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http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2016.05.003
JSAMS 1329
To appear in:
Received date:
Revised date:
Accepted date:
5-11-2015
18-4-2016
13-5-2016
Please cite this article as: Fuller JT, Chalmers S, Debenedictis TA, Townsley S, Lynagh
M, Gleeson C, Zacharia A, Thomson S, Magarey M, High prevalence of dysfunctional,
asymmetrical, and painful movement in elite junior Australian Football players assessed
using the Functional Movement Screen, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2016.05.003
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript.
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apply to the journal pertain.
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Joel T. Fuller a, Samuel Chalmers a,b, Thomas A. Debenedictis a, Samuel Townsley a, Matthew
Lynagh a, Cara Gleeson a, Andrew Zacharia a, Stuart Thomson a & Mary Magarey a
Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), Sansom Institute for Health
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b
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Sport and Exercise Science, School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, NSW,
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Australia
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Corresponding author:
Joel Fuller
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E-mail: joel.fuller@mymail.unisa.edu.au
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Word Count: 3,000 words (not counting phrases Insert Table X about here or Insert Fig. X about
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here)
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References: 30
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Number of Tables: 2
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Number of Figures: 1
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Abstract
Objectives: The purpose of this study was to describe the prevalence of dysfunctional, asymmetrical,
and painful movement in junior Australian Football players using the Functional Movement Screen
(FMS).
Methods: Elite junior male Australian Football players (n=301) aged 15-18 years completed pre-
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season FMS testing. The FMS consists of 7 sub-tests: deep squat, hurdle step, in-line lunge, shoulder
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mobility, active straight leg raise, trunk stability push-up (TSPU) and rotary stability. The shoulder
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mobility, TSPU, and rotary stability tests were combined with an accompanying clearing test to assess
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pain. Each sub-test was scored on an ordinal scale from 0-3 and summed to give a composite score out
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Players scoring differently on left and right sides were considered asymmetrical. Players reported
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whether they missed any games due to injury in the preceding 22 game season.
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Results: Sixty percent of players (n=182) had composite scores 14, 65% of players (n=196) had at
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least one asymmetrical sub-test, and 38% of players (n=113) had at least one painful sub-test. Forty-
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two percent of players (n=126) missed at least one game in the previous season due to injury. Previous
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injury did not influence composite score (p=0.951) or asymmetry (p=0.629). Players reporting an
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injury during the previous season were more likely to experience pain during FMS testing (odds ratio
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Keywords
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Introduction
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Australian Football has a high incidence of contact and non-contact injuries in both junior and senior
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competitions.1,2 Injuries from Australian Football cause more hospital admissions and health insurance
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claims than any other sport in Australia.3 The high number of hospital admissions resulting from
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participation in Australian Football can be largely attributed to the contact nature of the sport. 4
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However, non-contact injuries still account for 30-50% of Australian Football injuries presenting to
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sports medicine clinics.5,6 To date, the majority of injury prevention research in Australian Football
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has focused on senior players.1 Less research is available for junior players despite participation rates
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being highest in the 15-17 year age range.6,7 Injury prevention measures are important in junior
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Australian Football because players that sustain injuries in junior competition are more likely to
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Dysfunctional movement is one injury risk factor that could be important for the prevention of injuries
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in junior Australian Football.911 For example, poor strength might increase the risk of muscle strain,10
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poor mobility in one joint might cause excessive mobility at another joint,12 and poor balance might
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result in poor landing strategies.13 The current research approach to movement testing in junior
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Australian Football uses isolated movement tests to identify dysfunction with a specific muscle or
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joint.11 This approach has proven useful for identifying players at high risk of certain injuries (e.g.
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groin injury11), but does not provide an indication of the overall risk of sustaining the broad range of
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injuries that occur in Australian Football.14 For example, reduced isometric hip adductor strength
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indicates increased likelihood of groin pain in junior Australian Football players 11 but provides
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minimal insight concerning the risk of injury in other body areas. Additionally, testing only one
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movement quality (i.e. isometric hip adductor strength) ignores other movement qualities (mobility,
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balance, etc.) that may contribute to the multifactorial nature of Australian Football injuries. 15
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There is a growing trend for injury prevention screening to involve compound movements that test
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multiple movement qualities (e.g. strength, mobility and balance) at the same time.13,16,17 One example
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is the Functional Movement Screen (FMS), which consists of seven sub-tests that are suggested to
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represent fundamental movement patterns.12 It has been hypothesised that the FMS can identify
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athletes with poor movement qualities using only these seven sub-tests.18 Poor movement quality
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during FMS testing has been suggested as a risk factor for injury. 18 If valid, field-based tests such as
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the FMS could be useful in team sports such as junior Australian Football, which involve large player
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numbers and only limited access to medical personnel capable of performing numerous isolated
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movement tests.
