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The governing equations

Energy
Practical concepts

Surface Waves in Fluids


MAGIC045
R. Erdlyi
SP2 RC, Department of Applied Mathematics
University of Sheffield
email: robertus@sheffield.ac.uk
web: robertus.staff.shef.ac.uk

With special thanx to .....!


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Outline
1

The governing equations


Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Outline
1

The governing equations


Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Energy
Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Outline
1

The governing equations


Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Energy
Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Practical concepts
The Doppler effect
Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Outline
1

The governing equations


Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Energy
Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Practical concepts
The Doppler effect
Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Assumptions: Linearity
We consider waves on the surface of liquids, e.g. waves on
the sea or a lake or a river. These can be generated by the
wind, by a moving boat... One key factor: if the surface is
displaced from its equilibrium position z = 0 to z = (x, y , t),
gravity will tend to restore the surface to its equilibrium position.

In practice we can assume that the disturbance is small (i.e.


the amplitude, e.g. sup||, is much less than the wavelength)
linear theory.
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Assumptions: Incompressible fluids


A further simplification is that for most liquids the equation of
continuity Eq. (3.8) can be considerably simplified because
liquids are difficult to compress
volume of small piece of liquid is unchanged as it moves
density is unchanged (since mass = density volume and
mass is conserved).

~ 0 = u(x, t)t
OO
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Assumptions: Incompressible fluids


Consider a small volume of liquid of density . Suppose it is at
x at time t ; in a small interval of time t,
the volume will have moved from

x + u(x, t)t,

so the density will have changed from

(x, t)

(x + ut, t + t).

By hypothesis, these are the same. But...


(x + ut, t + t) = (x + ut, y + v t, z + wt, t + t)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Assumptions: Incompressible fluids


Consider a small volume of liquid of density . Suppose it is at
x at time t ; in a small interval of time t,
the volume will have moved from
x

x + u(x, t)t,

so the density will have changed from


(x, t)

(x + ut, t + t).

By hypothesis, these are the same. But...


(x + ut, t + t) = (x + ut, y + v t, z + wt, t + t)
(x, y , z, t)


+ (u
+v
+w
+
)t.
x
y
z
t
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Assumptions: Incompressible fluids


Thus

D
=
+u
+v
+w
= 0,
Dt
t
x
y
z

(1)

where D/Dt is the operator defined by


D
=
Dt

+u
+v
+w
t
x
y
z


.

(2)

D/Dt applied to any function of (x, t) measures rate of change


when moving with the liquid (or fluid).

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Assumptions: Incompressible fluids


From mass conservation Eq. (3.8) we have





u v
w
+ u
+v
+w
+
+
+
= 0,
t
x
y
z
x
y
z
so from Eq. (1)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Assumptions: Incompressible fluids


From mass conservation Eq. (3.8) we have





u v
w
+ u
+v
+w
+
+
+
= 0,
t
x
y
z
x
y
z
so from Eq. (1)
u v
w
+
+
=0
x
y
z

(3)

which is the equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid or


liquid.

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Assumptions: Incompressible fluids


The reasoning applied to (x, t) above can also be applied to
u(x, t) (i.e. velocity).
The rate of change of the velocity of the piece of fluid, i.e. its
acceleration, is
D
(u, v , w) =
Dt

(u, v , w)
t


+ u
+v
+w
(u, v , w).
x
y
z

But our assumption that the disturbance is small second


term is small


u v w
,
,
acceleration
.
t t t
(This has already been used in Eqs (3.3) and (3.10).)
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Assumptions: Free surface

We consider only cases where the disturbance of the free


surface is independent of y z = (x, t) is the disturbance.
We therefore assume that
u = u(x, z, t)i + w(x, z, t)k

(4)

u w
+
= 0.
x
z

(5)

Then Eq. (3)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Momentum equation

Recalling N2
u
p
w
p
= ,
=
g
t
x
t
z
where can be regarded as constant? , and the term g
represents the weight g V acting vertically downwards.

