an expectancy violation that may positively impact the nature of a
friendship. Examples of negative expectancy violations: not finishing group work on time because of partying
Confrontation is much more likely for close friends than for acquaintances. Compensation more likely for
acquaintances.

Kesimpulan
Lain-lain Catatan

Social etiquette is alive and well in SNS world.

20
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian

Francis L. F. Lee
(2012)
News fromYouTube: Professional incorporation in Hong Kong newspaper coverage of online videos

Tujuan Kajian

To examine newspaper coverage of online videos in Hong Kong.

Persoalan
RQ1: What are the characteristics of the online video coverage in mainstream newspapers in Hong Kong?
Kajian/ Hipotesis
RQ2: How did the newspapers appropriate online videos to serve their existing professional and/or organizational
goals?
RQ3:Whether and in what ways did the online video coverage of different newspapers become more similar to
each other over time?
Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Online Journalism, Mainstream Journalism.

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

342 articles from four Hong Kong newspapers, 2007-2009

Most widely circulated mass-oriented and highly commercialized newspaper in Hong Kong--Oriental Daily (77
articles), Apple Daily (154 srticles),
Most widely-circulated among the elite-oriented newspapers--Ming Pao (28 articles),
One of four free newspapers in Hong Kong -- Headline Daily (83 articles)

Content analysis; Textual analysis

Instrumen Kajian Coding sheet

Teknik Analisis
Data

Qualitative analysis; keyword search text.

Hasil Kajian

RQ1: There is a decline of the amount of online video coverage in mainstream newspapers in Hong Kong, over
time : 194 articles published in 2007, 92 in 2008 and 56 in 2009. The decline can be explained partly by the loss
of novelty of online videos and partly by Apples decision to end the web news section.
308 of the 342 videos reported were user created whereas 20 were clips taken from the mainstream media. The
remaining 14 were mixed. Videos were uploaded onto YouTube mostly by ordinary people: only 14 distributed by
some other entities (civic or political groups).
Theres a process of routinization in the handling of online videos. The newsworthiness of online videos has
become more and more a matter of the journalists own judgment. The 342 articles quoted a total of 284 elite
sources and 234 citizen sources
RQ2: Online videos serve as (i) Human interest space filler (ii) recordings of conventional news events (iii)
Watchdog coverage (iv) public reactions
RQ3: Majority involved some kind of citizen misbehaviours; only 6.7% is about questionable conduct of public
authorities, and 2.9% directly related to concurrent policy and/or political debates

Kesimpulan

Although the majority of the news sources used remain elite ones, a substantial proportions of citizen sources was
used in news about online videos.
Various types of citizen misdeeds arguably constitute an emerging news topic in contemporary Hong Kong.
Alternatively, highly commercialized news outlets may cater to the publics interest through covering the private
lives and scandals surrounding celebrities and public figures.
Online videos also facilitate more watchdog journalism as YouTube and other video sharing sites become channels
for citizens to expose the wrongdoings of public authorities and private corporations.
The influence of YouTube or other SNSs on the society at large is partly mediated by how mainstream media
selectively appropriate the online contents. The social influence of online contents can be limited without the
mainstream media serving as the amplifier.

Lain-lain Catatan

21
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian
Tujuan Kajian

Jaemin Jung, Sylvia Chan-Olmsted, Bellnine Park & Youngju Kim

(2011)
Factors affecting e-book reader awareness, interest, and intention to use
To identify the predictors of e-book reader diffusion with regard to consumer awareness, interest and intention to
use

Persoalan
H1: Younger, more educated, higher income male respondents will show higher awareness, interest, and intention
Kajian/ Hipotesis to use e-book readers
H2: Media use specifically, the use of newspapers, television, radio, and the internet will relate positively to ebook reader awareness, interest, and intention to use.
H3: Users gratification from print media (i.e. newspapers, magazines and books) will relate positively to e-book
reader awareness, interest and intention to use.
H4: Users perceived need for print media (i.e. newspapers, magazines and books) will relate positively to e-book
reader awareness, interest and intention to use.
H5: A consumers ownership of digital media devices will relate positively to his or her e-book reader awareness,
interest, and intention to use.
H6: Personal innovativeness (i.e. self-efficacy and novelty seeking) will relate positively to e-book reader
awareness, interest, and intention to use.
H7: The perceived attributes of an e-book reader in its relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability,
and trialibility, will relate to e-book reader awareness, interest, and intention to use.
RQ: What is the relative influence of an individual variable and the variable blocks i.e. (1) demographics, (2)
media use, (3) gratification from print media, (4) perceived needs met by print media, (5) digital media ownership,
(6) personal innovativeness, and (7) innovation attributes in predicting e-book reader awareness, interest, and
intention to use?.

Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Innovation Diffusion theory; Uses and gratifications framework

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

500 South Korean adults aged 20 years or older selected via Non-probability stratified sampling.
Subgroups categorized by gender, age and residential area (metropolitan cities, medium-sized cities, rural areas)
via Quota sampling method.

National survey, September October 2009; F2F personal survey interviews

Instrumen Kajian Questionnaires

Teknik Analisis
Data

Bivariate zero-order correlations to test hypothesis; Hierarchical regression procedures to examine relative
influence of DVs over e-reader awareness, interest and intention to use.

