Runway

Three Left (03L) becomes Runway Two

One Right (21R) when used in the
opposite direction (derived from adding

Runways are named by a number

between 01 and 36, which is generally
the magnetic azimuth of the
runway's heading in decadegrees. This
heading differs from true north by the
local magnetic declination. A runway
numbered 09 points east (90), runway
18 is south (180), runway 27 points

18 to the original number for the 180

degrees when approaching from the
opposite direction). In some countries,
if parallel runways are too close to each
other, regulations mandate that only
one runway may be used at a time
under certain conditions (usually
adverse weather).

west (270) and runway 36 points to

At large airports with four or more

the north (360 rather than 0).[1] When

parallel runways (for example, at Los

taking off from or landing on runway 09,

Angeles, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne

a plane would be heading 90 (east).

County, Hartsfield-Jackson

A runway can normally be used in both

directions, and is named for each
direction separately: e.g., "runway 33"
in one direction is "runway 15" when
used in the other. The two numbers
usually differ by 18 (= 180).

Atlanta,Denver, Dallas-Fort
Worth and Orlando) some runway
identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to
avoid the ambiguity that would result
with more than three parallel runways.
For example, in Los Angeles, this
system results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L,

If there is more than one runway

and 7R, even though all four runways

pointing in the same direction (parallel

are actually parallel (approximately 69

runways), each runway is identified by

degrees). At Dallas/Fort Worth

appending Left (L), Center (C) and

International Airport, there are five

Right (R) to the number to identify its

parallel runways, named 17L, 17C,

position (when facing its direction)

17R, 18L, and 18R, all oriented at a

for example, Runways One Five

heading of 175.4 degrees.

Left (15L), One Five Center (15C), and

Occasionally, an airport with only 3

One Five Right (15R). Runway Zero

parallel runways may use different

runway identifiers, for example when a

simulation programs those of American

third parallel runway was opened

origin might apply U.S. usage to

at Phoenix Sky Harbor International

airports around the world. For example,

Airport in 2000 to the south of existing

runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the

8R/26L, rather than confusingly

program as the single digit 5 rather

becoming the "new" 8R/26L it was

than 05.

instead designated 7R/25L, with the

former 8R/26L becoming 7L/25R and

Runway sign at Madrid-Barajas Airport,

8L/26R becoming 8/26.

Spain

For clarity in radio communications,

Runway designations change over time

each digit in the runway name is

because the magnetic poles slowly drift

pronounced individually: runway three

on the Earth's surface and

six, runway one four, etc. A leading

the magnetic bearing will change.

zero, for example in "runway zero six"

Depending on the airport location and

or "runway zero one left", is included for

how much drift takes place, it may be

all ICAO and

necessary over time to change the

some U.S. military airports (such

runway designation. As runways are

as Edwards Air Force Base). However,

designated with headings rounded to

most U.S. civil aviation airports drop the

the nearest 10 degrees, this will affect

leading zero as required by FAA

some runways more than others. For

regulation.[2] This also includes some

example, if the magnetic heading of a

military airfields such as Cairns Army

runway is 233 degrees, it would be

Airfield. This American anomaly may

designated Runway 23. If the magnetic

lead to inconsistencies in conversations

heading changed downwards by

between American pilots and

5 degrees to 228, the Runway would

controllers in other countries. It is very

still be Runway 23. If on the other hand

common in a country such as Canada

the original magnetic heading was 226

for a controller to clear an incoming

(Runway 23), and the heading

American aircraft to, for example,

decreased by only 2 degrees to 224,

runway 04, and the pilot read back the

the runway should become Runway 22.

clearance as runway 4. In flight

Because the drift itself is quite slow,

runway designation changes are

plane taking off from runway 09 would

uncommon, and not welcomed, as they

be facing east, directly into an "east

require an accompanying change

wind" blowing from 090 degrees.