? This

(6)

is an extension of Eq. (1) - we assume is an absolute


constant, independent of both x and t. In the ocean, does
vary (slightly) with height, but not enough to affect the analysis
of surface waves.

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Velocity potential
As in (3.3), it can be shown that, in most circumstances,
there is a velocity potential, such that Eq. (3.13) holds1 . In the
present case = (x, z, t) and
u=

,
x

w=

(7)

Then Eq. (5) becomes

To show this is beyond the scope of this course. In brief we require the
effects of viscosity to be small.
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Velocity potential
As in (3.3), it can be shown that, in most circumstances,
there is a velocity potential, such that Eq. (3.13) holds1 . In the
present case = (x, z, t) and
u=

,
x

w=

(7)

Then Eq. (5) becomes


2 2
+
=0
x 2
z 2

(8)

This is the 2D form of ............... equation and is the PDE that


must be solved. NB: Surface waves are not governed by the
wave equation!
1

To show this is beyond the scope of this course. In brief we require the
effects of viscosity to be small.
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Velocity potential
As in (3.3), it can be shown that, in most circumstances,
there is a velocity potential, such that Eq. (3.13) holds1 . In the
present case = (x, z, t) and
u=

,
x

w=

(7)

Then Eq. (5) becomes


2 2
+
=0
x 2
z 2

(8)

This is the 2D form of Laplaces equation and is the PDE that


must be solved. NB: Surface waves are not governed by the
wave equation!
1

To show this is beyond the scope of this course. In brief we require the
effects of viscosity to be small.
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Boundary conditions

The special features of surface waves arise because of the


boundary conditions. There will be three in the problems we
consider:
1

w=

on z = h, where h is constant (see Fig 1).

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Boundary conditions

The special features of surface waves arise because of the


boundary conditions. There will be three in the problems we
consider:
1

w = 0 on z = h, where h is constant (see Fig 1).

the vertical velocity given by


equal

R. Erdlyi

at the free surface must


.

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Boundary conditions

The special features of surface waves arise because of the


boundary conditions. There will be three in the problems we
consider:
1
2

w = 0 on z = h, where h is constant (see Fig 1).


the vertical velocity given by
z at the free surface must
equal the vertical velocity given by z = (x, t).
the pressure at the free surface must be

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Boundary conditions

The special features of surface waves arise because of the


boundary conditions. There will be three in the problems we
consider:
1
2

w = 0 on z = h, where h is constant (see Fig 1).


the vertical velocity given by
z at the free surface must
equal the vertical velocity given by z = (x, t).
the pressure at the free surface must be continuous and
since the density of air is much less than that of water, we
can assume the air pressure is constant p0 .

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Boundary conditions
(1):

= 0,
z

R. Erdlyi

z = h

Surface Waves in Fluids

(9)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Boundary conditions
(1):

= 0,
z

z = h

(9)

(2):
D
{z (x, t)} = 0
Dt

u
=0
t
x}
| {z
small

at
at

z=
z = .

Since we are linearising, this condition can be applied at z = 0

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Boundary conditions
(1):

= 0,
z

z = h

(9)

(2):
D
{z (x, t)} = 0
Dt

u
=0
t
x}
| {z
small

at
at

z=
z = .

Since we are linearising, this condition can be applied at z = 0

=
at z = 0.
(10)
t
z
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Boundary conditions
(3) : Eq. (6)




p p0

p
0
+ =
+ + gz = 0
x

p p0
+
+ gz

depends only on t.

However we can incorporate this function of t by adding it to .


