Y5 IBDP History HL Compiled Notes

Authoritarian States: Hitlers Nazi Germany

Superpower Tensions: Origins of Cold War
Maintenance of Power

Scope: 1933 (Passing of Enabling Act) to 1945 (Hitlers suicide)

Charismatic Appeal and Cult of Personality

The constructed image of the Fuhrer managed to sway the people to
have faith in him as the national leader of Germany.
Nazi propaganda portrayed Hitler as a divinely appointed leader was effective
in aligning many Germans who associated themselves with the attributes and
values that he supposedly typified.
Nazi propaganda characterised Hitler as a Symbol of the Nation who, from
an ordinary worker/soldier, would become the man to re-establish Germanys
greatness and military sovereignty
The human qualities ascribed to him held resonance with the German people:
modesty, toughness, love for his people, unshakeable determination
Propaganda was pervasive: Nazi partys aggressive buying of newspapers and
journals; campaign to allow Germans access to radio (by 1937, number of
Germans with access to radio increased from 2% to 70%); Heil Hitler salute
was the normal prelude to any interaction
Education and youth policies indoctrinated the youth to align themselves with
Hitler: affected by his cult of personality in their formative years, and they
would try to persuade their parents and teachers to support Hitler as well
- School curriculum heavily incorporated Nazi ideology into subjects such as
Biology, which taught Aryan racial and genetic superiority, History, which
taught German history and the triumphs of Germany, and German, which
advocated German superiority
- Organisations such as the Hitler Youth and the League of German Maidens
heavily emphasised the roles and attributes of the ideal Nazi man and
woman, such as complete obedience to the Fuhrer
- Membership in the Hitler Youth numbered at 5 million by 1936, from a
thousand in 1923
- Volkssturm and the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend
A strong and ruthless enforcer of law and order. He represented the moral
and judicial sentiment of the people, such as his condemnation of rowdiness,
homosexuality, venal corruption etc
- The boost to his popularity following Night of Long Knives (purged the SA)
- Popular justice
- Nuremberg rallies (1927 to 1938): dressed in uniforms, stirring music,
flags, symbols etc: a stringent and disciplined movement: up to half a
million attendees
- However,
- Hitler embodies a pre-established ideological consensus
- Not entirely certain that it is due to his cult of personality that the populace
condoned some of his policies: German people merely subscribing to their
own existing moral sensitivities

 Represented national interests; decisions not governed by particularism or

selfish motives, and were for the good of Germany and its people
- In 1933, propaganda succeeded in distancing Hitler from the Nazi party
itself, which was becoming increasingly unpopular
- Characterised as being kept in the dark about the deeds of his party
members, unaware of some of the complaints of his people
- Winterhilfswerk (winter relief) increased his popularity with the poorer
Germans: provided them with food, clothing, coal
- However,
- Not entirely a result of Nazi propaganda, as the population had for decades
been imbibed with Nationalist values by the press
- Population already happened to agree with Hitlers nationalism
Responsible for the economic miracle of the 1930s
- The economic prosperity experienced under Hitler constituted much of his
apologetic
- Economic policies like Arbeitsdiesnt rid Germany of unemployment
- Introduced credit notes called mefo bills, which was a means of deficit
financing to stimulate the economy; stimulated housing, road construction
and other industries; repayments on memo bills accounted for 50% of
government expenditure from 1934 to 1935
- Policy on women reduced unemployment in 1930s by convincing women to
give up jobs
- Given interest-free loans to encourage them to withdraw from labour
market in order to get married (percentage of unemployed women fell
from 3&% to 31% from 1932 to 1937)
- Reinforced faith in Hitler, especially among the middle class and
Mittelstand (benefitted most from Nazi economic policies)
- However,
- Receptiveness to the successes of his economic policies varied by class
- Working class still experienced little alleviation in their Depression-era
standards of living
- Forced to work longer hours due to the creation of the German Labour
Front (DAF)
- Price of food rose: detrimental to poorer strata of working class
However, as a whole,
Attitude towards propaganda hard to gauge
Germany was highly literate and the population well educated: difficult to
persuade through use of propaganda; more successful in reinforcing than in
countering existing attitudes
- Socialist subculture remained largely unaffected by propaganda
- Catholics also did not subscribe to the full extremes of Hitlers cult of
personality and Nazi ideologies
- The effectiveness of his charismatic appeal in countering existing attitudes
shown to be limited: after 1933, was careful in publicly associating himself
with the generally unpopular genocidal anti-Semitic diatribe
Ian Kershaws The Hitler Myth: the image of Hitler was detrimental to his
influence and power in two ways:

