National College V.

Alecsandri, Bacu

Lucrare de atestat la limba englez

AN INSIGHT INTO
AMERICAN
PSYCHOLOGY

Coordinating teacher:
prof. Alis-Elena Glbeaz

Candidate:
Diana Buruian
Clasa: a XII-a B
Filologie bilingv englez

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ARGUMENT.....4
INTRODUCTION..................5
CHAPTER I. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES......6
I.1. Behaviorist perspective....6
I.2. Psychodynamic Perspective......6
I.3 Humanism..7
I.4. Cognitive Psychology....7
I.4.Biological Psychology.....8
CHAPTER II. BEST KNOWN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGISTS.9
II.1. Behaviorists.9
II.1.a John Watson .9
II.1.b. B.F. Skinner 10
II.2. American Psychoanalysts11
II.2.a. Erik Erikson....11
II.3 Humanistic Psychologists.12
II.3.a. Abraham Maslow..12
II.3.b. Carl Rogers.13
II.4. Cognitive psychologists.14
II.4.1. Noam Chomsky...14
II.5. Social Psychologists....15
II.5.a. Leon Festinger..................15
2

II.6.Developmental Psychologists.....16
II.6. a. Lawrence Kohlberg.16
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS......17
BIBLIOGRAPHY...18

ARGUMENT

I have decided to write about American psychology as a result of the wide variety of theories,
conceptions, discoveries and innovations this culture has provided over time to
the psychological field of study, offering it new and ingenious approaches.
As

Psychology is one of the most important sciences that drew my attention in the last

years,

I have soon enough developed a strong passion, which materialized in the decision

of studying it once I will have graduated. Furthermore, I have had the chance of delving deeply into
this area, which eventually led me to discovering an entire new world, elaborate interconnections
between famous figures, notions and other sciences such as Biology, Chemistry, Anthropology or even
philosophical perspectives.
Among the most influential and innovative programs Psychology presents, worth mentioning are those
belonging to American scientists or thinkers, which are going to be described subsequently. As their
number is overwhelming, I have chosen to illustrate those psychologists whose works and studies
greatly enriched this domain which was for a long time considered a pseudo-science and it still has the
status of a young, and not so developed field of study.
I am going to present both a picture and a description for every psychologist included in my paper,
along with the most important or well-known thesis they have created in their whole careers. I would
also like to nominate them in a chronological order and mention their afferent current of thinking or
approach (such as Functionalism, Psychoanalysis, Structuralism, Behaviorism, Humanistic or
Cognitive Psychology).

INTRODUCTION
4

Psychology is the study of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious
experience as well as thought. It is an academic discipline and an applied science which seeks to
understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases.
The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, or soul ( psukh,
"breath, spirit, soul" and - -logia, "study of" or "research").The Latin word psychologia was first
used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Maruli in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae
humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century.
In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a
social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental
functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and biological
processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.
Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence,
phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships,
including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse
orientations also consider the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer
causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to
employing empirical and deductive methods, someespecially clinical and counseling psychologists
at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques.
A wide range of research methods are used in psychology. These methods vary by the sources of
information that are drawn on, how that information is sampled, and the types of instruments that are
used in data collection. Methods also vary by whether they collect qualitative data, quantitative data or
both.

CHAPTER I. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

5

There are various different approaches in contemporary psychology. An approach is a perspective that
involves certain assumptions about human behavior: the way they function, which aspects of them are
worthy of study and what research methods are appropriate for undertaking this study. There may be
several different theories within an approach, but they all share these common assumptions. Below is a
brief summary of the 5 main psychological approaches (sometimes called perspectives) in psychology.
I.1. Behaviorist perspective
Behaviorism is different from most other
approaches because they view people (and
animals) as controlled by their environment
and specifically that we are the result of
what

we

have

learned

from

our

environment. Behaviorism is concerned

with how environmental factors (called
stimuli) affect observable behavior (called
the response). The behaviorist approach proposes two main processes whereby people learn from their
environment: namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Behaviorism has been criticized in the way it under-estimates the complexity of human behavior. Many
studies used animals which are hard to generalize to humans and it cannot explain, for example the
speed in which we pick up language
I.2. Psychodynamic Perspective
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, explained the human mind as like an iceberg, with only
a small amount of it being visible, that is our observable behavior, but it is the unconscious, submerged
mind that has the most, underlying influence on our behavior. Freud used three main methods of
accessing the unconscious mind: free association, dream analysis and slips of the tongue. Freud
believes that events in our childhood can have a significant impact on our behavior as adults. He also
believed that people have little free will to make choices in life. Instead, our behavior is determined by
the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.