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The presence of dysfunctional movement during FMS testing is a risk factor for injury (contact and
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non-contact) in professional American Football (relative risk [RR]=1.9-4.2)18,19 and collegiate soccer,
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volleyball and basketball (RR=1.9).20 Asymmetrical movement during FMS testing is also a risk factor
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for injury in professional American Football (RR=1.8).19 In contrast, the presence of dysfunctional
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movement during FMS testing is not a risk factor for injury in collegiate American Football.21
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Additionally, Garrison et al.22 (RR=2.2), but not Warren et al.23 (RR=1.0), found that FMS movement
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dysfunction was an injury risk factor for athletes participating in collegiate rugby, tennis, swimming,
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diving, track and field, cross country, and golf. As a result, both the type of sport and level of
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The FMS shows promise as a method for identifying athletes at high risk of injury but has not been
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investigated in Australian Football. Australian Football is a unique sport involving multiple player
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positions, which collectively involve similar physical demands and technical kicking skills to soccer,
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similar full-body tackling to American Football, and similar technical hand passing skills to basketball
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and volleyball.24 The movement and injury profiles of Australian Football are likely to differ from
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other sports used in FMS research. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe the prevalence
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of dysfunctional, asymmetrical, and painful movement in junior Australian Football players using the
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FMS. The effect of player position and previous injury on FMS testing was also investigated. It was
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hypothesised that dysfunctional, asymmetrical, and painful movement would be more prevalent in
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players that missed at least one game due to injury in the previous season.
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Methods
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A total of 301 male players (age: 17 1 years; body mass: 74 9 kg; height: 181 7 cm) were
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recruited from eight elite junior (under 18 years) clubs competing in the Under-18 South Australian
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National Football League (SANFL). Players (including parent or guardian) provided written informed
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consent to participate in this study, which had institutional ethical approval. Players were excluded if
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they reported a current physical impairment that prevented participation in routine club training
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sessions. All testing was completed during the annual pre-season SANFL fitness testing combine.
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Participants reported their current playing position, and whether they missed at least one game due to
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injury in the preceding 22 game season. Only injuries resulting from participation in Australian
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Football or training were considered. This injury definition is consistent with previous research in
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junior Australian Football6 and the Australian Football League injury surveillance program.1 Player
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positions were: midfielder, forward, defender, or ruck. Six qualified physiotherapists and one strength
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and conditioning coach were responsible for FMS testing. To reduce errors associated with multiple
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raters, each tester completed a level one FMS training course and was responsible for assessing a
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separate FMS sub-test. Testing was performed using standard FMS Test Kits (Functional Movement
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Systems Inc., Virginia, USA). The FMS has acceptable inter- and intra-rater reliability for composite
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scores.25
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Warm-up activities were organised by fitness staff from each SANFL club. The FMS consists of 7
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sub-tests.12,26 These tests were the deep squat, hurdle step, in-line lunge, shoulder mobility, active
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straight leg raise (ASLR), trunk stability push-up (TSPU) and rotary stability. The hurdle step, in-line
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lunge, shoulder mobility, ASLR and rotary stability tests were completed for left and right sides. The
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shoulder mobility, TSPU and rotary stability tests were combined with an accompanying clearing test
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to assess pain. These clearing tests were the shoulder combined internal rotation and flexion test, the
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end-range spinal extension test and the end-range spinal flexion test, respectively. Detailed
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Each FMS sub-tests was scored on an ordinal scale from 0-3.12,26 A score of 3 was given when players
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completed the sub-test without compensatory movement. A score of 2 was given when players
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completed the sub-test, but used one or more compensatory movements. A score of 1 was given when
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players were unable to complete the sub-test. At the completion of each sub-test players were asked if
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they experienced pain anywhere in the body at any time during the test. A score of 0 was given when
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players reported pain of any kind during the sub-test or the accompanying clearing test. For sub-tests
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completed on left and right sides, the overall score was the lowest score from the two sides. A sub-test
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score of 1 indicated dysfunction with the associated movement. Scores for each sub-test were summed
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to give a composite score out of 21, after adjusting for clearing test results. We established a-priori
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that a FMS composite score of 14 (as reported in other studies) would be used to group players.18,20,22
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All statistical analysis was performed in R 3.2.1 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna,
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Austria). Statistical significance was assumed for p<0.05. The proportion of players who scored 1,
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were asymmetrical (left right), or reported pain (score = 0) were compared across the seven sub-
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tests using Chi-squared tests and Holm-Bonferroni adjustments for multiple comparisons.