- Hitler began to believe in his own infallibility, decision-making calculus

became careless
- Created a monument of his person that Hitler was forced to live up to, and
any loss of momentum on the part of the Nazi party would fatally
undermine his image and influence

Use of Force and Repression of Opposition

Hitlers domestic policies allowed him to effectively remove opposition
and repress potential dissidents.
Through fear and intimidation, Hitler managed to silence opposition by instilling
a fear of speaking out against the Nazi party.
The SS and the Gestapo were used as instruments of fear to ensure
conformity
Paid informants working for the Gestapo infiltrated public areas and homes to
instil fear among the people of speaking ill of the Nazi party, even in private
Individual church figureheads (Martin Niemoller) were punished severely for
speaking out against Nazis: little resistance from churches
SS operated concentration and forced labour camps (18 were opened)
- From 1933 to 1939, camps such as Buchenwald held over 250,000 political
prisoners, or dissidents, and many political executions took place
Hitlers indoctrination of the youth also allowed him to use them as agents to
spy on their parents, thus fostering fear in households of disparaging the Nazi
party
- HJ-Streifendiest youths were willing to inform on their parents anti-Nazi
sentiments
Organisations like National Socialist Womanhood (NSF) and German Womens
Enterprise (DFW) formed to encourage anti-feminist ideology; prevented
nonconformism amongst women
However,
The failures of repression through fear can mainly be seen by nonconformists
and opposition groups in Germany
- Communists: small cells like Red Orchestra still existed as an espionage
group
- Intellectuals: White Rose resistance in 1942
- Tim Mason, Ian Kershaw: nonconforvmists: Swing Youths, Edelweiss Piraten
But,
After WW2, repression of dissident groups was nonetheless tightened
Gestapo were informed on these dissentient youth groups, and Heinrich
Himmler wrote to the head of the Schultzstaffel (SS) to tighten repression of
youth swing groups
Alan Wilt: opposition was vague and diffuse
Intentionalists: Through the use of legal methods, Hitler was able to consolidate
power under himself in particular by allowing conflict between functionaries in
the party, and to exert control over all institutions of the state through
Gleichschaltung.
Autocratic leadership through assertion of Fuhrerprinzip: emphasis on
complete obedience to the Fuhrer himself, not necessarily the entire party
Fostered distrust and infighting between Nazi party officials

- Issued contradictory orders and delegated overlapping responsibilities to

multiple subordinates to have the stronger one do the job
- Cabinet never met after 1938 and discouraged ministers from meeting
independently
Felt that Nazi party was unquestioningly loyal to him, did not purge
- Martin Bormann created the Department for Internal Party Affairs to exert
discipline
- Controlled the careerists that joined after March 1933 (March Converts):
corrupt and sycophantic
Purged the civil service of Jews and political opponents
- Mandated all civil servants to join the Nazi party by 1939
- Hitler created ad hoc special agencies to create chaos in the bureaucracy
- E.g. Economics Ministry: lost power to the Office of the Four-Year Plan
Undermined the justice system
- All judges had to take an oath of loyalty to the Nazi party
- Lawyers came under the German Lawyers Front
- Existing courts bypassed by Peoples Courts and Special Courts in 1934:
focused on political crimes such as treason
- Laws interpreted according to Nazi values, and Hitlers word became law
- 7,000 out of 16,000 cases tried led to death sentences
Controlled other autonomous bodies with the potential to form strong
opposition groups
- Labour unions disbanded: creation of German Labour Front (22 million
members)
- Lost the right to negotiate wages and conditions of work
Managed to curb the problem of a potentially insurrectionist army
- Hitler made the army swear by the Hitler Oath, which was an iteration of
the Reichswehreid, which bound the army by honour to obey their Fuhrer
- Furthermore, soldiers mandated to undergo training sessions which
reminded them of the severity of breaking the oath, compelling many of
the soldiers to obey Hitler
- Engineered the dismissal of war minister General Von Blomberg in 1938,
citing the alleged scandal of the latter being homosexual
However,
Structuralist school of thought: Hitler was a weak dictator and could not
effectively control his bureaucracy
- No evidence of clear planning or consisted direction
- Hans Mommsen: Cumulative radicalism: officials wanted to work towards
the Fuhrer
Through the use of force, Hitler was able to directly silence and remove
opposition.
Problem of the Sturm Abteilung (SA), which was violent and becoming
increasingly uncontrollable, and threatened to alienate the army. Ernst Rhm
also had ambitions to make himself the leader of a combined SA and army to
effect a Second Revolution,
In response, Hitler ordered the Night of Long Knives in 1934, purging the SA
and murdering Rhm, removing opposition from the SA
Concentration camps and political executions removed many political
opponents