However, it has been criticized in the way that it over emphasizes

of importance of sexuality and under emphasized of the role of

social

relationships. Nevertheless psychoanalysis has been greatly

contributory to psychology in that it has encouraged many
modern theorists to modify it for the better, using its basic principles,
but eliminating its major flaws.

I.3. Humanism
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that

emphasizes the

study of the whole person (known as holism). Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior, not
only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving.

Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual's behavior is

connected to his inner feelings and self-image. The humanistic
perspective centers on the view that each person is unique and
individual, and has the free will to change at any time in his or
her lives.

I.4. Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Psychology revolves around the notion that if we want to know what makes people think
then the way to do it is to figure out what processes are actually going on in their minds. In other
words, psychologists from this perspective study cognition which is the mental act or process by
which knowledge is acquired.
The cognitive perspective is concerned with mental functions such as memory, perception, attention
etc. It views people as being similar to computers in the way we process information (e.g. input-

process-output).
information,

For

example, both human brains and computers process

store

data and have input and output procedure.

I.5.

Biological Psychology
We can thank Charles Darwin (1859)
for demonstrating in the idea that
genetics and evolution play a role in
influencing human behavior through

natural selection. Theorists in the biological perspective who study behavioral genomics consider how
genes affect behavior.
The biological approach believes that most behavior is inherited and has an adaptive (or evolutionary)
function. Biological psychologists explain
behaviors in neurological terms, i.e. the
physiology and structure of the brain and
how this influences behavior.

Many

biological psychologists have concentrated

on abnormal behavior and have tried to
explain it.

For example, biological

psychologists believe that schizophrenia is

affected

by

levels

of

dopamine

(a

neurotransmitter).

CHAPTER II. BEST KNOWN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGISTS

II.1. Behaviorists
II.1.a John Watson
John Broadus Watson (1878 1958) was an American psychologist who
established the psychological school of behaviorism. John Watson proposed
that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlovs observations) was
able to explain all aspects of human psychology. Everything from speech to
emotional responses were simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson
denied completely the existence of the mind or consciousness. Watson believed
that all individual differences in behavior were due to different experiences of
learning. He famously said:
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors (Watson, 1924, p. 104).
"Little Albert" experiment (1920)
One might consider the experiment Watson and his
assistant Rosalie Rayner carried out to be one of the
most controversial in psychology in 1920. The goal of
the experiment was to show how principles of classical
conditioning could be applied to condition fear of a
white rat into "Little Albert", a 9-month-old boy. They
found that Albert developed phobias of objects which
shared characteristics with the rat, process known as
generalization.

II.1.b. B.F. Skinner

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904 1990), commonly known as B. F. Skinner,

was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social
philosopher. Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of
Watsons. Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it
is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal
mental events. The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical
conditioning was far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex
human behavior. He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an
action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning deals with operants - intentional actions that have an effect on the surrounding
environment. Skinner set out to identify the processes which made certain operant behaviors more or
less likely to occur. Operant conditioning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors, from the
process of learning, to addiction and language acquisition. It also has practical application (such as
token economy) which can be applied in classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals.
However, operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in
learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals.

II.2. American Psychoanalysts

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II.2.a. Erik Erikson

Erik Homburger Erikson ( 1902 1994) was a German-born American
developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on
psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous for
coining the phrase identity crisis. His ideas were greatly influenced by
Freud, going along with Freuds (1923) theory regarding the structure and
topography of personality. However, whereas Freud was an id psychologist,
Erikson was an ego psychologist. He emphasized the role of culture and
society and the conflicts that can take place within the ego itself, whereas
Freud emphasized the conflict between the id and the superego.
According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social in
nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of identity in society,
and helping the next generation prepare for the future. The outcome of this 'maturation timetable' is a
wide and integrated set of life skills and abilities that function together within the autonomous
individual. However, instead of focusing on sexual development (like Freud), he was interested in how
children socialize and how this affects their sense of self.

II.3

Humanistic Psychologists
II.3.a. Abraham Maslow

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Abraham Harold Maslow (1908 1970) was an American psychologist who

was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of
psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority,
culminating in self-actualization. The earliest and most widespread version
of Maslow's hierarchy of needs includes five motivational needs, often
depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
This five stage model can be divided into basic (or deficiency) needs (e.g.
physiological,

safety,

love,

and

esteem) and growth needs (selfactualization).

