MOTIVATIONAL PATTERNS

Motivation can be defined as the factors which direct and energize the behaviors of humans and
other organisms- the drive behind the reasons we do things. Researchers have investigated a
number of theories in order to understand motivational needs- however it seems that it is only
through looking at these theories as a collective motivation can be fully understood.
Instinct Theory suggests that you are born with your own set of behaviour patterns, and that
these patterns are not learned. This suggests that individuals behave in ways which will be
necessary to their survival. However, much of human behaviour is learned- for example being
able to speak words and construct sentences; therefore instinct theory cannot be the sole
explanation for the motivational behaviour of humans.
It is in this instant that an improved theory was introduced to explain motivational behaviours;
Drive-Reduction Approach. Drive in itself is described as motivational tension, or arousal
energising behaviour to fulfil a need. These drives can be related to biological needs of the
body- for example, thirst and sleep (primary drives) or drives can be completely unrelated to
biological needs, for example the need to succeed in competition (Secondary drives). These
secondary drives are learned behaviour patterns. In order to satisfy a primary drive, you would
reduce it- for example reducing thirst by drinking water. These primary drives are often assisted
in operation by homeostasis- maintenance of a constant internal environment. During deviations
from this constant internal environment, homeostasis works inside the body in order to return
the body to its normal working state. However, drive-reduction approach does not give
explanation as to why people decide to increase levels of arousal and excitement, instead of
reducing drive for example thrilling activities, such as a bungee jump, or roller-coasters.
This idea of people being motivated to increase their stimulation and arousal levels is something
described by researchers as the Arousal approach. Arousal approaches suggest that this
motivational behaviour to increase stimulation is similar to drive-approach theory in that if our
stimulation levels are too high, we will try to reduce them. However, on the flipside, if our
stimulation levels are too low we will increase them by seeking out stimulating activities. We will
do this as we feel necessary. This also allows scope for individuals seeking different levels and
amounts of stimulation- for example thrill-seekers who take part in high-risk activities will be
seeking more stimulation than any other individual.
Incentive approaches suggest that motivation behaviour surfaces from desire to achieve
external goals and awards. Also known as external motivation, incentives could be money, or a
certain ranking within competition. Incentive and drive theories are believed to work together
with a push-pull nature, creating a balance in motivational behaviour.
Alongside this, Cognitive approach suggests that motivation is a product of peoples thoughts,
expectations and goals- their cognitions.
Another major theory explaining the patterns of motivational behaviour is Maslows (1987)
Hierarchy, whereby we see how motivation progresses from the most basic of survival needs,
to the much higher, personal-achievement fulfilling ones. Hierarchy theory suggests that it is

only after meeting the basic, low-order needs such as food and water, that the higher-ordered
needs can be reached (such as a feeling of belonging). It is only after fulfilling certain needs,
such as love and being a contributing member of society that a person will strive for esteem.
Maslow states esteem relates to the need to develop a sense of self-worth by recognising that
others are aware of the value of ones competence. Once these needs are fulfilled, it is now that
an individual can reach for the highest order in the pyramid; self-actualisation, whereby an
individual is in a state of self-fulfilment, realising their full potential. Achieving self-actualisation
can be seen as reducing strive and yearning for greater fulfilment within ones life, and instead
being satisfied with the current state in which they are living. Maslows (1987) hierarchy of
needs highlights the complexity of human needs, and emphasizes that until low-ranked needs
are met, higher-ranked needs cannot be considered.
Through a combination of the approaches to motivational behaviour, it is possible to begin to
understand the emerging patterns of complex human needs and behaviour. Motivational
behaviour draws on parts of all of the theories explained in this article. These theories have led
to much more recent study completed by Deci and Ryan (2008) investigating self-determination
theory, whereby it is stated individuals have 3 basic needs- competence (the need to produce
desired outcomes), autonomy (perception that an individual is in control of their own lives) and
relatedness (the need to be involved in close, loving relationships). These are described as
innate and essential as basic biological needs.

Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a
book to gain knowledge.

A Closer Look at Motivation

Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In
everyday usage, the term motivation is frequently used to describe why a person does something.
For example, you might say that a student is so motivated to get into a clinical psychology program
that she spends every night studying.
"The term motivation refers to factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behavior...
Motives are the "whys" of behavior - the needs or wants that drive behavior and explain what we do.
We don't actually observe a motive; rather, we infer that one exists based on the behavior we
observe."
(Nevid, 2013)
So what exactly lies behind the motivations for why we act? Psychologists have proposed
different theories of motivation, including drive theory, instinct theory, and humanistic theory. The
reality is that there are many different forces that guide and direct our motivations.