 SS able to arrest and execute without question from 1941 with the Night and
Fog decree
However,
Robert Gellately: Gestapos powers were limited: only numbered 32,000
But,
SS purged 5000 members of staff after the 1944 bomb plot which suggests
still had the might to destroy his opponents when he needed to

Origins of the Cold War

Scope: 1917 (Bolshevik Revolution) to 4 April 1949 (formation of NATO)

Cold War: collapse of wartime alliance between US/USSR; clash of
incompatible ideologies of Communism and Capitalism: cold as there was no
direct conflict between two powers; mainly fought through proxy wars

Soviet Policies
Soviet policies and Russian expansionism contributed to the collapse
of its wartime alliance with the US.
Russia, having suffered great losses during the second world war, both saw
the need for the creation of a buffer zone as a security measure and larger
reparations from Germany, commensurate to the extent of its loss
- By June 1944, there were 228 Axis divisions on the Eastern front where
there were only 61 in Western Europe
Wanted to reclaim territories lost during World War 2 and those it gained from
the 1939 Non-Aggression Pact, such as Poland and Romania
- Engaged in salami tactics to orchestrate the rise of Communist
governments in countries like Poland and Bulgaria to gain control over
Eastern bloc
- Polish coalition government was taken over by the USSR through rigged
elections, expulsion of non-Communist members and coordination of
Communist takeovers
- The USSR also supported the illiberal Czechoslovakia coup in 1948 where
Communists overthrew the government
- Peoples democracies were supported throughout Eastern Europe in
order to lead countries closer to socialism; subversive tactics such as
controlling the police forces ensured that Communism always won (noted
by Robert Tucker)
Communists won improbable majorities in countries like Poland (80% of vote)
USSR felt that it had a moral and categorical claim to many territories
- Codified mainly in the Percentages Agreement of 1944, where it was
concluded that the USSR had a claim to Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania,
with the UK retaining influence in Greece
- Had also made claims for other concessions, but most were denied by the
US and the UK
- In response, the US stationed a Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean to provide
aid to Greece in the event of insurgent and renascent Communism
- Due to these denied concessions, the USSR activated around 200,000
troops along the Bulgarian border, twelve divisions on the Eastern frontier
of Turkey and pillaged Manchuria, and pro-Soviet forces declared a new
government in Azerbaijan
US and Great Britain were alarmed by these responses, and Churchill made
his Iron Curtain speech (March 1946), effectively dividing the world into two
clear camps.
- Churchill denounced Soviet actions as being totalitarian in nature,
delineating an Iron Curtain on the border between the Soviet and Allied
occupied zones (Stalin wanted to exclude Eastern Europe from the rest of
Europe)

- In response, Stalin withdrew from IMF (International Monetary Fund),

increased anti-Western propaganda (called speech war mongering and
imperialist racism

