PREPARED BY:

NOR HALIZA YAAKOB,

Faculty of Applied Science
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Campus of Negeri Sembilan
72000 Kuala Pilah, Negeri
Sembilan, MALAYSIA.
PHY 351 (Material Physics)
013-9495135
norhaliza@ns.uitm.edu.my

2.1 : ATOMIC STRUCTURE

2.2 : IONIC BONDING,
COVALENT BONDING,
METALLIC BONDING,
VAN DER WAAL BONDING,
HYDROGEN BONDING AND
MIXED BONDING

History of Atom
17th century: Robert Boyle asserted that
elements are made up of simple bodies which
themselves are not made up of any other bodies.
19th century: John Dalton stated that matter is
made up of small particles called atoms.
19th century: Henri Becquerel and Marie and
Pierre Curie in France, introduced the concept of
radioactivity.
Joseph J. Thompson found electrons.
In 1910: Ernest Rutherford found protons.
In 1932: James Chadwick found neutrons.

Structure of Atoms
ATOM
Basic Unit of an Element
Diameter : 10 10 m.
Neutrally Charged
Nucleus
Diameter : 10 14 m
Accounts for almost
all mass.
Positive Charge.

Proton

Electron Cloud
Accounts for
all volume

Neutron

 Nuclide are symbolized by symbol :

X is the chemical symbol for the element.

A and Z sufficient to specify a nuclide.

 Atomic number and atomic mass:

The number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom is the atomic number (Z).
Mass number (A) is the sum total of the
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.
The difference between A and Z gives the

number of neutrons (N)

A = Z + N

 A mole is the amount of matter that has a

mass in grams equal to the atomic mass in amu
of the atoms.
The number of atoms in a mole is called the
Avogadro number, Nav = 6.023 1023.
(Note that Nav = 1 gram/1 amu).
For example, the atomic weight of iron is
55.85 amu/atom, or 55.85 g/mol.
Sometimes use of amu per atom or molecule is
convenient; on other occasions grams (or
kilograms) per mole is preferred.

Electrons in Atoms :
QUANTUM NUMBER
Using wave mechanics, every
electron
in
an
atom
is
characterized by four parameters
called quantum numbers.
The size, shape, and spatial
orientation
of
an
electrons
probability density are specified by
these quantum numbers.

Specify the properties of orbital

and electron in orbitals.
The
first
quantum
numbers
describe:
Principal quantum number (n)
shape (l)
Orientation (ml)
spin of electron (ms).

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM
NUMBER

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n): n = 1,

2, 3, ,
Main energy level occupied by electron.
As it increases the electron:
- has more energy
- Is father from nucleus
The total number of orbitals in the level is
equal to n2.

Angular Momentum (Secondary, Azimunthal) Quantum

Number (l): l = 0, ..., n-1.
The shape of the orbital(sublevel)
No of possible shape = energy level

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml): ml = -l, ..., 0, ...,

+l.
Position of an orbital aound nucleus
Each orbital holds max of 2 electron
Spin Quantum Number (ms): ms = + or -.
Specifies the orientation of the spin axis of an
electron.
An electron can spin in only one of two directions
(sometimes called up and down).

Principal
Quantum
Number
n

1
2

ml

Number of
orbitals

Orbital
Name

Number of
electrons
(Per subshell)

1s

2s

-1, 0, +1

2p

3s

-1, 0, +1

3p

-2, -1, 0, +1, +2

3d

10

4s

-1, 0, +1

4p

-2, -1, 0, +1, +2

4d

10

-3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3

4f

14

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
The distribution of electrons among
the orbitals of an atom is called the
electron configuration.
The electrons are filled in according
to a scheme known as the Aufbau
principle.

 According to the principle, electrons fill

orbitals starting at the lowest available
(possible) energy levels before filling higher
levels (e.g. 1s before 2s).
The number of electrons that can occupy each
orbital is limited by the Pauli exclusion
principle.