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Multivariable logistic regression was used to investigate the relationship between dependent variables
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(FMS composite score [two levels: 14 and >14]; asymmetry [two levels: at least one asymmetrical
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sub-test and no asymmetry]; pain [two levels: at least one painful sub-test after adjusting for clearing
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test results and no pain]) and predictor variables (player position [four levels: midfield, forward,
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defender and ruck]; previous injury [two levels: history of injury in previous season and no history of
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injury in previous season]). Model evaluation was undertaken by comparison to the null model using
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Chi-squared tests. The effect of individual predictor variables was assessed using Wald tests and
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quantified using odds ratios (OR) and RR. Precision of effect estimates was quantified using 95%
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Results
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Median FMS composite score was 14 (interquartile range 12-15). Sixty percent of players (n=182) had
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FMS composite scores 14 (Table 1). Players were most likely to score 1 during the deep squat
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Sixty-five percent of players (n=196) had at least one asymmetrical sub-test (Table 1). Shoulder
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mobility had the highest proportion of asymmetry (p=0.005; Fig. 1). Rotary stability had the lowest
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Thirty-eight percent of players (n=113) had at least one painful sub-test (Table 1). Pain was most
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commonly reported during TSPU (p=0.024; Fig. 1). Players were least likely to report pain during
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hurdle step (p<0.001), in-line lunge (p=0.005) and rotary stability (p=0.009) (Fig. 1).
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Forty-two percent of players (n=126) reported sustaining at least one injury in the previous season
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(Table 1). Likelihood of having a FMS composite score 14 was not affected by previous injury (OR
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0.99, 95%CI 0.61-1.58; p=0.951) or player position (Forward: OR 1.47, 95%CI 0.78-2.81; Defender:
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OR 0.91, 95%CI 0.49-1.69; Ruck: OR 1.88, 95%CI 0.84-4.52; Midfield: reference condition;
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Likelihood of having at least one asymmetrical sub-test was not affected by previous injury (OR 1.13,
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95%CI 0.70-1.83; p=0.629) or player position (Forward: OR 0.93, 95%CI 0.49-1.78; Defender: OR
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0.83, 95%CI 0.44-1.59; Ruck: OR 0.83, 95%CI 0.38-1.87; Midfield: reference condition; p=0.930)
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(supplementary material 2). The effect of asymmetry magnitude was not investigated because no
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Likelihood of reporting pain during at least one sub-test was not affected by player position (Forward:
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OR 1.07, 95%CI 0.56-2.02; Defender: OR 1.36, 95%CI 0.72-2.56; Ruck: 1.04, 95%CI 0.46-2.28;
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Midfield: reference condition; p=0.820; Table 2), and therefore player position was not included in the
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final model. Likelihood of reporting pain during one or more sub-tests was affected by previous injury
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(OR 1.97, 95%CI 1.23-3.18; p=0.005; Table 2). Previously injured players were 1.5 times more likely
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to report pain during at least one sub-test (RR 1.52, 95%CI 1.14-2.03; p=0.005). Including previous
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The purpose of this study was to describe the prevalence of dysfunctional, asymmetrical, and painful
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movement in junior Australian Football players using the FMS. The effect of previous injury and
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player position on FMS results was also assessed. Our findings indicate a high prevalence of
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dysfunctional, asymmetrical, and painful movement, irrespective of player position. Consistent with
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our hypothesis, painful movement was more common for players who experienced an injury during
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the previous season. However, sustaining an injury in the previous season did not affect the prevalence
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The FMS provides a simple field test for identifying athletes with dysfunctional, asymmetrical, and
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painful movement. Simple and efficient tests are important for junior Australian Football clubs, which
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do not have the personnel and resources for pre-season screening for injury prevention that are
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available at elite senior clubs. The FMS could provide a method for junior Australian Football clubs to
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identify athletes with dysfunctional movement, without relying on numerous isolated tests.18 However,
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the validity of using the FMS to identify Australian Football players at increased risk of injury has yet
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to be determined.