in aeronautical charts and descriptive

documents. When runway designations

Declared distances

do change, especially at major airports,

Runway dimensions vary from as small

it is often changed at night

as 245 m (804 ft) long and 8 m (26 ft)

astaxiway signs need to be changed

wide in smaller general

and the huge numbers at each end of

aviation airports, to 5,500 m (18,045 ft)

the runway need to be repainted to the

long and 80 m (262 ft) wide at

new runway designators. In July 2009

large international airports built to

for example, London Stansted Airport in

accommodate the largest jets, to the

the United Kingdom changed its

huge 11,917 m 274 m (39,098 ft

runway designations from 05/23 to

899 ft) lake bed runway 17/35

04/22 during the night.

at Edwards Air Force Base in California

For fixed-wing aircraft it is

advantageous to perform takeoffs and

a landing site for the retired Space

Shuttle.[4]

landings into the wind to reduce takeoff

Takeoff and landing distances available

or landing roll and reduce theground

are given using one of the following

speed needed to attain flying speed.

terms:

Larger airports usually have several

TORA[5]

runways in different directions, so that

Takeoff Run Available The length of

one can be selected that is most nearly

runway declared available and suitable

aligned with the wind. Airports with one

for the ground run of an airplane taking

runway are often constructed to be

off.[6]

aligned with the prevailing wind.

Compiling a wind rose is in fact one of
the preliminary steps taken in
constructing airport runways.[3] Note
that wind direction is given as the
direction the wind is coming from: a

TODA[5]
Takeoff Distance Available The
length of the takeoff run available plus
the length of the clearway, if clearway
is provided.[6]

(The clearway length allowed must lie

around the paved runway. It is kept free

within the aerodrome or airport

from any obstacles that might impede

boundary. According to the Federal

flight or ground roll of aircraft.

Aviation Regulations and Joint Aviation

Requirements (JAR) TODA is the

lesser of TORA plus clearway or 1.5

threshold to threshold, which typically

times TORA).

features threshold markings, numbers,

ASDA[5]

and centerlines, but not overrun areas

at both ends.

Accelerate-Stop Distance Available

The length of the takeoff run available
plus the length of the stopway, if
stopway is provided.[6]
LDA[5]
length of runway that is declared
available and suitable for the ground
run of an airplane landing.[7]
EMDA

[8]

Blast pads, also known as

overrun areas or stopways, are often
constructed just before the start of a
large planes during the takeoff roll
could otherwise erode the ground and
eventually damage the
runway. Overrun areas are also
constructed at the end of runways as

Emergency Distance Available LDA

emergency space to slowly stop planes

(or TORA) plus a stopway.

that overrun the runway on a landing

Sections of a runway

runway where jet blast produced by

Landing Distance Available The

The runway is the surface from

The runway thresholds are

gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane

on a rejected takeoff or a takeoff gone
wrong. Blast pads are often not as

markings across the runway that

strong as the main paved surface of the

denote the beginning and end of the

runway and are marked with

designated space for landing and

yellow chevrons. Planes are not

takeoff under non-emergency

allowed to taxi, take off or land on blast

conditions.[10]

pads, except in an emergency.

The runway safety area is the

cleared, smoothed and graded area

on a visual runway, they may have

Displaced thresholds may be

used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing

threshold markings, designators, and

rollout, but not for touchdown.

centerlines. Additionally, they do not

A displaced threshold often exists

provide an instrument-based landing

because obstacles just before the

procedure; pilots must be able to see

runway, runway strength, or noise

the runway to use it. Also, radio

restrictions may make the beginning

communication may not be available

section of runway unsuitable for

and pilots must be self-reliant.

landings.[11] It is marked with white paint

arrows that lead up to the beginning of

Non-precision instrument
runways are often used at small- to

the landing portion of the runway.

medium-size airports. These runways,

depending on the surface, may be
marked with threshold markings,

Runway markings

designators, centerlines, and

There are runway markings and signs

sometimes a 1,000 ft (305 m) mark

on most large runways. Larger runways

(known as an aiming point, sometimes

have a distance remaining sign (black

installed at 1,500 ft (457 m)). They

box with white numbers). This sign

provide horizontal position guidance to

uses a single number to indicate the

planes on instrument approach

thousands of feet remaining, so 7 will

via Non-directional beacon, VHF

indicate 7,000 ft (2,134 m) remaining.

omnidirectional range, Global

The runway threshold is marked by a

Positioning System, etc.

line of green lights.