Pauli exclusion principle - no two

electrons in the same atom can have

identical values for all four of their
quantum numbers.

 Elements are classified according to their ground

state electron configuration.

Bonding Forces and Energies

:INTERATOMIC FORCES
An understanding of many of the physical
properties of materials is enhanced by a knowledge
of the interatomic forces that bind the atoms
together.
At large distances, interactions are negligible,
because the atoms are too far apart to have an
influence on each other; however, at small
separation distances, each atom exerts forces on
the other.
These forces are of two types:
attractive (FA) and
repulsive(FR),
The magnitude of each depends on the separation
or interatomic distance (r).

Any attempt
to move the
two atoms
farther apart
will be
counteracted
by the
attractive
force, while
pushing them
closer
together will
be resisted
by the
increasing
repulsive
force.

Primary Bonds
Bonding with other atoms, the potential
energy of each bonding atom is lowered
resulting in a more stable state.
Three primary bonding combinations :
1) metal-nonmetal,
2) nonmetal-nonmetal, and
3) metal-metal.

Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals

Reactive metals: (or simply metals): Electropositive
materials, have the natural tendency of losing
electrons and in the process form cations.
Reactive
nonmetals
(or
simply
nonmetals):
Electronegative, they have the natural tendency of
accepting electrons and in the process form anions.
Metalloids: Can behave either in a metallic or a
nonmetallic manner.
Examples:
In group 4A, the carbon and the next two members, silicon
and germanium, are metalloids while tin and lead, are metals.
In group 5A, nitrogen and phosphorous are nonmetals,
arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and finally bismuth is a
metal.

Atomic Bonding

PRIMARY INTERATOMIC
BONDING (e- are transferred
or shared. Strong (100-1000
KJ/mol or 1-10 eV/atom))

IONIC BONDING
Strong Coulomb interaction
among negative atoms (have
an extra electron each) and
positive atoms (lost an
electron). Example - Na+Cl-

COVALENT BONDING
Electrons are shared between
the molecules, to saturate the
valency. Example - H2

SECONDARY BONDING /
VAN DER WAALS
(no e- transferred or shared
Interaction of
atomic/molecular dipoles.
Weak (< 100 KJ/mol or < 1
eV/atom))

METALLIC BONDING
The atoms are ionized,
loosing some electrons from
the valence band. Those
electrons form a electron sea,
which binds the charged
nuclei in place

Primary Bonds
Ionic bonds :- large interatomic forces due to
an electron transfer from one atom to another.
Covalent bonds :- Large interatomic forces are
created by the sharing of electrons to form a
bond with a localized directions.
Metallic bonds :- large interatomic forces are
created by the sharing of electrons in a
delocalized manner to form strong nondirectional bonding between atoms.

Ionic Bonding
Ionic or electrovalent bond formed when an
atom transfer one or more electron to another
atom.
Ionic bonding is due to electrostatic force of
attraction between cations and anions.
It can form between metallic and nonmetallic
elements.
Electrons
are
transferred
from
electropositive to electronegative atoms.
Eg: NaCl, CsCl,MgS, KBr,KCl

Ionic Bonding

Ionic Bonds
Large difference in electronegativity.
When a metal forms a cation, its radius reduces
and when a nonmetal forms an anion, its radius
increases.

The electronegativity
variations

Ionic Bonding - Example

Ionic bonding in Sodium chloride (NaCl)
I
O
N
I
C
B
O
N
D

3s1
Sodium
Atom
Na

Sodium Ion
Na+

3p6

Chlorine
Atom
Cl

Chlorine Ion
Cl -

Ionic Force for Ion Pair

Nucleus of one ion attracts electron of
another ion.
The electron clouds of ion repulse each other
when they are sufficiently close.
These two forces will balance each other
when the equilibrium interionic distance, a0, is
reached and a bond is formed