This has no effect on u by Eq. (7). Since p = p0 at z = , and
we are linearising, we can apply this condition at z = 0 as far
as is concerned. Thus from (3)

+ g = 0
t
R. Erdlyi

at z = 0.
Surface Waves in Fluids

(11)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Monochromatic waves
Monochromatic single wave number k , single (angular)
frequency . We assume the free surface is given by

= 0 sin(kx t) = 0 sin k (x ct)


= kc

(12)

Eq. (12b) has already been used several times, e.g. Eq. (2.28).
Note:
We could also work with the complex form Eq. (1.27), viz.
= 0 ei(kxt) .
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Applying BCs
In order to satisfy Eqs. (10) and (11) we must have
= f (z) cos(kx t)
where Eq. (8)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(13)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Applying BCs
In order to satisfy Eqs. (10) and (11) we must have
= f (z) cos(kx t)

(13)

f 00 = k 2 f .

(14)

where Eq. (8)

In view of the BC (9), it is convenient to write the GS of Eq. (14)


in the form

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Applying BCs
In order to satisfy Eqs. (10) and (11) we must have
= f (z) cos(kx t)

(13)

f 00 = k 2 f .

(14)

where Eq. (8)

In view of the BC (9), it is convenient to write the GS of Eq. (14)


in the form
f = A cosh k (z + h) + B sinh k (z + h),
when from Eq. (9) B =

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Applying BCs
In order to satisfy Eqs. (10) and (11) we must have
= f (z) cos(kx t)

(13)

f 00 = k 2 f .

(14)

where Eq. (8)

In view of the BC (9), it is convenient to write the GS of Eq. (14)


in the form
f = A cosh k (z + h) + B sinh k (z + h),
when from Eq. (9) B = 0, so
= A cosh k (z + h) cos(kx t)
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(15)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Itermezzo: Using exponential notation


[or : GS of Eq. (14) is, using exp functions,
f = ekz + ekz .
Eq. (9)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Itermezzo: Using exponential notation


[or : GS of Eq. (14) is, using exp functions,
f = ekz + ekz .
Eq. (9)
k ekh k ekh = 0

= e2kh .

Thus

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Itermezzo: Using exponential notation


[or : GS of Eq. (14) is, using exp functions,
f = ekz + ekz .
Eq. (9)
k ekh k ekh = 0

= e2kh .

Thus
f

= ekz + e2kh ekz = ekh ek (z+h) + ekh ek (z+h)


= 2ekh cosh k (z + h) = A cosh k (z + h)

with
A = 2ekh .]
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

DR and solution
There remain Eqs. (10) and (11).
From Eq. (10)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

DR and solution
There remain Eqs. (10) and (11).
From Eq. (10)
0 cos(kx t) = kA sinh kh cos(kx t)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

DR and solution
There remain Eqs. (10) and (11).
From Eq. (10)
0 cos(kx t) = kA sinh kh cos(kx t)

0 = kA sinh kh

(A)

From Eq. (11)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

DR and solution
There remain Eqs. (10) and (11).
From Eq. (10)
0 cos(kx t) = kA sinh kh cos(kx t)

0 = kA sinh kh

(A)

From Eq. (11)


A cosh kh sin(kx t) + g0 sin(kx t) = 0

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

DR and solution
There remain Eqs. (10) and (11).
From Eq. (10)
0 cos(kx t) = kA sinh kh cos(kx t)

0 = kA sinh kh

(A)

From Eq. (11)


A cosh kh sin(kx t) + g0 sin(kx t) = 0

g0 = A cosh kh

(B)

Then (A)/(B)
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

DR and solution

k
= tanh kh
g

2 = gk tanh kh,
and
=

c2 =

g
tanh kh
k

g0 cosh k (z + h)
cos(kx t).

cosh kh

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(16)

(17)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

DR and solution

k
= tanh kh
g

2 = gk tanh kh,
and
=

c2 =

g
tanh kh
k

g0 cosh k (z + h)
cos(kx t).

cosh kh

(16)

(17)

Thus waves with different wavelengths travel at different speeds


c, where
c = /k
(18)
is the phase velocity (speed).