Components of Motivation

Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose ten pounds or wanting to run a marathon)
probably immediately realizes that simply having the desire to accomplish something is not enough.
Achieving such a goal requires the ability to persist through obstacles and endurance to keep going
in spite of difficulties.
There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.
1. Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology
class.
1. Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An
example of persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree
although it requires a significant investment of time, energy, and resources.
2. Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For
example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study
regularly, participate in discussions and take advantage of research opportunities outside of
class. The first student lacks intensity, while the second pursues his educational goals with
greater intensity.

Theories of Motivation
So what are the things that actually motivate us to act? Psychologists have proposed different
theories to explain motivation:

Instincts: The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by
instincts. An instinct is a fixed and inborn pattern of behavior. Psychologists including
William James, Sigmund Freud, and William McDougal have proposed a number of basic
human drives that motivate behavior. Such instincts might include biological instincts that are
important for an organisms survival such as fear, cleanliness and love.

Drives and Needs: Many of our behaviors such as eating, drinking and sleeping are
motivated by biology. We have a biological need for food, water, and sleep, therefore, we are
motivated to eat, drink and sleep. Drive theory suggests that people have basic biological
drives and that our behaviors are motivated by the need to fulfill these drives.

Arousal Levels: The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to
engage in behaviors that help them maintain their optimal level of arousal. A person with low
arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities while those with high arousal needs might be
motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors.

Extrinsic Vs. Intrinsic Motivation

Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic
motivations are those that arise from outside of the individual and often involve rewards such as

trophies, money, social recognition or praise.Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from within the
individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for the personal gratification of
solving a problem.
Learn more about some of the surprising things you can do to increase your motivation.

6 Key Ideas Behind

Theories of Motivation
Researchers have developed a number of theories to explain motivation. Each individual theory tends
to be rather limited in scope. However, by looking at the key ideas behind each theory, you can gain a
better understanding of motivation as a whole.
Motivation is the force that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes
us to take action, whether to grab a snack to reduce hunger or enroll in college to earn a degree. The
forces that lie beneath motivation can be biological, social, emotional or cognitive in nature.
Learn more about some of the different theories of motivation:

Instinct Theory of Motivation

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According to instinct theories, people are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are
evolutionarily programmed to do so. An example of this in the animal world is seasonal migration.
These animals do not learn to do this, it is instead an inborn pattern of behavior. Instincts motivation
some species to migrate at certain times each year.
William James created a list of human instincts that included such things asattachment, play, shame,
anger, fear, shyness, modesty and love. The main problem with this theory is that it did not really
explain behavior, it just described it.
By the 1920s, instinct theories were pushed aside in favor of other motivational theories, but
contemporary evolutionary psychologists still study the influence of genetics and heredity on human
behavior.

Incentive Theory of Motivation

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The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards. For
example, you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid.
Behavioral learning concepts such as association and reinforcement play an important role in this
theory of motivation.
This theory shares some similarities with the behaviorist concept of operant conditioning. In operant
conditioning, behaviors are learned by forming associations with outcomes. Reinforcement
strengthens a behavior while punishment weakens it.

While incentive theory is similar, it instead proposes that people intentionally pursue certain courses
of action in order to gain rewards. The greater the perceived rewards, the more strongly people are
motivated to pursue those reinforcements.

Drive Theory of Motivation

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According to the drive theory of motivation, people are motivated to take certain actions in order to
reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. For example, you might be motivated to
drink a glass of water in order to reduce the internal state of thirst.
This theory is useful in explaining behaviors that have a strong biological component, such as hunger
or thirst. The problem with the drive theory of motivation is that these behaviors are not always
motivated purely by physiological needs. For example, people often eat even when they are not really
hungry.

Arousal Theory of Motivation

Paul Bradbury / Caiaimage / Getty Images

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people take certain actions to either decrease or
increase levels of arousal.
When arousal levels get too low, for example, a person might watch an exciting movie or go for a
jog. When arousal levels get too high, on the other hand, a person would probably look for ways to
relax such as meditating or reading a book.
According to this theory, we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level
can vary based on the individual or the situation.