One must satisfy lower level basic
needs before progressing on to meet
higher level growth needs. Once these
needs have been reasonably satisfied,
one may be able to reach the highest
level called self-actualization.
It is important to note that Maslow's
five stage model has been expanded
to include cognitive and aesthetic
needs (and later transcendence needs.

II.3.b. Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was an American humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main
assumptions of Abraham Maslow, but added that for a person to "grow", they need an environment that
provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with
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unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).

Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they
should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water.
Rogers believed that every person can achieve their goals, wishes and desires in
life. When, or rather if they did so, self-actualization took place. This was one
of Carl Rogers most important contributions to psychology and for a person to
reach their potential, a number of factors must be satisfied. "The organism has
one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism
(Rogers, 1951, p. 487). This means that self-actualization occurs when a persons ideal self (i.e. who
they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image). Rogers describes an
individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will
become self-actualized is childhood experience

II.4.
Cognitive

psychologists
II.4.1. Noam Chomsky

Avram Noam Chomsky (1928 - ) is an American linguist,

scientist, historian, logician, social critic, and political
described as "the father of modern linguistics". The basis

philosopher, cognitive
activist, sometimes
to

Chomsky's

linguistic theory is rooted in biolinguistics, holding that

the

underlying the structure of language are biologically

determined in the

human mind and hence genetically transmitted. He therefore

humans share the same underlying linguistic structure,

argues

principles
that

irrespective

all
of

sociocultural differences. In adopting this position, Chomsky rejects the radical behaviorist psychology
13

of B.F. Skinner which views the mind as a tabula rasa ("blank slate") and thus treats language as
learned behavior.
The Chomskyan approach towards linguistics studies grammar as an innate body of knowledge
possessed by language users, often termed universal grammar. Since the 1960s, Chomsky has
maintained

that

syntactic

knowledge

is at least partially inborn, implying that children need only

learn

certain parochial features of their

native languages.

II.5. Social Psychologists

II.5.a. Leon Festinger
Leon Festinger (1919 1989) was an American social psychologist, perhaps best
known for cognitive dissonance and social comparison theory. Cognitive
dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors.
This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the
attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance etc. For
example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes
cancer (cognition).
Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our
attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). Attitudes may change because
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of factors within the person. An important factor here is the principle of cognitive consistency, the
focus of Festinger's (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance. This theory starts from the idea that we seek
consistency in our beliefs and attitudes in any situation where two cognitions are inconsistent.

II.6.Developmental Psychologists
II.6. a. Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 1987) was an American psychologist best known for his theory of stages
of moral development. Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a
psychological theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. The theory holds that
moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, grouped into
three levels: pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality.

15

Kohlberg's scale is about how people justify behaviors and his stages are not a
method of ranking how moral someone's behavior is. There should, however, be
a

correlation between how someone scores on the scale and how they behave,
and the general hypothesis is that moral behaviour is more responsible,
consistent and predictable from people at higher levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Taking everything into account, I strongly believe that American Psychology played an essential role
in Psychologys development as a science exploring both the mind and behavior. Also, the Americans
contribution to this field of study is a lot more complex and there are significantly more names that
resonate apart from the ones I have mentioned.
Furthermore, I have tried to incorporate in my paper the most important details about the psychologists
presented and a short summary of their theses. I have also included each of them in one of the
Psychological Perspectives, only after I had explained them as accessible as possible.
16

In my opinion, the research needed for this paper was of great help for both my general knowledge and
the process of getting familiarized with advanced psychological concepts and theories which will stand
me in good stead until I will have begun my University Studies in this field.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology
McLeod,
S.
A.
(2007).
Psychology

www.simplypsychology.org/perspective.html
Psihologie. Manual pentru clasa a X-a,
Adrian Neculau,

Mihaela Iacob,Stefan Boncu, Ovidiu Lungu, Editura POLIROM (2007)

http://www.learner.org/series/discoveringpsychology/history/history_nonflash.html
https://www.verywell.com/what-is-a-theory-2795970
A Dictionary of Psychology (Oxford Paperback Reference) by Andrew M. Colman (2009)

Perspectives.

from

Dorina Salavastru, Luminita

M. Zlate, Introducere n Psihologie, Editura Polirom (2009)

17

Retrieved

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