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

DR and solution

k
= tanh kh
g

2 = gk tanh kh,
and
=

c2 =

g
tanh kh
k

g0 cosh k (z + h)
cos(kx t).

cosh kh

(16)

(17)

Thus waves with different wavelengths travel at different speeds


c, where
c = /k
(18)
is the phase velocity (speed).
This phenomenon is known as dispersion.
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Two practical limits


We note two special cases:

Deep water h ,

(19a)

Shallow water kh  1,

(19b)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Two practical limits


We note two special cases:

Deep water h ,

2 = gk ,

c2 =

Shallow water kh  1,

R. Erdlyi

g
k

(19a)
(19b)

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Two practical limits


We note two special cases:
g
k
2
2
2
Shallow water kh  1, gk h c = gh
Deep water h ,

2 = gk ,

c2 =

Note:

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(19a)
(19b)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Two practical limits


We note two special cases:
g
k
2
2
2
Shallow water kh  1, gk h c = gh
Deep water h ,

2 = gk ,

c2 =

Note:
Shallow water waves are not dispersive.

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(19a)
(19b)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Two practical limits


We note two special cases:
g
k
2
2
2
Shallow water kh  1, gk h c = gh
Deep water h ,

2 = gk ,

c2 =

(19a)
(19b)

Note:
Shallow water waves are not dispersive.
This is a progressive wave, but standing waves can be
dealt with similarly - see S4 Q3.
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Outline
1

The governing equations


Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Energy
Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Practical concepts
The Doppler effect
Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Potential energy
The PE relative to the the undisturbed position is

Z
gzdz A =
0

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Potential energy
The PE relative to the the undisturbed position is

Z
1
gzdz A = g 2 A.
2
0
Thus the PE in a wavelength per unit width in the direction of
0y is V , where using Eq. (12) results in
Z 2/k
1
2
V = go
sin2 k (x ct)dx
2
0
This is

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Potential energy
The PE relative to the the undisturbed position is

Z
1
gzdz A = g 2 A.
2
0
Thus the PE in a wavelength per unit width in the direction of
0y is V , where using Eq. (12) results in
Z 2/k
1
2
V = go
sin2 k (x ct)dx
2
0
This is
1
1

g02 = g02 ,
2
k
4
2
where = k is the wavelength. Thus the potential energy
density per unit area of water surface is V = V /.
V =
R. Erdlyi

1
g02
4
Surface Waves in Fluids

(20a)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Kinetic energy
Likewise the KE in a wavelength per unit width in the direction
of 0y is T , where
Z 0
Z 2/k " 2  2 #

1
+
dx
dz
T =
2 h
x
z
0
Here


2

2

g 2 02 k 2
2 cosh2 kh

cosh2 k (z + h) sin2 k (x ct)

and


g 2 02 k 2
2 cosh2 kh

sinh2 k (z + h) cos2 k (x ct)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Kinetic energy
Since (as with V )
Z

2/k

sin2 k (x ct)dx =

2/k

cos2 k (x ct)dx =

we find
g 2 02 k
T =
2 2 cosh2 kh

cosh 2k (z + h)dz,
h

(since cosh2 + sinh2 = cosh 2). Thus


T =

g 2 02

g 2 02

sinh
2kh
=
tanh kh
4 2 cosh2 kh
2 2

(since sinh 2 = 2 sinh cosh ).