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In the present study, there was no association between dysfunctional movement (FMS composite score
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14) and injuries sustained by players in the previous season. Previous injury is a well established
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predictor of future injury in Australian Football.8,14 Thus, our null finding might indicate that there is
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no association between FMS composite scores and future injury in junior Australian Football.
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Alternatively, our null finding might be explained by measurement bias associated with the
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retrospective injury analysis. For example, players injured in the previous season might have been
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more likely to receive treatments designed to correct dysfunctional movement. This could increase the
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FMS composite scores of players with previous injuries and bias an association between dysfunctional
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movement and previous injury. As a result, prospective follow-up of players after FMS testing is
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Prevalence of dysfunctional movement was greater in junior Australian Football players (60%) than
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more-mature athletes (aged >18 years) from professional American Football (20%)19 and collegiate
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sport (40%).20 Adult sporting competitions involve greater physical demands than junior
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competitions.27 This performance gap might disadvantage junior players with repeated injuries from
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participating at higher levels.27 As a result, higher FMS composite scores in mature athletes might
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result from junior athletes with dysfunctional movement getting injured and being less likely to
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progress to senior competition. If correct, junior athletes may represent a population with large
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potential to benefit from a validated movement screening protocol. To date, studies investigating if the
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FMS can identify athletes at higher risk of injury have considered only adult athletes and have
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reported inconsistent findings.2123 Thus, the validity of using the FMS to determine injury risk in
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A concerning finding from our study is the high percentage (38%) of junior players reporting pain
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during FMS testing. In comparison, only 3% of recreational athletes (aged 18-40 years) reported pain
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in the only other study to report the prevalence of pain using the FMS.28 The higher prevalence of pain
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in our cohort could relate partly to the timing of testing, which occurred during the latter stages of pre-
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season training. Training loads are often high during this stage of pre-season training and high training
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loads can cause small increases in general muscle soreness.29 We did not quantify training load and the
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FMS does not differentiate between pain and training-related soreness. However, we speculate that a
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lower prevalence of pain might occur at the start of pre-season training, when training load is likely to
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be lower. Understanding how changes in pre-season training load influence FMS results is an
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Players reporting an injury in the previous season were 1.5 times more likely to experience pain during
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FMS testing, despite identifying themselves as having no current injuries. We did not differentiate the
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type of injuries sustained by players so it was not possible to determine if they were still experiencing
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pain from injuries sustained during the previous season. However, we speculate that for some players
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the reported pain was directly related to their previous injury and persisted due to insufficient
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rehabilitation at the time of the injury. Conversely, for some players the reported pain might be
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indirectly linked to previous injuries via adaptations throughout the kinetic-chain.12 If correct, the
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FMS could provide a useful pre-season screening method to identify junior players that need
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additional clinical assessment of injuries sustained during the previous season. Further research using
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more specific injury diagnoses is required to validate the use of the FMS in this manner.
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The majority of junior Australian Football players (65%) demonstrated at least one asymmetrical
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movement. Although the prevalence of asymmetrical movement has been investigated in American
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Football,19 there are no other studies of junior Australian Football to compare. In our study, shoulder
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mobility was the most commonly asymmetrical FMS sub-test. Shoulder joint function is important for
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junior Australian Football players because shoulder injuries (in addition to knee injuries) cause the
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greatest number of missed games.6 Future research should investigate how asymmetrical shoulder
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mobility affects shoulder joint function and injury risk in junior Australian Football players.
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The deep squat was the most commonly dysfunctional (score =1) FMS sub-test. This finding is in
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agreement with previous research, which found the deep squat was one of the most commonly
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dysfunctional FMS sub-tests in recreational athletes.28 The high prevalence of dysfunction with the
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deep squat is concerning given the common use of squat movements in strength and conditioning
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programs. Poor motor control or limited closed chain dorsiflexion of the ankles, extension of the
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thoracic spine, and flexion of the hips can contribute to impaired (score =1) performance of the deep
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squat.12
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A limitation of our study was the use of only self-reported retrospective injury data, which could be
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affected by recall bias.30 Although Australian Football players can recall whether or not they sustained
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an injury during the previous season with 100% accuracy, they can only recall diagnostic injury
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information with 61% accuracy.30 As a result, it was not possible to differentiate the type of injuries
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sustained by players using our retrospective study design. Prospective studies are needed to provide
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the diagnostic accuracy required to investigate relationships between FMS testing and different injury
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types. A further limitation of our study was the broad comparison of midfield, forward, defender and
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ruck groups. Greater differences between player positions may have occurred if the categories were
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more specific (i.e. small forward/tall forward); however, these tactical roles often change at the junior
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level in line with team strategy and the ongoing physical maturation of players.