US National Interests
Additionally, the national interests of the US conflicted with Soviet
policies and aims, furthering tensions between the powers and
leading to the collapse of their wartime alliance.
William Appleman Williams blame the US and its Open Door policy as
projecting economic power outward, thus forcing the USSR to adopt
conservative defencism.
US pursued a policy of containment as recommended by Kennans Long
Telegram and Ethridges report in fear of Communism
- The growth of Communist would prevent the export of American goods in
Europe, limiting economic growth
- Therefore, $2.7 billion was given to France via debt cancellation to support
resistance against the French Communist Party
US embarked on the Marshall Aid programme in 1947, to support countries
following the winter, in order to prevent impoverished citizens from turning to
Communism
- The Czechoslovakia coup finally convinced congress to approve of the
programme
Moreover, US Secretary of State James Byrnes offered loans to the USSR in
exchange for the economic rebuilding of and free trade in Eastern Europe
- Stalin viewed this as US dollar imperialism: ordered all states in the
Eastern European bloc to reject Marshall Aid
- 1947, Zhdanov condemned Marshall Aid and openly bifurcated Europe:
Two Camps speech
However
Traditionalist view: some historians such as William McNeill have singularly
blamed Soviet expansionism for the collapse of the wartime alliance
Also, revisionist view: historians like William Appleman Williams blame the US
for exerting undue pressure on the USSR despite having a greater range of
available options in foreign policy
Despite the arguments for both these views, the traditionalist view disregards
any notion of dual culpability in determining the outbreak of the Cold War
- Historian John Lewis Gaddis argues that the conflict between the USSR and
the US created a security dilemma where both powers sought to protect
their own security interests, heightening tensions.
- Revisionist view ignores Soviet behaviour as a factor, and overemphasises
the self-serving characterisation of the US, where some argue that the US
had a sincere belief in the universal good of a liberal trading system

Issue of Germany
The USSR and the US clashed as to plans for postwar Germany.
Stalin preferred a united and neutral Germany upon extracting reparations,
which he had not made known to the Allies
Allies had begun merging their zones to assist German recovery; merger of
American and British zones to create the Bizone

 British, French and American zones merged to form Trizone, announced new
currency
- Stalin alarmed; felt that Allies were trying to tempt East Germany to join
the Trizone to create a united Germany to stand up to Russia
- Initiated Berlin Blockade to squeeze Allies out of the Soviet zone
First confrontation between two powers; resulted in formation of Federal
Republic of Germany and Democratic Republic of Germany (i.e. West and East
Germany)
Resulted in formation of NATO in April 1949

Ideology
Historians such as William McNeill argue that the the incompatible
ideologies of the USA and the USSR, of Communism and capitalism,
doomed the Cold War to occur.
USSR pushed for abolition of capitalism and a Communist world revolution as
in the orthodox Marxism-Leninism, embodied by Comintern, which was
established in 1919
US espoused values such as liberalism, free market capitalism and
democracy, as shown in the Atlantic Charter and Woodrow Wilsons 14 Points
- Fundamental universality present in both ideologies: indubitably come into
conflict; both claimed to be the best form of government
- Resulted in a conflicting diametric of beliefs, manifest in documents such
as NSC-68
Thus, ideology contributed to early antagonism by the US towards the USSR
- e.g. intervention with the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War
- e.g. US belief in self-determination was opposed to Russian control over
Communist governments in Bulgaria and Hungary
Historian Howard Roffman: the Cold War was predetermined from the
moment the Bolsheviks triumphed in Russia; historian Isaac Deutscher: the
Great Contest between capitalism and Communism
Ideological differences conditioned postwar policies and perceptions
- e.g. Iron Curtain Speech arose from Trumans democratic values; opposed
to the idea of Soviet-rigged elections, censorship and purges
However
Gaddis: Stalin was especially willing to forgo ideology for national interests
(realpolitik)
- e.g. Stalin willing to sign Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939)
- Adopted stance of socialism in one country despite universality of
socialism
- Supported democratic coalition governments in France until the Marshall
Aid
US willing to support Francos fascist regime during Spanish Civil War despite
it being opposed to its own ideologies

Personalities of Truman and Stalin

The respective personalities of the leaders also exacerbate the
conflicts created by Soviet policies and US national interests.
Truman: hardline anti-Communist; fully believed the Riga Axiomists and
Kennan when he claimed in his Long Telegram that he USSR was impervious
to the logic of reason but highly sensitive to the logic of force