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

,
k

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Kinetic energy
from Eq. (16),
1

1
g02 = g02 = V .
2
k
4
the kinetic energy density per unit area of the water surface
is T = T /
T =

T =

1
g02 .
4

Note:

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(20b)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Kinetic energy
from Eq. (16),
1

1
g02 = g02 = V .
2
k
4
the kinetic energy density per unit area of the water surface
is T = T /
T =

T =

1
g02 .
4

(20b)

Note:
The kinetic energy density per unit area (T ) of the water
surface wave is equal to the potential energy density per unit
area (V ).
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Work by surface waves

We now calculate the rate at which work is being done by the


fluid on the left of AA0 on the fluid on the right. The force per
unit width in the direction of 0y is p z so its rate of working P
(for power) per unit width is given by
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Work by surface waves


0




pu dz =
p0
gz
dz,
P =
t
x
h
h
Z

since p = p0
t gz from derivation of Eq. (11).
It is sufficient for our purposes to calculate the mean of P over
one period.
Since the mean of sin k (x ct) is

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Work by surface waves


0




pu dz =
p0
gz
dz,
P =
t
x
h
h
Z

since p = p0
t gz from derivation of Eq. (11).
It is sufficient for our purposes to calculate the mean of P over
one period.
Since the mean of sin k (x ct) is 0, and the mean of
sin2 k (x ct) =

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Work by surface waves


0




pu dz =
p0
gz
dz,
P =
t
x
h
h
Z

since p = p0
t gz from derivation of Eq. (11).
It is sufficient for our purposes to calculate the mean of P over
one period.
Since the mean of sin k (x ct) is 0, and the mean of
sin2 k (x ct) = 12 , we let P be the mean of P and find:
P=

g 2 02 k

2 cosh2 kh

cosh2 k (z + h)dz

after some algebra (exercise for student).


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Work by surface waves


Since c = /k and cosh2 = 21 (1 + cosh 2), we find

P =

g 2 02



sinh 2kh
h+
2k
4c cosh2 kh


g 2 02
2kh
1+
2 tanh kh
8kc
sinh 2kh

since sinh 2 = 2 sinh cosh . Thus, using Eq. (16),




1
2kh
P = g02 c 1 +
.
4
sinh 2kh

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(21)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Energy propagation group velocity


There is an interesting and important consequence of
Eqs. (20a), (20b) and (21) which can be extended to many
sorts of waves leading to the concept of group velocity.
As a consequence of the passage of the waves, energy is
being transmitted from left to right with a (mean) speed U to be
determined.

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Energy propagation group velocity


In a time , this results in new energy per unit width equal to
(V + T )U , and this must be equal to P , the work done.

1
U = P/(V + T ) = P/( g02 ),
2
i.e.


2kh
1
U = cg = c 1 +
2
sinh 2kh
where
cg is known as the group velocity for reasons that will be
discussed later.
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(22)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

DR group velocity
From the first of Eq. (16), we have
2
(since

d
d (tanh )

d
dk

d
gkh
= g tanh kh +
dk
cosh2 kh

= sech 2 =

1
).
cosh2

Thus



g tanh kh
kh
1+
2
tanh kh cosh2 kh


kc 2
2kh
1+
,
2
sinh 2kh

i.e. see Eqs. (18) and (22)


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Energy propagation, DR group velocity


cg =

d
.
dk

Eq. (23) is the general definition of group velocity.


Note:

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(23)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Energy propagation, DR group velocity


cg =

d
.
dk

(23)

Eq. (23) is the general definition of group velocity.


Note:
Recall, = kc so that, when c is independent of k , as for
waves on strings and sound waves, i.e. when the waves are
non-dispersive, Eq. (23) gives
cg = c
i.e. the group velocity cg is equal to c, the phase velocity.
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(24)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Two practical limits


Finally, we record the results for the two special cases
considered in Eqs. (19a)-(19b)
Deep water h
(25a)
Shallow water kh  1
(25b)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Two practical limits


Finally, we record the results for the two special cases
considered in Eqs. (19a)-(19b)
Deep water h
2

= gk ,

g
c = ,
k
2

1
cg =
2

g
1
= c
k
2

(25a)

Shallow water kh  1
(25b)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Two practical limits


Finally, we record the results for the two special cases
considered in Eqs. (19a)-(19b)
Deep water h
2

= gk ,

g
c = ,
k
2

1
cg =
2

g
1
= c
k
2

(25a)

p
gh = c

(25b)