Hasil Kajian

H1: Younger, more educated, higher income male respondents will show higher awareness, interest, and intention
to use e-book readers (No significant difference)
H2: Only internet usage relates positively to e-book reader awareness, interest, and intention to use.
H3: Users gratification from print media (i.e. newspapers, magazines and books) will relate positively to e-book
reader awareness, interest and intention to use. (partially supported; print media variable did not relate to e-book
awareness BUT it did relate positively to e-reader awareness, interest, and intention to use)
H4: Users perceived need for print media (i.e. newspapers, magazines and books) will relate positively to e-book
reader awareness, interest and intention to use. (Positively related)
H5: A consumers ownership of digital media devices will relate positively to his or her e-book reader awareness,
interest, and intention to use. (Supported)
H6: Personal innovativeness (i.e. self-efficacy and novelty seeking) will relate positively to e-book reader
awareness, interest, and intention to use. (Supported)
H7: The perceived attributes of an e-book reader in its relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability,
and trialibility, will relate to e-book reader awareness, interest, and intention to use. (Significantly related)
RQ: E-book reader awareness, interest, and adoption intention correlated positively with age, education,
income, perceived need for print media, digital media ownership, personal innovativeness, and the
perceived attributes of e-book readers.

Kesimpulan

The most influential factor in predicting e-book reader awareness is demographics. Younger, more educated,
and higher income consumers tended to show higher levels of awareness, interest, and intention to use ebook readers.
The most influential factor in predicting e-book reader interest is personal innovativeness most important at
stage of intention to use.
The most influential factor in predicting e-book reader intention to use is the perceived attributes of e-book
readers.

Lain-lain Catatan South Korea is one of the world trendsetters in the consumer adoption of e-books. It has the largest e-book market
in Asia: at US209 million in 2009, sales of e-books constituted 20.6% of total South Korean consumer book
spending.

22
Nama Pengkaji
(Tahun)
Tajuk Kajian
Tujuan Kajian

Meina Liu
(2012)
Same path, different experience
To examine cultural variations in negotiators attribution and emotion as a viable means to understand cultures
multiplex influence on goal pursuit when it interacts with situational factors.

Persoalan
H1: American negotiators will attribute greater personal responsibility to their counterpart for perceived negative
Kajian/ Hipotesis behavior than will Chinese negotiators
H2: American negotiators will report more anger and less compassion toward their counterpart than will Chinese
negotiators
H3: Anger will mediate the influence of judgment of responsibility on competitively-oriented goals.
H4: Compassion will mediate the influence of judgment of responsibility on cooperatively-oriented goals.
H5: Culture will have a significant influence on perceived importance of interaction goals, such that Chinese
negotiators will place less importance both on competitively-oriented goals
H5a: Culture will have a significant influence on perceived importance of interaction goals, such that Chinese
negotiators will place less importance both on competitively-oriented goals and on cooperatively-oriented goals
H5b: Culture will have a significant influence on perceived importance of interaction goals, such that Chinese
negotiators will place less importance both on competitively-oriented goals and on cooperatively-oriented goals as
they plan a subsequent negotiation with their counterpart
RQ1: Will culture moderate the effect of judgment of responsibility on emotions (anger and compassion) and its
indirect effect on interaction goals?
RQ2: After controlling for judgment of responsibility, will culture moderate the effects of anger and compassion
on interaction goals?

Teori/Model
yang digunakan
Metode Kajian

Negotiation theory; Attributional theory of emotion and motivation

Sampel/Subjek
Kajian + Lokasi
Kajian (+N)

277 US American college students (97 men and 180 women) from a major Eastern University in USA through an
online participant pool; Average age = 19.6 years

Experiment

239 mainland Chinese college students (125 men and 114 women) from a major university in S.E.China; Average
age = 19.8 years
Instrumen Kajian Single-issue zero-sum game laptop negotiation; Questionnaire to assess attribution of responsibility and
emotions
Teknik Analisis
Data
Hasil Kajian

Independent sample t-tests

H1: American negotiators will attribute greater personal responsibility to their counterpart for perceived negative
behavior than will Chinese negotiators (Supported)
H2: American negotiators will report more anger and less compassion toward their counterpart than will Chinese
negotiators (Supported)
H3: Anger will mediate the influence of judgment of responsibility on competitively-oriented goals. (Supported)
H4: Compassion will mediate the influence of judgment of responsibility on cooperatively-oriented goals.
(Partially supported)
H5: Culture will have a significant influence on perceived importance of interaction goals, such that Chinese
negotiators will place less importance both on competitively-oriented goals
H5a: Culture will have a significant influence on perceived importance of interaction goals, such that Chinese
negotiators will place less importance both on competitively-oriented goals and on cooperatively-oriented goals
(Supported)