- Gaddis: Truman was heavily influenced by his advisors such as W. Averell

Harriman who had been trying to advise Roosevelt to adopt a harsher
stance towards the USSR
- Promoted the Truman Doctrine in 1947, where he would exaggerate the
threat of Communism so as to prevent the Domino Effect, according to
Secretary of State Dean Acheson, where one country falling to Communism
would lead to surrounding countries doing the same
- Political scientist Lynn E. Davis: Truman was an idealist who provoked the
Soviets by asserting that the USSR was suppressing freedom and
democracy.
Stalin: paranoid and calculating, leading to him becoming overcome by fear
and paranoia
- Deeply distrustful of the Anglo-American Alliance, as the delayed opening
up a Second Front, which he construed as, along with the policy of
appeasement, the Americans and the British wanting a weakened Soviet
Union
- Worsened by the exclusion of the USSR in the postwar settlement of fascist
Italy, and the request for a $6 billion loan allegedly being lost
- Gar Alperovitz: Stalin greatly fearful of the atomic bomb, which the US
used as a negotiating tool
- Stalin would quickly call for work on the Soviet atomic bomb to be
accelerated

Rise to Power

Scope: 1919 (signing of TOV) to 1934 (Plebiscite establishing Hitler as Fuhrer)

methods: mechanisms and actions taken to ensure the NSDAPs legal
revolution
conditions: circumstances in the Weimar Republic

Perceived/actual weaknesses of Weimar Republic

Hitler manipulated the weakness of the Weimar Republic, perceived or
actual, which was fractured into coalition governments and required
proportion representation in voting.
Proportional representation: different parties had differing views in the
Reichstag, and no party was strong enough to form a majority
- Decision-making slow and ineffectual, inducing a desire in the German
people to revert to the more resolute authoritarian system under a Kaiser
- Structuralists like Hans Mommsen: traditionalist populace accustomed to
historical narrative of Prussian militarism and the Second Reich
Gustav Stresemanns foreign policy (manifest in the Locarno Treaty) met with
a greatly unenthusiastic response by the Germans: felt that it was a clear
capitulation to the West, brought about great dishonor to Germany
- Nationalist sentiment strengthened; disdain for Germanys many
humiliations ran deep
Weimar culture allowed for the inclusion of a signficant proportion of nonGermans into Germany, further eliciting resentment from the Nationalist and
racist populace

- Exacerbated due to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles not granting

Germany the right to self-determination, aggravating racist sentiments
which Nazi Party was able to manipulate: Jews who emigrated to Germany
were mainly targeted for diatribe
Dissatisfaction with the Weimar Republic for being traitors of Germany:
branded the November Criminals and the target of the stab-in-the-back
myth (dolchstosselegende)
- A popular view of the Republic formed: direct responsibility for the collapse
and premature capitulation of the Second Reich imputed to Weimar
Republic
- TOV: War Guilt Clause, Disarmament (100,000 soldiers, no navy), No
Anschluss with Austria, German territorial losses (Polish corridor etc)
- Angered nationalists, blamed civilian elite as being willing to sacrifice
German honour
Populace beguiled by Hitlers nationalist rhetoric: called for restoration of
Germany to greatness
However,
Weimar Republic lasted longer than Third Reich; withstood opposition from
left and right
1924 to 1929: democratic rule never seriously threatened, economy showed
signs of recovery

Economic problems
Economic problems plaguing the Weimar Republic created an
immediate need for the German people of all classes to support the
Nazi Party.
War reparations demanded under TOV: 132 billion gold marks; damaged
German economy
Ruhr crisis (1923): German workers stopped producing goods altogether,
harming economy
Germany relied heavily on American loans to support her economy (Dawes
Plan)
- Stock Market Crash of 1929 created a spectacular increase in support for
the Nazi Party: cast many of the middle class population into economic ruin
(37.4% of vote)
Under Weimar Government, hyperinflationary measures (1923) taken resulted
in complete devaluation of the mark and misery among the populace (1 USD
= 4 trillion Reichsmark)
Due to the problems with capitalism faced by the Republic during this time,
there was a rise in class consciousness among the working class, and much of
the working class population turned to Communism
Many businessmen in the mittelstand were frightened of Communism:
financed the Nazi Party for protection from Communism, allowing the Nazi
Party to prey on the middle class fear of Communism to claim that supporting
the Nazis will prevent Germany from going Bolshevik
Upon Stresemanns death in 1929 before the Stock Market Crash, the political
parties in the Reichstag were even more disunited