Humanistic Theory of Motivation

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Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people also have strong cognitive
reasons to perform various actions. This is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of
needs which presents different motivations at different levels.
First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as well as those of
safety, love, and esteem. Once the lower level needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes
the need for self-actualization, or the desire to fulfill one's individual potential.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

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The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that when we are thinking about the future, we
formulate different expectations about what we think will happen. When we predict that there will
most likely be a positive outcome, we believe that we are able to make that possible future a reality.
This leads people to feel more motivated to pursue those likely outcomes.
The theory proposes that motivations consist of three key elements: valence, instrumentality, and
expectancy. Valence refers to the value with place on the potential outcome. Things that seem
unlikely to produce personal benefit have a low valence, while those that offer immediate personal
rewards have a higher valence.
Instrumentality refers to whether people believe that they have a role to play in the predicted
outcome. If the event seems random or outside of the individual's control, people will feel less
motivated to pursue that course of action. If the individual plays a major role in the success of the
endeavor, however, people well feel more instrumental in the process.
Expectancy is the belief that one has the capabilities to produce the outcome. If people feel like they
lack the skills or knowledge to achieve the desired outcome, they will be less motivated to try. People
who feel capable, on the other hand, will be more likely to try to reach that goal.

Final Thoughts
While no single theory can adequately explain all human motivation, looking at
the individual theories can offer a greater understanding of the forces that cause
us to take action. In reality, there are likely many different forces that interact to
motivate behavior.

Differences Between
Extrinsic and Intrinsic
Motivation
Why do we do the things we do? What is it that drives our behaviors? Psychologists have proposed
some different ways of thinking about motivation, including one method that involves looking at
whether motivation arises from outside (extrinsic) or inside (intrinsic) the individual.
What exactly do we mean when we say extrinsic or intrinsic motivation?

Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation occurs when we are motivated to perform a behavior or engage in an activity to
earn a reward or avoid punishment.
Examples of behaviors that are the result of extrinsic motivation include:

Studying because you want to get a good grade

Cleaning your room to avoid being reprimanded by your parents

Participating in a sport to win awards

Competing in a contest to win a scholarship

In each of these examples, the behavior is motivated by a desire to gain a reward or avoid an adverse
outcome.

Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in a behavior because it is personally rewarding; essentially,
performing an activity for its own sake rather than the desire for some external reward.
Examples of actions that are the result of intrinsic motivation include:

Participating in a sport because you find the activity enjoyable

Solving a word puzzle because you find the challenge fun and exciting

Playing a game because you find it exciting

In each of these instances, the person's behavior is motivated by an internal desire to participate in an
activity for its own sake.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: Which Is Best?

So, the primary difference between the two types of motivation is that extrinsic motivation arises
from outside of the individual while intrinsic motivation arises from within. Researchers have also
found that the two type of motivation can differ in how effective they are at driving behavior.
Some studies have demonstrated that offering excessive external rewards for an already internally
rewarding behavior can lead to a reduction in intrinsic motivation, a phenomenon known as the over
justification effect. In one study, for example, children who were rewarded for playing with a toy
they had already expressed interest in playing with became less interested in the item after being
externally rewarded.
Extrinsic motivation can be beneficial in some situations, however:

External rewards can induce interest and participation in something in which the individual
had no initial interest.

Extrinsic rewards can be used to motivate people to acquire new skills or knowledge. Once
these early skills have been learned, people may then become more intrinsically motivated to
pursue the activity.

External rewards can also be a source of feedback, allowing people to know when their
performance has achieved a standard deserving of reinforcement.

Extrinsic motivators should be avoided in situations where:

The individual already finds the activity intrinsically rewarding

Offering a reward might make a "play" activity seem more like "work"

While most people would suggest that intrinsic motivation is best, it is not always possible in every
situation. In some cases, people simply have no internal desire to engage in an activity. Excessive
rewards may be problematic, but when used appropriately, extrinsic motivators can be a useful tool.
For example, extrinsic motivation can be used to get people to complete a work task or school
assignment in which they have no internal interest.