H5b: Culture will have a significant influence on perceived importance of interaction goals, such that Chinese
negotiators will place less importance both on competitively-oriented goals and on cooperatively-oriented goals as
they plan a subsequent negotiation with their counterpart
(Supported)
RQ1: Cultures moderating effect on the association between attribution of responsibility and anger approached ,
but did not reach, conventional levels of statistical significance. The strength of the association was stronger for
Chinese than US Americans. After controlling for anger, the strength of association was also stronger for Chinese
than US Americans.
RQ2: Culture has significantly moderated the effect of judgment of responsibility on the goal of maximizing both
parties profit. After controlling for compassion, judgment of responsibility was positively associated with
perceived importance of maximizing both parties profit for US Americans but not for Chinese.
Kesimpulan

There are substantial cultural differences in participants attribution of responsibility and subsequent emotional
responses.
Given the same set of persuasive messages by a counterpart, American participants judged the counterpart as more
personally responsible for perceived negative behaviour, felt more anger and less compassion toward the
counterpart, and placed greater importance on competitive goals than Chinese participants.
Although the paths whereby emotions arise and influence interaction goals are largely similar across cultures,
mainland Chinese demonstrated a stronger tendency to compete when they felt angry, whereas US Americans were
more likely to pursue cooperative goals across both conditions.

Lain-lain Catatan

RUMUSAN (SUMMARY)
PENGENALAN
Sebanyak 22 buah makalah telah dipilih untuk dianalisis dan disintesis dalam inventori skema
usulan ini. Kebanyakan makalah tersebut diterbitkan antara 1991 hingga 2012, yakni 1999 (1),
2004 (2), 2006 (1), 2007 (2), 2010 (3), 2011 (6) dan 2012 (7).

Makalah-makalah yang

melaporkan hasil penelitian ini diakses daripada beberapa buah jurnal komunikasi luar negara
iaitu New Media & Society, Journal of Communication, Asian Journal of Communication, dan
Journal of Asian Pacific Communication. Kebanyakan pengarang makalah terdiri daripada para
sarjana dan profesor/pendidik di universiti sekitar Amerika Syarikat, Eropah dan Asia (termasuk
Korea Selatan, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapura, Indonesia, Negara Thai), dan juga
Palestin.

Ada makalah yang dihasilkan secara perseorangan, berdua atau pun secara

berkumpulan.
FOKUS PENELITIAN
Pada keseluruhannya, subjek penelitian terfokus kepada isu-isu berhubung kait dengan telefon
bimbit (mobile phones) dan media Internet termasuk media sosial, Facebook, blog, dan YouTube.
Sebagai contoh, ada penyelidik yang meneliti industri telekomunikasi dan penggunaan mobile
phone, siaran televisyen menerusi teknologi internet, kewartawanan interaktif, perbandingan
antara media cetak dan media atas talian (online), penggunaan buku elektronik (e-book) dan
laman sesawang (web sites), serta isu jurang digital (digital divide). Selain itu, masih terdapat
penelitian mengenai peranan ibu bapa dan penontonan televisyen anak-anak, isu gender, wacana
akhbar, aspek silang budaya, konflik antara budaya, dan penggunaan Bahasa Inggeris.

TUJUAN
Tujuan penelitian sangat berbeda. Tidak terjumpa satu pun yang mirip di antara satu sama lain.
Berikut di ketengahkan tujuan-tujuan penelitian mengikut fokus masing-masing penyelidik.

FOKUS PENELITIAN DAN TUJUAN

TEKNOLOGI INFORMASI, KOMUNIKASI DAN MEDIA BARU (ICT)

Untuk mengukur kadar pengantarabangsaan dalam industry telekomunikasi mudah alih
To measure the degree of internationalization within the mobile telecommunications
industry
Untuk menyelidik bagaimana membesar dengan internet dan teknologi berkaitan telah
mempengaruhi kehidupan anak muda.
To investigate how coming of age concurrently with the internet and related technologies
has influenced young peoples lives.
Untuk meneliti bagaimana komen-komen Facebook membantu menggerak dan
menyemarakkan satu gerakan keadilan atas talian (online) dan untuk meneroka peran
pelbagai cirri interaktif Facebook.
To examine how Facebook comments help mobilize and advance an online justice
movement, and to explore role of various interactive Facebook features
Untuk meneliti mereka yang tidak menerima inovasi telekomunikasi baru (1999): telefon
mudah alih selular.
To examine the non-adoption of a new (1999) telecommunications innovation: the cellular
mobile telephone
Untuk meneliti bagaimana cara informasi disusun-atur (dalam blog) dan motivasi yang
dibawa pembaca (blog) ke dalam konteks komunikasi tersebut menjejaskan proses
pengkodanan seterusnya.
To examine how the manner in which information is organized (in blogs) and the
motivations that readers bring to such communication contexts affect the subsequent
coding process
Untuk meninjau kesamaan dan perbezaan budaya dalam persepsi dan penggunaan telefoni
mudah alih/ bimbit.
To explore cultural similarities and differences in perceptions and uses of mobile telephony
Untuk meneliti penggunaan interaktif kewartawanan dalam kalangan remaja Finland.
To examine interactive uses of journalism among young Finns
Untuk mengkaji strategi glokalisasi laman sesawang (web) korporat dan gambaran nilai
kebudayaan.
To study the glocalization strategies of corporate websites and depiction of cultural values
Untuk meneliti tempat relatif kegiatan sosial atas talian (online) dalam kalangan pelajar
kolej dan membandingkannya dengan sosialisasi dalam media lain (bersemuka dan telefon)
secara langsung.
To examine the relative place of online social activity among college students and compare
to socializing in other media (face-to-face and telephones) directly
FOKUS PENELITIAN DAN TUJUAN