There are three types of runways:

Precision instrument runways,

which are found at medium- and largesize airports, consist of a blast

Visual runways are used at small

pad/stopway (optional, for airports

airstrips and are usually just a strip of

handling jets), threshold, designator,

grass, gravel, ice, asphalt, or concrete.

centerline, aiming point, and 500 ft

Although there are usually no markings

(152 m), 1,000 ft (305 m)/1,500 ft

(457 m), 2,000 ft (610 m), 2,500 ft

(762 m), and 3,000 ft (914 m)

Runways may have different

touchdown zone marks. Precision

types on each end. To cut costs, many

runways provide both horizontal and

airports do not install precision

vertical guidance for instrument

guidance equipment on both ends.

approaches.

Runways with one precision end and

National variants[edit]

any other type of end can install the full

set of touchdown zones, even if some

In Australia, Canada, Japan, the

United Kingdom,

[12]

are past the midpoint. Runways with

as well as some

precision markings on both ends omit

other countries or territories (Hong

touchdown zones within 900 ft (274 m)

Kong and Macau) all 3-stripe and 2-

of the midpoint, to avoid ambiguity over

stripe touchdown zones for precision

with which end the zone is associated.

runways are replaced with one-stripe

touchdown zones.

In some South American

Runway safety

countries
Types of runway safety incidents

like Colombia, Ecuador and Peru one

include:

3-stripe is added and a 2-stripe is

replaced with the aiming point.

involving only a single aircraft, where it

Some European countries

makes an inappropriate exit from the

replace the aiming point with a 3-stripe

runway (e.g. Thai Airways Flight 679).

touchdown zone.

Runways in Norway have yellow

markings instead of the usual white
ones. This also occurs in some airports
in Japan, Sweden, and Finland. The
yellow markings are used to ensure
better contrast against snow.

Runway excursion - an incident

Runway overrun (also known as

an overshoot) - a type of excursion
where the aircraft is unable to stop
before the end of the runway (e.g. Air
France Flight 358).

Runway incursion - an incident

[clarification needed]

Although certain airports

involving incorrect presence of a

have used reinforcement [clarification

vehicle, person or another aircraft on

needed]

the runway (e.g. Tenerife disaster ( Pan

generally found to be unnecessary, with

American World Airways Flight 1736

the exception of expansion

and KLM Flight 4805 )).

joints across the runway where

in concrete pavements, this is

a dowel assembly, which permits

Runway confusion - an aircraft

relative movement of the concrete

makes use of the wrong runway for

slabs, is placed in the concrete. Where

landing or takeoff (e.g. Singapore

it can be anticipated that major

Airlines Flight 006, Western Airlines

settlements of the runway will occur

Flight 2605).

over the years because of unstable

Runway undershoot - an aircraft

that lands short of the runway
(e.g. British Airways Flight 38, Asiana
Airlines Flight 214).
Pavement

ground conditions, it is preferable to

install asphaltic concrete surface, as it
is easier to patch on a periodic basis.
For fields with very low traffic of light
planes, it is possible to use a sod
surface. Some runways also make use
of salt flat runways.