Ionic Force for Ion Pair

Force versus separation

Distance for a pair of
oppositely charged ions

Energy versus separation

Distance for a pair of
oppositely charged ions

Ion Force for Ion Pair

e Z e Z Z e
Z

4 a 4 a
2

attractive

2
2

Z1,Z2 = Number of electrons removed or added during

ion formation
e = Electron Charge, a = Interionic separation distance

0 = Permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10-12c2/Nm2)

F repulsive

(n and b are constants)

nb

n 1

nb
e
Z
Z

F
4 a a
1

net

n 1

Interionic Force Example

Calculate the Force of attraction
between Na+ and Cl- ions:

Z1 = +1 for Na+, Z2 = -1 for Cle = 1.60 x 10-19 C , 0 = 8.85 x 10-12

C2/Nm2
a0 = Sum of Radii of Na+ and Cl- ions
= 0.095 nm + 0.181 nm = 2.76 x 10-10 m
2

attraction

19

( 1)( 1)(1.60 10 C )
Z Z e
4 a 4 (8.85 x 10 C /Nm )(2.76 x 10
2

-12

-10

m)

3.02 109 N

Interionic Energies for Ion Pairs

Net potential energy for a pair of oppositely
charged ions =
2

b
e
Z
Z

E
4 a a
1

net

Attraction Repulsion
Energy
Energy

Energy
Released

Energy
Absorbed

Enet is minimum when ions are at equilibrium

seperation distance a0

COVALENT BONDS
In
covalent
bonding,
stable
electron
configurations are assumed by the sharing of
electrons between adjacent atoms.

Two atoms that are covalently bonded will each

contribute at least one electron to the bond,
and the shared electrons may be considered to
belong to both atoms.
The covalent bond is directional; that is, it is
between specific atoms and may exist only in
the direction between one atom and another
that participates in the electron sharing.

Covalent
bonding
is
schematically
illustrated
in
Figure for a molecule of
methane (CH4). The carbon atom
has four valence electrons,
whereas each of the four
hydrogen atoms has a single
valence electron. Each hydrogen
atom can acquire a helium
electron configuration (two 1s
valence electrons) when the
carbon atom shares with it one
electron. The carbon now has
four
additional
shared
electrons,
one
from
each
hydrogen, for a total of eight
valence electrons, and the
electron structure of neon.

 Many non-metallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2,

F2, etc.) as well as molecules containing
dissimilar atoms, such as CH4, H2O, HNO3, and
HF, are covalently bonded.

METALIC BOND
The
metallic
nondirectional.

bond

is

3-dimesional

and

Metallic materials have one, two, or at most, three

valence electrons. With this model, these valence
electrons are not bound to any particular atom in
the solid and are more or less free to drift
throughout the entire metal.

Since there are no anions involved, there are no

electrical neutrality restrictions.
Also, the metallic cations are not held in place as
rigidly as they are in ionic solids.

SECONDARY BONDING
Secondary , van der Waals or physical bonds (as

opposite to chemical bonding that involves e- transfer)

are results from interaction of atomic or

molecular dipoles and is weak (~0.1 eV/atom or
~10 kJ/mol).
Secondary bonds are due to electrostatic
attraction of electric dipoles in atoms or
molecules. Dipoles are created when positive
and negative charge centers exist.
There are two types of bonds:
Permanent
Fluctuating

 Fluctuating Dipole bonds :- Very weak

electric dipole bonds due to asymmetric
distribution of electron densities.
Permanent
Dipole
bonds
:Weak
intermolecular bonds due to attraction between
the ends of permanent dipoles.

HYDROGEN BOND
The hydrogen bond, is a special case of polar
molecule bonding.
It occurs between molecules in which hydrogen is
covalently bonded to fluorine (as in HF), oxygen
(as in H2O), and nitrogen (as in NH3).
For each HF, HO, or HN bond, the single
hydrogen electron is shared with the other atom.

MIXED BOND