Untuk mengkaji penyebaran budaya kartun Jepun ke seluruh dunia dan untuk meneroka
mengapa terdapat penyesuaian dan penerimaan silang budaya animasi Jepun.
To investigate worldwide spread of Japanese cartoon culture and to explore why crosscultural adaptation and acceptance of Japanese animation
Untuk meneliti ketaksamaan dalam pengambilan peluang-peluang atas talian (online).
To examine inequalities in the take-up of online opportunities
Untuk mengkaji ujian-ujian pemasaran Penyiaran TV mudah alih (mobile) di Singapura
dan Taiwan.
To investigate market trials of mobile broadcasting TV in Singapore and Taiwan
TEKNOLOGI INFORMASI, KOMUNIKASI DAN MEDIA BARU (ICT)
To explore how norms on social network sites evolve over time and how violations of these
norms impact individuals self-presentational and relationship goals
To examine newspaper coverage of online videos in HK
To identify predictors of e-book reader diffusion
To examine media system differences as newspapers move from print to online in three
selected countries
PERAN IBU BAPA DAN PENONTONAN TELEVISYEN ANAK-ANAK
To propose and test an integrated model of parental mediation involving family
communication, parental mediation styles, childrens perceptions of televised realities and
the actual world, and perceptions of the negative effects of television viewing.

MEDIA KONVENSIONAL
GENDER, MEDIA & POLITIK
To gain insight into the dynamics women face as they attempt to ascend the political ladder
by analyzing news coverage, across a decade, of the same four female candidates as they
compete across two executive and legislative elections
PENGARUH MEDIA & PENENTUAN AGENDA (AGENDA SETTING)
To investigate how mainstream US newspapers construct the Palestinian resort to political
violence as a tool of struggle from nationhood to statehood within one key moment of the
intifada: Israels construction of the wall; AND to explore the role of the news media as
agents of social control and influence
FILEM
To explore structural changes and continuities in the international film trade between
1996-2004
BAHASA DAN PENULISAN
To explore how Thai professional writers position themselves in relation to Thai English
and the concept of World Englishes
SILANG BUDAYA (CROSS CULTURE)
To examine cultural variations in negotiators attribution and emotion as a viable means to
understand cultures multiplex influence on goal pursuit when it interacts with situational
factors

PERSOALAN KAJIAN & HIPOTESIS

Persoalan kajian seringkali tercetus kerana rasa ingin tahu yang mendalam mengenai sesuatu
fenomena atau permasalahan. Dalam analisis meta ini, terdapat pelbagai persoalan kajian dan
juga hipotesis untuk mengupas satu-satu fokus penelitian.

Ada yang mengemukakan 15

persoalan kajian (13) atau 3-7 hipotesis (5), tetapi ada juga (4) yang berusaha mencari jawapan
kepada beberapa persoalan kajian dan juga beberapa hipotesis, masing-masing bergantung
kepada setiap satu kajian.

TEORI/MODEL YANG DIGUNAKAN

Teori membolehkan seseorang penyelidik untuk memahami sesuatu fenomena, meramalkan
sesuatu peristiwa, memerihal, mengawal serta membina semula sesuatu penjelasan tentang
fenomena yang dicerap atau diamati. Ia boleh dijadikan sandaran untuk menilai perlaksanaan
dan mekanisme tidakan. Teori juga digunakan untuk membuktikan sama ada sesuatu hipotesis
diterima atau ditolak. Walau bagaimanapun, pengaplikasian teori juga berbeda antara teori. Ada
teori yang terbatas skopnya dan mungkin boleh diaplikasikan kepada kelompok manusia tertentu
sahaja atau keadaan tertentu sahaja.
Dalam 22 makalah yang diteliti ini, beberapa buah teori dan juga model digunakan untuk
memerihal fenomena atau keadaan yang dikaji. Untuk mengkaji penerimaan (atau penolakan)
inovasi ICT dan media baru, teori yang diketengahkan ialah Teori Difusi Inovasi (Diffusions of
innovation theory). Terdapat pelbagai teori yang diguna-pakai daripada bidang lain termasuk
budaya, sosiologi, psikologi, pemasaran dan sebagainya. Antara yang dikenal pasti ialah: social
role theory, field theory, grounded theory , negotiation theory, theory of emotion and motivation,
Hostedes dimensions of cultural variability, domains and duality model, Gerhards and Ruchts
collective action frames, social influence model of technology use, socio-technical framework,
Integrated model of parental mediation, dan expectancy violations theory.

Dalam konteks

komunikasi, beberapa teori diajukan seperti kerangka uses and gratifications, Medium theory,
Halls communication context dimension, dan teori retorika.