Researchers have arrived at three primary conclusions with regards to extrinsic rewards and their
influence on intrinsic motivation:
1. Unexpected external rewards typically do not decrease intrinsic motivation. For
example, if you get a good grade on a test because you enjoy learning about the subject and
the teacher decides to reward you with a gift card to your favorite pizza place, your
underlying motivation for learning about the subject will not be affected. However, this needs
to be done with caution because people will sometimes come to expect such rewards.
2. Praise can help increase internal motivation. Researchers have found that offering positive
praise and feedback when people do something better in comparison to others can improve
intrinsic motivation.
3. Intrinsic motivation will decrease, however, when external rewards are given for
completing a particular task or only doing minimal work. For example, if parents heap
lavish praise on their child every time he completes a simple task, he will become less
intrinsically motivated to perform that task in the future.
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can also play a significant role in learning settings. Some experts
argue that the traditional emphasis on external rewards such as grades, report cards, and gold stars
undermines any existing intrinsic motivation that students might have. Others suggest that these
extrinsic motivators help students feel more competent in the classroom, thus enhancing intrinsic
motivation.
"A person's interest often survives when a reward is used neither to bribe nor to control but to signal
a job well done, as in a "most improved player" award. If a reward boosts your feeling of
competence after doing good work, your enjoyment of the task may increase. Rewards, rightly
administered, can motivate high performance and creativity. And extrinsic rewards (such as
scholarships, admissions, and jobs that often follow good grades) are here to stay," explains David
G. Meyers in his text Psychology: Eighth Edition in Modules.
As you have seen, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation are both important ways of driving
behavior. To comprehend how these can be best utilized, it is important to understand some of the
key differences between the two types ofmotivation including the overall impact that each can have
on behavior.

Instinct Theory of
Motivation

According to the instinct theory of motivation, all organisms are born with innate biological
tendencies that help them survive. This theory suggests that instincts drive all behaviors. Instincts are
goal-directed and innate patterns of behavior that are not the result of learning or experience. For
example, infants have an inborn rooting reflex that helps them seek out a nipple and obtain
nourishment while birds have an innate need to build a nest or migrate during the winter.

What Is an Instinct?
In animals, instincts are inherent tendencies to engage spontaneously in a particular pattern of
behavior. Examples of this include a dog shaking after it gets wet, a sea turtle seeking out the ocean
after hatching or a bird migrating before the winter season.
Ethologist Konrad Lorenz famously demonstrated the power of instincts when he was able to get
young geese to imprint on him. He noted that geese would become attached to the first moving thing
they encountered after they hatched, which in most cases would be their mothers. However, by
ensuring that he was the first thing the geese encountered, they instead became attached, or
imprinted, on him.
In humans, many reflexes are examples of instinctive behaviors. The rooting reflex, as mentioned
earlier is one such example, as is the suckling reflex, the Moro reflexand the Babkin reflex.

A Brief History of the Instinct Theory of Motivation

Psychologist William McDougall was one of the first to write about the instinct theory of motivation.
He suggested that instinctive behavior was composed of three essential elements: perception,
behavior and emotion. He also outlined 18 different instincts that included curiosity, the maternal
instinct, laughter, comfort, sex and hunger.
Psychiatrist Sigmund Freud used a broad view of motivation and suggested the human behavior was
driven by two key forces: the life and death instincts.
Psychologist William James, on the other hand, identified a number of instincts that he believed were
essential for survival. These included such things as fear, anger, love, shame and cleanliness.

Observations
The instinct theory suggests that motivation is primarily biologically based. We engage in certain
behaviors because they aid in survival. Migrating before winter ensures the survival of the flock, so
the behavior has become instinctive.
So what exactly qualifies as an instinct? In his book Exploring Psychology, author David G. Meyers
suggests that in order to be identified as an instinct, the behavior "must have a fixed pattern
throughout a species and be unlearned." In other words, the behavior must occur naturally and
automatically in all organisms of that species. For example, infants have an innate rooting reflex that

leads them to root for and suck on a nipple. This behavior is unlearned and occurs naturally in all
human infants.

Criticisms of Instinct Theory

While instinct theory could be used to explain some behaviors, critics felt that it had some significant
limitations.
Among these criticisms:

Instincts can explain not all behaviors

Instincts are not something that can be readily observed and scientifically tested

Just labeling something as an instinct does nothing to explain why some behaviors appear in
certain instances but not in others.