 Chancellor Brning faced fierce opposition to his plans for a new financial
programme to rebuild the economy; sought out President Hindenburg to
invoke Article 48 (openly decried by public)
Consequently, Hindenburg chose to dissolve Reichstag (June 1930), allowing
the Nazi Party to become the second largest political party in the Reichstag,
and Hitler to gain prominence and popularity through his moving
demagoguery
However,
Dawes Plan: could pay off some reparations, and could build new factories
and machines
Young Plan (1929): reduced reparations to 112 billion gold marks to be repaid
in 59 years; eliminated possibility of sanctions being imposed should
reparation payment default

Propaganda
Hitler used propaganda to achieve personal and ideological appeal for
the Nazis.
Required public support in order to gain significant victories in the German
federal elections
Demonised Western Allies for drafting punitive, humiliating terms of the TOV
Blamed November Criminals in Friedrich Eberts government, as well as
Jews and Communists for Germanys ills and economic crisis during the Great
Depression
Hitler and Nazi Party distributed pamphlets and propaganda booklets to the
masses to spread and proliferate his ultranationalistic ideology
Overwhelming percentage of population rejected TOV in national referendum
Mass gatherings at Nazi rallies and campaigns
Hitlers charisma and oratorical skills: convincing the public of his promise to
restore greatness of Germany, and expanded membership of Nazi party
1932 elections saw Nazi party as largest in the Reichstag; gave Hitler a power
base to expand his political influence, allowing him to gain the chancellorship
in 1933
However,
Ian Kershaws The Hitler Myth: Germans in federal elections continued to
vote in large numbers for Communists despite anti-Communist propaganda
Optimal performance in multiparty elections never exceeded 44%
But,
Still enjoyed broad support: public approved of Night of the Long Knives
Overwhelming majority obtained in 1934 plebiscite establishing him as Fuhrer

Violence and intimidation

Hitler used methods to intimidate and undermine his political
opponents, enabling his rise.
Used the Sturm Abteilung (SA) to intimidate and beat opposition groups and
hecklers at Nazi rallies, intimidating and sidelining his opponents
- Often clashed with Alliance of Red Front Fighters (RFB), effectively the
militant KPD group
1933 Reichstag Fire, caused by Dutch Communist Marinus van der Lubbe:
encourage Chancellor von Hindenburg to pass the Reichstag Fire Decree

- Granted Hitler emergency powers to arbitrarily detain suspected terrorists:

jailed famous Communist and German Communist Party (KPD) deputies to
the Reichstag
- Pressured Reichstag to pass the Enabling Act (1933): further suspended
civil liberties and granted Hitler powers to pass laws without the Reichstag
- Banned opposition parties in July 1933; established single-party control
over government
However,
Depended on Hitlers ability to amass popular support: to be appointed
chancellor in 1933 in order to gain the powers of the Reichstag Fire Decree
and pass the Enabling Act
But,
Intimidation of Communists by SA was crucial in increasing the Nazi Partys
share of votes in March 1933 elections from the 1932 elections

Von Papens Political Miscalculation

Von Papens political miscalculation led to Hitler gaining the role of
chancellor.
Hitler losing support, and the Nazi Party was faltering as the economy was
recovering in 1932.
- July 1932 Elections: 37.7%, November 1932 Elections: 33.1%
- Middle class alienated by S.A. violence
- Nazi finances at lowest
Paul von Hindenburg, President of Germany, had fired Franz von Papen as
Chancellor in favour of Kurt Schleicher; Von Papen despised Schleicher as a
result
Hitler also despised Schleicher: he had plotted with Gregor Strasser in an
attempt to divide the Nazi Party
Von Papen thus approached Hitler and offered to make him Chancellor
- Von Papen reconciled Hitler with von Hindenburg, who had previously
disdained Hitler
- Von Papen cited Hitlers anti-Communism and respect for private property
to appeal to Hindenburgs traditionalist leanings
- Hitler was thus appointed Chancellor on 30 Jan. 1933
The Reichstag Fire in Feb. 1933 allowed Hitler to galvanise the Reichstag into
granting him absolute power through the Enabling Act

Korean War
Cuban Missile Crisis

Background of tensions
Truman Doctrine
Marshall Plan
Containment
Domino Theory
Berlin Blockade
Background
Cuba, small island, 160km from coast of Florida
US ally, US businesses and US military base (Guantanamo)