METODE KAJIAN
Terdapat lapan penelitian yang menggunakan metod survey/tinjauan termasuk telephone survey;
tujuh penyelidikan mengaplikasikan metod analisis kandungan dan variasinya termasuk network
analysis, dan textual analysis. Sebanyak tujuh penelitian menggunakan temubual mendalam (indepth interview), dua eksperimen, satu metode perbincangan kumpulan fokus (Focus Group
Discussion) dan satu kajian kes (case study).

SIAPA/APA YANG DIKAJI

Jadual di bawah ini menunjukkan 11 (50%) penelitian mensasarkan anak muda berusia di bawah
30 tahun, yang kebanyakan mereka merupakan pelajar sekolah, kolej dan/atau Universiti. Tujuh
lagi subjek penelitian adalah bahan bercetak/bertulis untuk dianalisis iaitu tiga kajian kandungan
surat khabar, satu kajian menganalisis data perdagangan filem, satu lagi menganalisis esei
autobiografi pelajar, satu mengkaji diari yang ditulis 51 pelajar, dan satu lagi menganalisis
komen-komen yang terdapat dalam halaman Facebook. Pada keseluruhannya, jumlah responden
paling kecil ialah 20 orang manakala yang paling ramai ialah 1511 orang. Terdapat sebuah
kajian yang meninjau perbedaan di antara responden (pelajar) dari USA dengan China; dan
sebuah kajian lagi mendapatkan maklumbalas daripada responden yang terlibat dengan
pameran/pembikinan/pengedaran kartun anime Jepun dari seluruh dunia.
Saiz Sampel
348 youths
706 articles
[From8 newspapers
Covering 4 female candidates running for
Legislative and Executive positions)
US (liberalist), French (pluralized
pluralist) & Denmarks (democratic
corporatist) media systems.
Film trade data, 1996-2004
20 Thai bilingual fiction and non-fiction
writers
277 US college students
239 mainland Chinese students
38 articles from selected mainstream top
50 US newspapers from August 1
September 1, 2003

Umur
12 17
years old
-

Negara
South Korea

Teknik
Persampelan
Multi-stage
sampling

Charlotte, Va; St
Louis, Ka; New York,
Anchorage, Alaska.

118 countries
Bangkok, Thailand
Average
age 19
years old

A major Eastern
University, USA;
A major University in
S. E. China
USA

Purposive
sampling

Saiz Sampel

Umur

119 freshman seniors at a prominent

university in Beijing;
Asian and non-Asian consumers of
Japanese cartoons.
52 MNO groups in first quarter of 2010
Autobiographical essays written by 72
young adult college communication
students between 1998-2000
Users comments posted to two
Facebook pages;
Four readers in the Guatemalan
Facebook movement;
834 respondents
877 undergraduate students at a large
Midwestern university, Spring 2007,
with political affiliations to either
Democrat or Republican
318 College students
698 young Finns
47 international brands from global
companies having web sites in
Indonesia
51 students taking introductory publicspeaking courses at two large midwestern universitiesto write diaries;
496 college students froma midwestern university
1511 children and young people
1077 parents of children aged 9-17
Mobile broadcasting entities in two
countries
26 undergraduate students at a large
Midwestern universities
342 articles from four Hong Kong
newspapers, 2007-2009: Ming Pao,
Oriental Daily, Apple Daily, Headline
Daily

Negara

Teknik
Persampelan

Chinese undergraduate
students;
Asian and non-Asian
(US) consumers
Global
Born
between
1975-1980

Online users
Guatemala

Hong Kong

Probability
random sample

USA

Average age
25 years old
Born in
1980, 1982,
1984, 1986

Hawaii, Japan,
Sweden, Taiwan,
mainland USA
Finland
Global companies
with web sites in
Indonesia
USA

9 - 19 years
old

UK
Singapore and Taiwan

Hong Kong

Random
sample

Saiz Sampel

Umur

500 South Korean young adults

20 years or
older

Negara
South Korea

Teknik
Persampelan
Nonprobability
stratified
sampling

INSTRUMEN KAJIAN
Dalam sesebuah penelitian, alat atau instrumen untuk mengumpul data harus selaras dengan
tujuan atau objektif kajian.

Instrumen kajian ialah blueprint yang penting untuk mengukur

sesuatu fenomena, dan boleh mempengaruhi kualiti dan kesahan (validity) kajian.

Dalam

analisis inventori skema usulan ini, pelbagai instrumen digunakan. Untuk tinjauan (survey),
kebanyak penyelidik menggunakan soalselidik (questionnaire), ujian kertas dan pensel (paper
and pencil test), dan soalan temu bual, termasuk interviu menerusi telefon yang dibantu oleh
sistem teknologi komputer. Ada soalselidik yang dibentuk semdiri berlandaskan tujuan dan
matlamat kajian; ada juga soalselidik sedia ada yang digunapakai dan yang diubahsuai daripada
soalselidik para sarjana lain.