While there are criticisms of instinct theory, this does not mean that psychologists have given up on
understanding how instincts can influence behavior. Instead, modern psychologists understand that
while certain tendencies might be biologically programmed, individual experiences can also play a
role in how responses are displayed. For example, while we might be more biologically prepared to
be afraid of a dangerous animal such as a snake or bear, we will never exhibit that fear if we are not
exposed to those animals.

What Is Intrinsic
Motivation?
Intrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards. In other words, the
motivation to engage in a behavior arises from within the individual because it is intrinsically
rewarding. This contrasts with extrinsic motivation, which involves engaging in a behavior in order
to earn external rewards or avoid punishments.
Consider for a moment your motivation for reading this article.
If you are reading it because you have an interest in psychology and simply want to know more about
the topic of motivation, then you are acting based upon intrinsic motivation. If, however, you are
reading this because you have to learn the information for a class so you can avoid getting a bad
grade, then you are acting based upon extrinsic motivation.
When was the last time you did something just for the enjoyment of the activity itself? Some
examples might include painting a picture, playing a game, writing a story, and reading a book.

When you pursue an activity simply for enjoyment, you are doing so doing so because you are
intrinsically motivated. Your motivations for engaging in the behavior arise entirely for within rather
than out of a desire to gain some type of external reward such as prizes, money or acclaim.
Of course, that isn't to say that intrinsically motivated behaviors are without their own rewards.
Instead, these rewards involve creating positive emotions within the individual. Activities can
generate such feelings when they give people a sense of meaning (like participating in volunteer or
church events), a sense of progress (seeing that your work is accomplishing something positive), or
competence (learning something new or becoming more skilled at a task).

Definitions of Intrinsic Motivation

"Intrinsic motivation occurs when we act without any obvious external rewards. We simply
enjoy an activity or see it as an opportunity to explore, learn, and actualize our potentials."
(Coon & Mitterer, 2010)

"Intrinsic motivation refers to the reason why we perform certain activities for inherent
satisfaction or pleasure; you might say performing one of these activities is reinforcing inand-of itself."
(Brown, 2007)

Intrinsic Rewards and Motivation

Researchers have discovered that offering external rewards or reinforcements for an already
internally rewarding activity can actually make the activity less intrinsically rewarding, a
phenomenon known as the overjustification effect. Why?
"A person's intrinsic enjoyment of an activity provides sufficient justification for their behavior,"
explains author Richard A Griggs in his text Psychology: A Concise Introduction. "With the addition
of extrinsic reinforcement, the person may perceive the task as overjustified and then attempt to
understand their true motivation (extrinsic versus intrinsic) for engaging in the activity."
Experts also suggest that people are more creative when they are intrinsically motivated. In work
settings, productivity can be increased by using extrinsic rewards such as bonuses, but the actual
quality of the work performed is influenced by intrinsic factors. If you are doing something that you
find rewarding, interesting, and challenging, you are more likely to come up with novel ideas and
creative solutions.

Motivation to Learn
Intrinsic motivation is an important topic in education, as teachers and instructional designers strive
to develop learning environments that are intrinsically rewarding. Unfortunately, many traditional
paradigms suggest that most students find learning boring so they must be extrinsically goaded into
educational activities.

Malone and Lepper (1987) suggest that this need not be the case and identify several different ways
to make learning environments that are intrinsically rewarding.
Malone and Lepper define activities as intrinsically motivating if "people engage in it for its own
sake, rather than in order to receive some external reward or avoid some external punishment. We use
the words fun, interesting, captivating, enjoyable, and intrinsically motivating all more or less
interchangeably to describe such activities."
The factors that they identify as increasing intrinsic motivation are:

Challenge: People are more motivated when they pursue goals that have personal meaning,
that relate to their self-esteem when performance feedback is available, and when attaining
the goal is possible but not necessarily certain.

Curiosity: Internal motivation is increased when something in the physical environment

grabs the individual's attention (sensory curiosity) and when something about the activity
stimulates the person to want to learn more (cognitive curiosity).

Control: People want control over themselves and their environments and want to determine
what they pursue.

Cooperation and Competition: Intrinsic motivation can be increased in situations where

people gain satisfaction from helping others and in cases where they are able to compare their
own performance favorably to that of others.

Recognition: People enjoy having their accomplishment recognized by others, which can
increase internal motivation.