Shallow water kh  1
2 gk 2 h,

c 2 = gh,

R. Erdlyi

cg =

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Superposition


Energy is (often and at an average over time) transported at
the group velocity cg . This applies to many sorts of wave.
There are other important properties of cg . Consider the
superposition of two waves like Eq. (12) in the case when the
amplitudes are equal but the waves numbers and frequencies
are slightly different. We have
= 0 sin(kx t) + 0 sin [(k + k )x ( + )t]
=

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Superposition


Energy is (often and at an average over time) transported at
the group velocity cg . This applies to many sorts of wave.
There are other important properties of cg . Consider the
superposition of two waves like Eq. (12) in the case when the
amplitudes are equal but the waves numbers and frequencies
are slightly different. We have
= 0 sin(kx t) + 0 sin [(k + k )x ( + )t]


1
1
= 20 sin (k + k )x ( + )t
2
2


1

t)
cos k (x
2
k

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Superposition



1
20 cos k (x cg t) sin[kx t]
2





cg
(26)
k

The combined displacement can be thought of as the original


wave but with an amplitude that gradually changes between
20 over a distance /( 21 k ) = 2/(k ).
The covering surface will be a series of groups of waves,
separated by essentially smooth water where
1
cos[ k (x cg t)] 0.
2
The groups are travelling at speed cg , whereas the individual
waves within each group are travelling at speed c. See sketch
in Appendix A.
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Beats

NB In passing, suppose is density or velocity potential in


sound waves, where cg = c. Then Eq. (26) becomes


1
20 cos (kx t) sin [kx t] ,
2
so that the wave has a fluctuating intensity known as beats ; the
beat frequency is (see Appendix A).

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet


We can develop the above analysis to consider a wave
packet. As noted in (2.5i), we can generalise to consider the
disturbance (x, t), where
Z
(x, t) =
A(k )ei(kxt) dk ,

and the real part of this is eventually to be taken. Here we shall


consider the special case when

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet


We can develop the above analysis to consider a wave
packet. As noted in (2.5i), we can generalise to consider the
disturbance (x, t), where
Z
(x, t) =
A(k )ei(kxt) dk ,

and the real part of this is eventually to be taken. Here we shall


consider the special case when
A(k ) = Aed

2 (k k )2
0

where A, d, k0 are constants. This gives the Gaussian wave


packet
Z

(x, t) = A

ed

2 (k k )2
0

ei(kxt) dk ,

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(27)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet


The dominant contribution comes from values of k near k0
2
2
because of the nature of ed (k k0 ) . We write

= (k0 ) +

d
(k k0 ) + . . .
dk

0 + cg (k k0 ) + . . .

and neglect terms of higher order to obtain


(x, t) =

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet


The dominant contribution comes from values of k near k0
2
2
because of the nature of ed (k k0 ) . We write

= (k0 ) +

d
(k k0 ) + . . .
dk

0 + cg (k k0 ) + . . .

and neglect terms of higher order to obtain


Z
2
2
i(k0 x0 t)
ed (k k0 ) +i(k k0 )(xcg t) dk
(x, t) = Ae

Substitute d(k k0 ) = to obtain (after some algebra):


(x, t) =
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet


The dominant contribution comes from values of k near k0
2
2
because of the nature of ed (k k0 ) . We write

= (k0 ) +

d
(k k0 ) + . . .
dk

0 + cg (k k0 ) + . . .

and neglect terms of higher order to obtain


Z
2
2
i(k0 x0 t)
ed (k k0 ) +i(k k0 )(xcg t) dk
(x, t) = Ae

Substitute d(k k0 ) = to obtain (after some algebra):


i(k0 x0 t

(x, t) = Ae

e{ 2d (xcg t)} e

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(xcg t)2
4d 2

d
d

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet

Now substitute =

i
2d (x

cg t) to get

(x, t) =

(28)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet

Now substitute =
(x, t) =

i
2d (x

cg t) to get

A (xcg t)2 /(4d 2 ) i(k0 x0 t)


e
e
d

e d

Now
Z

e d =

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(28)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet

Now substitute =
(x, t) =

i
2d (x

cg t) to get

A (xcg t)2 /(4d 2 ) i(k0 x0 t)


e
e
d

e d

Now
Z

e d =

Proof of Eq. (28) is via a clever trick!