 1959, Fidel Castro overthrows Battista (US-Backed dictator), establishing

Communist government
How successful were early attempts at Containment?
Castro takes over US businesses
January 1961, US breaks off diplomatic relations
April, 1961, Bay of Pigs - 1400 anti-Cuban exiles attempted to overthrow
Castro
Autumn 1962, Cuba has received 1000s of USSR missiles, jets, boats &
personnel
Why were the USSR interested in helping Cuba
Cuba was a new Communist state
Cuba provided a launch base for USSR intercontinental missiles (ICMs)
Khrushchev wanted to test strength of new US president, JFK
Khrushchev wanted to
Bay of Pigs invasion
The 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion was an unsuccessful attempt at invasion
following the Cuban Revolution that saw Fidel Castro come to power
It was planned and funded by the United States
The invasion was carried out boy armed Cuban exiles in
The Cuban Missile Crisis - A Chronology
October 14: U2 recon, flight over Cuban spots sites installing nuclear missiles
October 15: Presence of missiles is confirmed
October 16-22: President Kennedy is notified, EXCOMM is created and secret
deliberations on what should be done begin
20 Oct: Kennedy decides to blockade Cuba
October 22: Kennedy tells the nation of his plan for blockade and quarantine
Chronology continued
October 24: Naval quarantine begins and successful changes course of many
Soviet ships
October 25: One Soviet ship challenges naval quarantine, Kennedy lets it
pass; At the UN, Stevenson directly challenges the Soviet ambassador to
admit the presence of missiles; photos show continued construction of missile
sites
October 26: Kennedy receives offer: well remove missiles if you end blockade
and promise not to invade Cuba
October 26: Soviets raise possibility for a deal: if we withdraw the missiles
from Cuba, will America give formal promise not to invade Cuba?
October 28: Khrushchev agrees to dismantle Soviet missiles in Cuba; US
publicly declares that it will never invade Cuba and secretly agrees to
dismantle missiles in Turkey
October 27: Soviets demand Americans also withdraw missiles from Turkey
October 27: JFK receives second letter calling for removal of missiles from
Turkey
Major Andersons plane is missing over Cuba, presumably shot down; US
recon plane strays over Soviet airspace
Kennedy tells Khrushchev that he will accept the proposal of the 26th of
October,
Why Cuba? Why Khrushchev interested in Cuba
Brinkmanship

 An opportunity to close the missile gap - currently far behind US in terms of

no. of missiles
Protect Cuba Castro had begun relations with USSR
Reciprocity: US had missiles pointing at Soviets (i.e. Jupiter Missiles in Turkey)
American Response
Kennedy and Congress had already passed the resolutions stating that the
placement of nuclear weapons in Cuba will not be tolerated
They realised they had to act quickly before missiles were active
They had a number of choices at their disposal; this became known as the
Escalation Ladder
Options
Air strikes
- At least against missile sites and perhaps again wider targets
- May provoke a Soviet response in West Berlin
Do nothing
- Ignore missiles in Cuba
- US has military bases in 127 different countries including Cuba
- US had nuclear missiles in several countries close to the Soviet Union
- Therefore, only right that the Soviet Union should be allowed to place
missiles in Cuba
Diplomacy/Negotiate
- Offer the Soviet Union
- USSR remove missiles in Cuba
Military blockade
- Use the US navy to block any missiles form arriving in Cuba
- Announce that any ship socking into Cuba would be searched for weapons
before entering
- Soviet ships could decide to not stop when blocked but this could trigger
possible conflict and escalation was possible
Invasion
- Send troops to overthrow Soviets in Castro
- Missiles could then be put out of action
TWE does Mays article suggest the reason why CMC happened was
due to Khrushchevs lack of commitment to PCE?
Why was do nothing not an option?
Truman doctrine prevented it
The weapons were too dangerous to American safety
Kennedy would be perceived as a weak leader by the Soviets - This could
empower them to make another move on Berlin or another contentious
European location
Kennedy would be committing political suicide at home
Go to the UN?
Pros
- Using the UN for diplomacy which is good
- Validates the UNs role in global politics
Cons
- Takes too long
- Could appear indecisive
- Too many interest groups