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Conclusion
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The high prevalence of dysfunctional, asymmetrical, and painful movement in junior Australian
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Football players suggests that prospective studies investigating the strength of association between
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FMS findings and injury are warranted. Additionally, the high prevalence of pain reported by players
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suggests that identifying the cause of this pain and developing interventions to reduce its prevalence
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should be priorities for researchers, coaches and medical professionals working in junior Australian
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Football competitions.
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Practical implications
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Players reporting an injury during the previous season were more likely to experience pain
during FMS testing.
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There was no association between FMS composite scores and injuries sustained during the
previous season.
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Players were most likely to perform poorly during the deep squat sub-test. Poor motor control
or limited closed chain dorsiflexion of the ankles, extension of the thoracic spine, and flexion
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Acknowledgements
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The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the South Australian National Football League
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and the High Performance Manager Brenton Phillips. Furthermore, we acknowledge the valuable
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technical assistance of Steven Milanese during the preparation of the manuscript. All authors declare
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no conflicts of interest and have no financial or other interests in the Functional Movement Screen or
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Functional Movement Systems Inc. No financial assistance was obtained for the study.
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Figure legend
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Fig. 1. Proportion of players that scored 1, were asymmetrical, or reported pain for each of the
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Functional Movement Screen sub-tests. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. * Deep squat
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and trunk stability push-up sub-tests are not unilateral tests and do not provide information about
334
asymmetry.
335
squat, hurdle step, in-line lunge, active straight leg raise and rotary stability. c Greater proportion than
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in-line lunge, shoulder mobility, trunk stability push-up and rotary stability (p<0.05).
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proportion than all other sub-tests (p<0.05). e Greater proportion than in-line lunge (p<0.05). f Lower
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proportion than deep squat, shoulder mobility, active straight leg raise and trunk stability push-up
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(p<0.05).
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Lower
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Table 1
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Table 1. The effect of player position and injury on Functional Movement Screen composite score, asymmetry, and pain.
Total
FMS score 14
1 Asymmetry
1 Painful test
Previous Injury
(n)
(% Total)
(% Total)
(% Total)
(% Total)
All players
301
182(60%)
196(65%)
113(38%)
126(42%)
Midfield
156
90(58%)
104(67%)
56(36%)
66(42%)
Forward
57
38(67%)
37(65%)
21(37%)
22(39%)
Defender
56
31(55%)
35(63%)
24(43%)
23(41%)
Ruck
32
23(72%)
20(63%)
12(38%)
15(47%)
Previous injury
Yes
126
56(44%)
84(67%)
59(47%) a
No
175
73(42%)
112(64%)
54(31%)
a
Increased likelihood of having at least one painful sub-test when compared to players with no previous injury (Relative
Risk: 1.52; 95% confidence interval: 1.14-2.03; p=0.005).
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Table 2
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Table 2. Multivariable logistic regression analysis of pain reported during the Functional Movement Screen.
Predictor
Coefficient ()
SE ()
Walds 2
df
p
OR (95%CI)
Model 1
Intercept
-0.885
0.204
4.344
1
<0.01
NA
Player position
Midfield
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Forward
0.068
0.326
0.209
1
0.83
1.07 (0.56-2.02)
Defender
0.309
0.322
0.960
1
0.34
1.36 (0.72-2.56)
Ruck
0.039
0.407
0.095
1
0.92
1.04 (0.46-2.28)
Previous injury
No
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Yes
0.685
0.243
2.818
1
<0.01
1.98 (1.23-3.20)
Model evaluation
vs. Null model
8.869
4
0.06
Model 2
Intercept
-0.807
0.164
4.930
1
<0.01
NA
Previous injury
No
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Yes
0.680
0.242
2.806
1
<0.01
1.97 (1.23-3.18)
Model evaluation
vs. Null model
7.940
1
<0.01
95%CI, 95% confidence interval; df, degrees of freedom; NA, not applicable; OR, odds ratio; SE, standard error; Ref., reference
condition; vs., versus.
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Figure(s)
Page 18 of 18