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(28)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet


Proof:

I =

ex =

R. Erdlyi

ey

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet

=
0

ex ey dxdy

er rdr

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet

=
0

ex ey dxdy

er rdr

Z
= 2

r er =

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet

=
0

ex ey dxdy

er rdr

1 2
= 2 er
2

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

= 2

re

r 2


=
0

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet

1 2
= 2 er
2

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

= 2

er rdr

I =

ex ey dxdy

re

r 2


=
0

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Properties of group velocity: Wave packet


Thus
(x, t) =

2
A (xcg2t) i(k0 x0 t)
e 4d e
d

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(29)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

Outline
1

The governing equations


Basic concepts
The governing equations for 1D water waves
Monochromatic surface waves

Energy
Equipartition
Group velocity I
Group velocity II

Practical concepts
The Doppler effect
Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

Waves with moving source (or observer)


It is convenient here2 to consider another general
phenomenon connected with waves, namely the changes in
frequency of waves sent out by a moving source and perceived
by a stationary observer.
Consider sound waves for sound waves for definiteness.
We shall work in terms of the actual frequency and the
wavelength , where
=

,
2

2
,
k

c =

(30)

But not logical since it is more relevant to sound waves and radio waves
than to surface waves than to surface waves on water!
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

Waves with moving source (or observer)

(a) Waves when source is stationary;


(b) Waves when source is moving.
In a time t the source emits t waves. For a stationary source
these occupy a length t, whereas, for a source moving with
speed u towards the observer, the wavelength changes to 0
and the t waves occupy a distance t0 .
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

Waves with moving source (or observer)


Thus
t = t0 + ut

0 =

0 = (1

u
)
c

(31)

As a result the observer measures the frequency of the waves


as 0 where 0 0 = c = . Thus
0 =

c
cu

This phenomenon is called the Doppler shift.


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(32)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

Waves with moving source (or observer)


Example
An observer at rest notices that the frequency of the sound
waves from a car appears to drop from 281 Hz to 257 Hz as the
car passes. Given that the speed of sound is 330 ms1 ,
estimate the speed of the car.
From Eq. (32)

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

Waves with moving source (or observer)


Example
An observer at rest notices that the frequency of the sound
waves from a car appears to drop from 281 Hz to 257 Hz as the
car passes. Given that the speed of sound is 330 ms1 ,
estimate the speed of the car.
From Eq. (32)
281 =

,
1 uc

257 =

R. Erdlyi

1+

u
c

1+
281
=
257
1

Surface Waves in Fluids

u
c
u
c

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

Waves with moving source (or observer)


Example
An observer at rest notices that the frequency of the sound
waves from a car appears to drop from 281 Hz to 257 Hz as the
car passes. Given that the speed of sound is 330 ms1 ,
estimate the speed of the car.
From Eq. (32)
281 =

u
24
=
c
538

,
1 uc

257 =

1+

u
c

1+
281
=
257
1

u
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

u
c
u
c

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

Waves with moving source (or observer)


Example
An observer at rest notices that the frequency of the sound
waves from a car appears to drop from 281 Hz to 257 Hz as the
car passes. Given that the speed of sound is 330 ms1 ,
estimate the speed of the car.
From Eq. (32)
281 =

u
24
=
c
538

,
1 uc

257 =

1+

u
c

u 14.7 m s1
R. Erdlyi

1+
281
=
257
1

(About

Surface Waves in Fluids

u
c
u
c

33 mph)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?