- Russia and the United States both have veto powers on the Security
Council, hard to reach consensus
Thus, not an effective option
Naval blockade?
Pros
- It is not a war and it is a show of strength without missiles; not overly
aggressive; does not allow brinkmanship to turn into war
- Does not depict Kennedy as capitulating to the USSR
- A Naval quarantine is an effective way of turning away missiles
- Stops further armament/buildup of missiles in Cub
Cons
- Puts the United States in direct confrontation with the USSR
- Sinking a Soviet ship is an act of war
Seen as the most appropriate foreign policy decision
Strategic airstrike
Pros
- Will effectively knock out Soviet missiles
- Good show of American strength
Cons
- When Soviet missiles are destroyed, likely that Soviet soldiers will die as
well; an act of war
Invasion
Pros
- The United States secures Cuba and ensures nuclear safety from the
country
- The United States sends a clear message to the Soviets to stay out of the
West
Cons
- A full invasion would surely kill Soviet soldiers
Castros role
No real role in decision making
Apparently
Outcome and results of the CMC
Cuba remained Communist and heavily armed, but without nuclear missiles
World saw futile of the idea of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)
Supported theory of containment and co-existence because alternatives were
unimaginable
Permanent hotlien set up between White House and Kremlin set up
US and USSR negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty; both leaders didn't lose
face

Peaceful Coexistence: Fluctuating Tensions

TWE did relate ions between the two camps begin to change in the period
1953-1955
How did Khrushchevs Peaceful Coexistence differ from previous Soviet
foreign policy?
What impact did the fall of Khrushchev have on the Cold War?

TWE did relations between the two camps begin to change in the
period 1953-1955

 Stalins death, March 1953: collective leadership to avoid domination by one

individual
New Chairman of Council of Ministers (Prime Minister): Georgy Malenkov
First Secretary of party: Khrushchev
Thaw in East-West relations, 1953-1955
New Soviet leadership tried to ease tensions between USA and USSR
Influenced North Korea to sign an armistice on July 1953 to end Korean War
To reduce strain on Soviet economy
Malenkov: New Course with the West
US administration also appeared interested in thawing of relations: preferred
negotiations rather than conflict (under Eisenhower Administration)
Q: TWE was thaw successful?
US exploded H-bomb in Nov 1952: USSR in July 1953
Also, US President Dwight Eisenhowers New Look defence policy = hardline
stance -> massive retaliation and brinkmanship (any Soviet attack on USallied territories is an attack on US interests; massive counterattack)
New Look Defence Policy
How was New Look practised?
- Set up alliances to encircle Soviet Union (e.g. SEATO)
- Use military power to protect vulnerable areas (e.g. Berlin)
- Send forces to assist fight against Communism (e.g. Vietnam)
- Use CIA for covert operations more extensively than before
- Increased reliance on nuclear weapons (MAD)
- Brinkmanship: involves threat of massive retaliation as an instrument of
containment -> entails going to the brink and threatening nuclear war to
intimidate the aggressor into backing down (e.g. Cuban Missile Crisis)
How did PCE differ from previous Soviet foreign policy
Khrushchev tried to achieve real detente between East and West to avoid risk
of nuclear world war; MAD
However, PCE also involved a clearly competitive element based on the belief
that the socialist system would prove economically superior to the capitalist
system
Formation of the Warsaw Pact in 1955; May 1955, West Germany became a
member of NATO -> Soviets resented
Attempts at co-existence
Geneva Summit of 1955: Success or not?
Soviet Propaganda

US Reaction

Disbanding of ATO and Warsaw Pact

Withdrawal of foreign troops from
Europe
US Propaganda

Dtente
IB Questions

Soviet reaction

 Discuss/evaluate the importance of detente and internal opposition to

communist rule in communist countries in ending the Cold War
Discuss/evaluate the achievements and limitations of detente between 1969
and 1979
In what ways, and to what extent, did the Cold War become less
confrontational after 1970?
For what reasons, and with what results, did either the US or USSR enter into
a period of detente from a period of 1956 to 1979?
In what ways, and with what success, did the US and USSR attempt to reduce
Cold War tensions between 1956 and 1979?
For what reasons did the Soviet Union, after the death of Stalin (1953), begin
and end the policy of peaceful coexistence?