Contohnya:

Soalselidik menggunakan Parents-Adolescent

Communication Scale, Vakenburg et.als typology (1999), Potters scale of perceived reality, dan
Bybee et.als perceived negative effect of TV (1982).
Ada juga yang menggunakan perisian (software) analisis Jaringan, dan assymetrical directional
network matrices. Diari, esei autobiografi dan boring kodan (coding sheet) juga merupakan alat
bagi mengumpulkan data.
TEKNIK MENGANALISIS DATA
Pelbagai teknik digunakan para penyelidik bagi menganalisis pelbagai jenis data yang telah
terkumpul. Ada yang menggunakan analisis statistik seperti ujian t, Pearson product moment,
Korelasi, Fishers post-hoc analysis, Tukeys post-hoc analysis, bivariate zero-order correlation,
hierarchical regression, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) sehala dan one-way factorial
multivariate analysis of variance MANOVA untuk menilai dampak beberapa prediktor ke atas
pembolehubah terikat (dependent variables). Ada yang menganalisis tema atau situasi dan apa
juga unit analisis dalam borang kodan..

KESIMPULAN
Tajuk/Tujuan Penelitian
1.An integrated model of
parental mediation: The
effect
of
family
communication
on
childrens perception of
television
reality
and
negative viewing effects

Kesimpulan
Parental, instructive mediation, in combination with open family
communication, increased not only childrens perceived disparity
between televised realities and the actual world, but also childrens
perceptions of the potentially negative effects of television.
Restrictive parental mediation styles were also found to mediate the
role of open family communication on childrens perception of
negative effects of television.
Co-viewing mediation was not found to directly affect either the
childrens perceived reality or their perception of negative effects of
television viewing.

2.Is she Man Enough?

Women
candidates,
executive political offices,
and news coverage.

Overall news coverage emphasized womens novelty more so than

mens, and regardless of perceived gender congruence, women
received more political issue and character trait coverage than men.
Analysis across election contexts revealed that gendered news gaps
were consistently greater when women sought higher, more
executive offices, indicating an increasing emphasis in discussion
regarding these women in the study.
News media continue to cast women as novelties and norm
breakers much more often than men.
Women in this study also received more feminized and masculinized
political issue and character trait coverage than men.

3.A case study on the

degree
of
internationalization in the
mobile telecommunications
industry
4.Media systems online and
off: Comparing the form of
news in the United States,
Denmark and France.

Politics in the USA has been and remains a gendered space.

Numerous MNO groups can be considered international.
MNO groups around the world have undergone rapid international
expansion in the 2000s, but there were still large variations in the
degree of internationalization achieved by 2010.
Internet technological affordances are posited to move online news
toward more advertising and information (USA: liberal model) and
more opinion and deliberation (France: polarized pluralist).
Danish print and online newspapers would be heavy in commercial
content and news and light in opinion and deliberation.
In the USA, advertising and more localized, light news increase;
toward polarized pluralism, news as a whole declines while
deliberation, opinion, and non-journalistic voices increase slightly.
A lesser degree of change in France may be due to greater state
insulation from market pressures; some contradictory tendencies in
Denmark indicate that technological influences are shaped by
contextual national factors.

5.Coming of Age with the

internet: A qualitative
exploration of how the
internet has become an
integral part of young
peoples lives.

There are clear differences in the way young generation use

technologies compared to generations of their parents and
grandparents. Older generations do not understand the potential of
interactive technologies. The family plays a key role in their
introduction to interactive technologies with parents and siblings being
especially important. Fathers are characterized as primary facilitators
and mothers as laggards. . Older siblings are less adept at using
interactive technologies while younger siblings are described as far
ahead of participants in their use of the technologies.
Young adults build and form social relationships online.
Many bonds formed online migrate offline to more traditional settings.
Young adults are aware of both the benefits and dangers
associated with interactive technologies
6.Making sense of a In invoking the nationalism dimension, the news did not handle the
barrier:
US
news primordial element adequately. Emphasis is on violence and revenge
discourses
on
Israels and the tragedy of child victimization was particularly prominent.
dividing wall
The medias role in social control and influence is significant, but not
adequate.
7.To examine how
Facebook comments help
mobilize and advance an
online Guatemalan justice
movement that activated an
offline movement.
To explore the role of
various
interactive
Facebook features

Facebook proved to be a powerful force for uniting tens of thousands

of Guatemalans in protest and prompting a networked social
movement. Without Facebook, such a large movement never would
have been mobilized. The organizers were young males in their 20;s
and educated at the countrys elite private universities.
The framing, topics and functions of the online comments prompted
offline action by emphasizing protests and calling on others to
participate and spread the word. Comments were framed in such a
way as to motivate others to get involved in the movement and
participate in offline activities, whether attending protests or signing
petitions.
The topical subframe of most Facebook users comments was protestrelated. The online Facebook movement spurred offline protests,
igniting a pro-justice/anti-violence movement that struggles on today.