Consider a particle whose equilibrium position is (x0 , z0 ).
Suppose its position at time t is (x0 + X (t), z0 + Z (t)), where
the time means of X and Z will be chosen to be zero. Then

dX

dt
x
x
(x0 +X ,z0 +Z )

(x0 ,z0 )

(33)

using Eq. (17).


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?


Consider a particle whose equilibrium position is (x0 , z0 ).
Suppose its position at time t is (x0 + X (t), z0 + Z (t)), where
the time means of X and Z will be chosen to be zero. Then

dX

dt
x
x
(x0 +X ,z0 +Z )

(x0 ,z0 )

kg0 cosh k (z0 + h)


sin(kx0 t)
cosh kh

using Eq. (17).


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(33)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?


Consider a particle whose equilibrium position is (x0 , z0 ).
Suppose its position at time t is (x0 + X (t), z0 + Z (t)), where
the time means of X and Z will be chosen to be zero. Then

dX

dt
x
x
(x0 +X ,z0 +Z )

=
dZ
dt

(x0 ,z0 )

kg0 cosh k (z0 + h)


sin(kx0 t)
cosh kh

z
z
(x0 +X ,z0 +Z )

(x0 ,z0 )

=
using Eq. (17).
R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(33)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?


Consider a particle whose equilibrium position is (x0 , z0 ).
Suppose its position at time t is (x0 + X (t), z0 + Z (t)), where
the time means of X and Z will be chosen to be zero. Then

dX

dt
x
x
(x0 +X ,z0 +Z )

=
dZ
dt

kg0 cosh k (z0 + h)


sin(kx0 t)
cosh kh

z
z
(x0 +X ,z0 +Z )

(x0 ,z0 )

(x0 ,z0 )

kg0 sinh k (z0 + h)


cos(kx0 t)
cosh kh

using Eq. (17). Integrating and ensuring zero time means:


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

(33)

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?

(34)
Z

using the first of Eq. (16).


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?

kg0 cosh k (z0 + h)


cos(kx0 t)
cosh kh
2

= 0

cosh k (z0 + h)
cos(kx0 t)
sinh kh
(34)

using the first of Eq. (16).


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?

kg0 cosh k (z0 + h)


cos(kx0 t)
cosh kh
2

= 0

cosh k (z0 + h)
cos(kx0 t)
sinh kh
(34)

kg0 sinh k (z0 + h)


sin(kx0 t)
cosh kh
2
sinh k (z0 + h)
= 0
sin(kx0 t)
sinh kh
=

using the first of Eq. (16).


R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?


It follows on eliminating cos(kx0 t) and sin(kx0 t) that

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?


It follows on eliminating cos(kx0 t) and sin(kx0 t) that
X2
a2

Z2
b2

= 1 where

0 cosh k (z0 +h)


,
sinh kh

0 sinh k (z0 +h)


sinh kh

(35)

Summary:

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?


It follows on eliminating cos(kx0 t) and sin(kx0 t) that
X2
a2

Z2
b2

= 1 where

0 cosh k (z0 +h)


,
sinh kh

0 sinh k (z0 +h)


sinh kh

(35)

Summary:
1

Thus the particle paths are ellipses.

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

How do particles move in surface waves?


It follows on eliminating cos(kx0 t) and sin(kx0 t) that
X2
a2

Z2
b2

= 1 where

0 cosh k (z0 +h)


,
sinh kh

0 sinh k (z0 +h)


sinh kh

(35)

Summary:
1

Thus the particle paths are ellipses.

As z0 h, b 0, a 0 / sinh kh rectilinear motion in


direction of 0x.

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

The governing equations


Energy
Practical concepts

The Doppler effect


Particle paths in surface waves
Appendix A

Group velocity

Sketch for Eq. (4.26).

R. Erdlyi

Surface Waves in Fluids

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