Runway surface at Congonhas

For pavement designs, borings are

Airport in So Paulo, Brazil. The

taken to determine the subgrade

grooves increase friction and reduce

condition, and based on the

the risk of hydroplaning.

relative bearing capacity of the

The choice of material used to

construct the runway depends on the
use and the local ground conditions.
For a major airport, where the ground
conditions permit, the most satisfactory
type of pavement for long-term
minimum maintenance is concrete.

subgrade, the specifications are

established. For heavy-duty
commercial aircraft, the pavement
thickness, no matter what the top
surface, varies from 10 in (250 mm) to
4 ft (1 m), including subgrade.
Airport pavements have been designed
by two methods. The

first, Westergaard, is based on the

pavement. Manufacturers of the larger

assumption that the pavement is an

planes design landing gear so that the

elastic plate supported on a heavy fluid

weight of the plane is supported on

base with a uniform

larger and more numerous tires.

reaction coefficient known as the K

Attention is also paid to the

value. Experience has shown that

characteristics of the landing gear itself,

the K values on which the formula was

so that adverse effects on the

developed are not applicable for newer

pavement are minimized. Sometimes it

aircraft with very large footprint

is possible to reinforce a pavement for

pressures.

higher loading by applying an overlay

The second method is called

of asphaltic concrete or portland

the California bearing ratio and was

cement concrete that is bonded to the

developed in the late 1940s. It is an

original slab. Post-tensioning concrete

extrapolation of the original test results,

has been developed for the runway

which are not applicable to modern

surface. This permits the use of thinner

aircraft pavements or to modern

pavements and should result in longer

aircraft landing gear. Some designs

concrete pavement life. Because of the

were made by a mixture of these two

susceptibility of thinner pavements

design theories. A more recent method

to frost heave, this process is generally

is an analytical system based on the

applicable only where there is no

introduction of vehicle response as an

appreciable frost action.

important design parameter. Essentially

Pavement surface

it takes into account all factors,

Runway pavement surface is prepared

including the traffic conditions, service

and maintained to maximize friction for

life, materials used in the construction,

wheel braking. To

and, especially important, the dynamic

minimize hydroplaning following heavy

response of the vehicles using the

rain, the pavement surface is usually

landing area.

grooved so that the surface water film

Because airport pavement construction

flows into the grooves and the peaks

is so expensive, manufacturers aim to

between grooves will still be in contact

minimize aircraft stresses on the

with the aircraft tires. To maintain the

macrotexturing built into the runway by

10/28 or parallel 9R/27L, it is routine for

the grooves, maintenance crews

arrivals from East Asia, which would

engage in airfield rubber

normally be vectored for 4L/22R

removal or hydrocleaning in order to

(7,500 ft (2,286 m)) or 9R/27L (7,967 ft

meet required FAA friction levels.]

(2,428 m)) to request 28R (13,001 ft

Runway length

(3,963 m)). It is always accommodated,

although occasionally with a delay.
Another example is that the Lule

A runway of at least 6,000 ft (1,829 m)

Airport in Sweden was extended to

in length is usually adequate

10,990 ft (3,350 m) to allow any fully

for aircraft weights below approximately

loaded freight aircraft to take off.

200,000 lb (90,718 kg). Larger aircraft

An aircraft will need a longer runway at

including widebodies will usually

a higher altitude due to

require at least 8,000 ft (2,438 m) at

decreased density of air at higher

sea level and somewhat more at

altitudes, which reduces lift and engine

higher altitudeairports. International

power, the former requiring higher

widebody flights, which carry

takeoff and landing speed. An aircraft

substantial amounts of fuel and are

will also require a longer runway in

therefore heavier, may also have

hotter or more humid conditions

landing requirements of 10,000 ft

(see density altitude). Most commercial

(3,048 m) or more and takeoff

aircraft carry manufacturer's tables

requirements of 13,000 ft (3,962 m).

showing the adjustments required for a

At sea level, 10,000 ft (3,048 m) can be

given temperature.

considered an adequate length to land

The world's longest paved runway,

virtually any aircraft. For example,

at Qamdo Bamda Airport in Tibet, has a

at O'Hare International Airport, when

total length of 5,500 m (18,045 ft).

landing simultaneously on 4L/22R and