8.Who are the mobile

phone
have-nots?
Influences
and
consequences

Mobile phone have-nots are older, less educated, of lower income

level, and whose family size is smaller.
When people do not have a mobile phone, it is likely that they would
be bypassed by other telephony technologies due to the lack of
educational and financial resources.
There is a polarizing phenomenon in owning new communication
technologies; There is a widening gap between haves and have-nots

9.To examine how the

manner
in
which
information is organized
and the motivations that
readers bring to such
communication
contexts
affect
the
subsequent
encoding process

10.To explore the cultural

similarities and differences
in perceptions and uses of
mobile telephony

11.To
examine
the
interactive
uses
of
journalism, focusing on the
changes brought by new
communication technology
in the everyday news media
uses of young Finns.
12.To
study
the
glocalisation strategies of
corporate web sites and
depiction of cultural values

While changes in format do not significantly affect peoples fact

recall, it can affect their ability to correctly identify the source of their
learning.
Among people with a lower need for cognition or those confronted
with congruent partisan messages, the change in structure from a
global to an interspersed structure, affects their ability to correctly
identify information, leading to misidentification of whether facts
emanated from a news report or from blog commentary.
Those motivated to process the information thoroughly, either by
individual differences or contextual differences, are able to navigate
the more complex intermingle structure without confusion.
Participants from USA and Hawaii used their mobile phones
significantly more for safety/security than those from Sweden;
Participants from Sweden and Hawaii were significantly more
tolerant of mobile phone use in public than participants from Japan;
There are some significant differences and several similarities in how
users from Hawaii, Japan, Sweden, Taiwan, USA perceive and use
mobile phones.
Young Finns have easy access to new communication technology;
Interactive use of journalism seems to be individualized entertainment
for the majority of the young people that were studied, and only for
few was it a platform for active citizenship.
The young participated more often with printed journalism rather
than online versions or TV news (untouchables)
Participation of young Finns is a mixture of heterogeneous activities,
including quizzing, voicing opinions and commenting on journalism.
In general, there are differences in four cultural dimensions, viz.,
collectivism, high uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and high
context of communication.
The majority of international best brands that have Indonesian
versions of their web sites reflected their high global strategy and
these websites were adapted to the local cultures of Indonesia.
Cultural sensitivity is a critical factor in communication and must be
taken into account if the web site is to be an effective vehicle for
communication in a cross-cultural context.

13.To examine the relative

place of online social
activity among college
students and compare to
socializing in other media
(face-to-face
and
telephones) directly

Quantity of interactions in other media does not seem to be

threatened by social internet use.
F2F communication was by far the most common mode of local
interaction, and was only slightly less common in long distance
relationship than the internet.
The more people the students communicated via the internet, the more
they communicated with F2F and telephone.
The quality of OL interactions was lower than that of F2F
conversations, but only by the slimmest of margins.
Students supplement high-quality F2F conversations and telephone
calls with good internet interactions.

14.To investigate the

world-wide spread of
Japanese cartoon culture.
To explore why crosscultural adaptation and
acceptance of Japanese
animation
15.To explore structural
changes and continuities in
the international film trade
during the past decade.
To examine the role of
language and geographic
location as antecedent
conditions that serve to
organize world film trading
structure

Anime popular outside Japan differs from anime popular in Japan

The popularity of specific anime differs among importing nations
The popularity of anime is greatest in Asia.
Anime creators do not intentionally target international audiences.

16.To examine inequalities

in the take-up of online
opportunities according to
age, gender and socioeconomic status

The structure of global film trade has become denser over time,
especially due to increase in film exchanges among English and
Spanish-speaking countries, and among countries located in Asia and
Europe.
The global film trade has become more equalized over time.
Countries tend to form linguistic blocs in trading their films
English and Spanish film blocs.
The global film trade still remains largely the preserve of a few
dominant countries, namely a country with a larger market size.
Cultural imperialism continues to be relevant for the global exchange
of films.
The dual forceseconomic and culturalare influencing and
working against each other in shaping the structure of the global flow
of media products.
There exist more subtle and indirect forms of transactions, such as
financial partnerships, sales of script and format, foreign
commissioning and versioning.
Non-users or occasional users are more likely to be from working
class households and from 9-11 or 18-19 year old age group
Those who go online at least weekly are spread across SES categories,
mainly for school work, information, games and e-mail
The daily users come from middle class homes and benefit from
better quality internet access.

17.To investigate market

trials of mobile
broadcasting TV in
Singapore and Taiwan
To
examine
complex
relations between the coevolving subsystems of
industry/market,
policy,
and technology
18.To explore how Thai
professional
writers
conceptualized
their
Engliah in relation to Thai
English and the concept of
World Englishes.

Singapore is likely to chose the DVB-H standard and adopt the

subscription model.
Taiwan will adopt DVB-H and Media-FLO and apply a hybrid
model
The cultural factor is considered as the underlying shaping power of
the three subsystems (industry/market, policy, technology) and subtly
affects technological development
Thai perceptions of the English language conform to a colonial,
hierarchical standpoint which privileged the types of English spoken
and written within the US and Great Britain and denigrated spoken
and written Thai English.
Theres interaction of power, discourse, position of authority and
attainment in standard English
Theres global hegemony of English inThailand
Discourse of self-marginalization stereotype move and the negative
construction of self move.
Theres a deep and pervasive underlying prejudice against Thai
English and other non-English varieties.

19.To explore how norms

on social network sites
evolve over time and how
violations of these norms
impact individuals selfpresentational
and
relationship goals.

Social etiquette is alive and well in SNS world.

The overarching norms of use for college-aged social network site
(SNS) users is privacy among friends.
Norms of behaviour change over time.
Behavioral norms change over time. The content of users profiles
change over time. They increase their privacy settings once the media
begins publishing stories about negative consequences resulting from
Facebook posts; The older users are more likely to have profiles aimed
at impressing employers than younger users; profiles were typified by
less personal information, more job-related information on the profile,
and more professional profile pictures.
Theres a desire to conform to the norms of the site and be
considerate of other members. Heated interactions, fights, name
calling, airing private or sensitive grievances through Facebooks
public features are common norm violations.
For close, communicative friends, tagging a photo or sending a
supporting message is fulfillment of positive expectations, but for
acquaintances it is an expectancy violation that may positively impact
the nature of a friendship.
Examples of negative expectancy violations: not finishing group work
on time because of partying

20.News from YouTube:

Professional incorporation
in Hong Kong newspaper
coverage of online videos

Majority of the news sources used remain elite ones.

Various types of citizen misdeeds arguably constitute an emerging
news topic in contemporary Hong Kong. Alternatively, highly
commercialized news outlets may cater to the publics interest through
covering the private lives and scandals surrounding celebrities and
public figures
Online videos also facilitate more watchdog journalism as YouTube
and other video sharing sites become channels for citizens to expose
the wrongdoings of public authorities and private corporations.
The influence of YouTube or other SNSs on the society at large is
partly mediated by how mainstream media selectively appropriate the
online contents.
The social influence of online contents can be limited without the
mainstream media serving as the amplifier.

21.To
identify
the
predictors of e-book reader
diffusion with regard to
consumer
awareness,
interest and intention to use

The most influential factor in predicting e-book reader awareness is

demographics. Younger, more educated, and higher income
consumers tended to show higher levels of awareness, interest, and
intention to use e-book readers.
The most influential factor in predicting e-book reader interest is
personal innovativeness most important at stage of intention to
use.
The most influential factor in predicting e-book reader intention to use
is the perceived attributes of e-book readers.
There are substantial cultural differences in participants attribution of
responsibility and subsequent emotional responses. Given the same
set of persuasive messages by a counterpart, American
participants judged the counterpart as more personally
responsible for perceived negative behaviour, felt more anger and
less compassion toward the counterpart, and placed greater
importance on competitive goals than Chinese participants.
The paths whereby emotions arise and influence interaction goals are
largely similar across cultures.
Mainland Chinese demonstrated a stronger tendency to compete
when they felt angry, whereas US Americans were more likely to
pursue cooperative goals across both conditions.

22.To examine cultural

variations in negotiators
attribution and emotion as a
viable means to understand
cultures
multiplex
influence on goal pursuit
when it interacts with
situational factors.

TIDAK BOLEH DIJADIKAN BAHAN I.S.U.

Cao, Q. (2012).Modernity and media portrayals of China. Journal of Asian Pacific
Communication. 22(1), 1-21.
[Proposed analytical model in relation to modernity and media portrayals of China]
Deuze, M. (2003). The web and its journalisms: Considering the consequences of different
types of news media online. New Media & Society. 5(2), 203-230.
[Discussion of 4 types of online journalism and key characteristics of online publishing]
Pavlik, J. V. (1999). New media and news: Implications for the future of journalism. New
Media & Society, 1(1) 54-59.
[Literature analysis of the impact of digital media on four areas of journalism, viz. the way
journalists do their work, how news content is transformed, how structure of news
organizations and new industry are influenced, and impact on the various publics]
Peck,J. (2010). The secret of her success: Oprah Winfrey and the seductions of selftransformation. Journal of Communication Inquiry. 34(1): 7-14.
[theoretical examination of Oprah Winfreys neoliberalism and mind cure based on
sociology of culture approach and diagnostic critique]
Potter, W. J. (2011). Conceptualizing mass media effect. Journal of Communication.
61, 896-915.
[Synthesis of mass media effects and proposed conceptualization of four general kinds of
mass media effects]
Selwyn, N. (2004). Reconsidering political and popular understandings of the digital divide.
New Media & Society. 16(3), 341-362.
[theoretical examination of the digital divide including formulation of a hierarchical model
of digital divide; discussion of four conceptual limitations to conventional dichotomous
notions of the digital divide and individuals access to ICT]
Timmerman, C.E. (2009, March). Forum introduction: Has communication research made a
difference? Communication Monographs. 76(1), 1-19.
[An invitation to address concerns about the impact of communication research and
stimulate dialogue]

Walther, J. B. (2009). In Point of Practice. Computer-mediated communication and virtual

groups: Applications to interethnic conflict. Journal of Applied Communication Research.
37(3), 225-238.
[Examines findings from management, intergroup, and interpersonal approaches to CMC,
Weber, M. S. & Monge, P. (2011). The flow of digital news in a network of sources,
authorities, and hubs. Journal of Communication, 61, 1062-1081.
[Analysis of the flow of information in a network of online news sites and developing a
model of information flow among Web sites]
Webster, J. G. & Ksiazek, T. B. (2012). The dynamics of audience fragmentation: Public
attention in an age of digital media. Journal of Communication, 62, 39-56.
[Theoretical framework for understanding fragmentation using network analysis metrics
to Nielsen data on television and internet use].