Observations
Experts have noted that offering unnecessary rewards can have unexpected costs. While we like to
think that offering a reward will improve a person's motivation, interest, and performance, this isn't
always the case.
For example, when children are rewarded for playing with toys that they already enjoy playing with,
their motivation and enjoyment of those toys actually decreases.
It is important to note, however, that a number of factors can influence whether intrinsic motivation
is increased or decreased by external rewards. Salience or how significant the event itself is often
plays a critical role.
An athlete competing in a sporting event might view the winner's prize as confirming the winner's
competence and exceptionalism. On the other hand, some athletes might view the same prize as a
sort of bribe or coercion. How the individual views the salience of different characteristics of the
event impacts whether the reward will affect a person's intrinsic motivation for participating in that
activity.

Types of Motives: Biological, Social

and Personal Motives | Psychology
Article Shared by Aman Sharma

Psychologists have divided motives into three types

Biological motives, social motives and personal motives!
The goal here may be fulfillment of a want or a need. Whenever a need
arises the organism is driven to fulfil that want or need. If there is no
need in the organism, there will be no behaviour. For example, Horse
and water. Horse does not drink water unless it has thirst or if it is not
motivated. Unlike the external stimuli, the motives are limited.
The behaviour to fulfil such needs is mechanical and alike in all the
organisms. Hunger is a motive which stimulates the organism to have
food. We develop hunger when the food that was taken earlier is
exhausted.
The need for food drives us to go in search of food and to have it. Here
the hunger motive not only initiated the action, but also continued
until the goal (having food) is reached. The motives are powerful
forces.
They do not allow us to stop our action or behaviour until the need is
satisfied. Hence, they are called the dynamos of behaviour.

Types of Motives:

Biological Motivation and Homeostasis:

Biological motives are called as physiological motives. These motives
are essential for the survival of the organism. Such motives are
triggered when there is imbalancement in the body. The body always
tends to maintain a state of equilibrium called Homeostasis- in
many of its internal physiological processes.
This balance is very essential for the normal life. Homeostasis helps to
maintain internal physiological processes at optimal levels. The
nutritional level, fluid level, temperature level, etc., are maintained at
certain optimal level or homeostasis levels. When there is some
variation in these levels the individual is motivated for restoring the
state of equilibrium.

I) Physiological Motives:
a. Hunger motive:
We eat to live. The food we take is digested and nutritional substances
are absorbed. The biochemical processes get their energy from the
food in order to sustain life. When these substances are exhausted,
some imbalancement exists.
We develop hunger motive in order to maintain homeostasis. This is
indicated by contraction of stomach muscles causing some pain or
discomfort called hunger pangs. Psychologists have demonstrated this
phenomenon by experiments.

b. Thirst motive:
In our daily life regularly we take fluids in the form of water and other
beverages. These fluids are essential for our body tissues for normal
functioning. When the water level in the body decreases we develop
motive to drink water.
Usually thirst motive is indicated by dryness of mouth. Experiments
by psychologists have shown that just dried mouth getting wetted is
not enough. We need to drink sufficient quantity of water to satiate
our thirst.
c. Need for oxygen:
Our body needs oxygen continuously. We get it through continuous
respiration. Oxygen is necessary for the purification of blood. We
cannot survive without regular supply of oxygen. Lack of oxygen
supply may lead to serious consequences like damage to brain or
death.
d. Motive for regulation of body temperature:
Maintenance of normal body temperature (98.6F or 37.0C) is
necessary. Rise or fall in the body temperature causes many problems.
There are some automatic mechanisms to regulate body temperature,
like sweating when the temperature rises above normal or, shivering
when it falls below normal.
These changes motivate us to take necessary steps. For example,
opening of windows, put on fans, take cool drinks, remove clothes,
etc., when the temperature increases to above normal level; and
closing doors and windows, wear sweaters, take hot beverages when
temperature falls down. In this way we try to regulate the body
temperature.

e. Need for sleep:

Sleep is an essential process for normal functioning of body and mind.
When our body and mind are tired they need rest for rejuvenation of
energy. It is observed that there is excess accumulation of a toxin
called Lactic acid when tired.
After sleep it disappears and the person becomes active. Sleep
deprivation also leads to psychological problems like confusion,
inability to concentrate, droopy eyelids, muscle tremors, etc.
f. Need for avoidance of pain:
No organism can continue to bear pain. Whenever we experience pain
we try to avoid it. We are motivated to escape from painful stimulus.
For example, when we are under hot sun we go to shade. When
something is pinching we avoid it.
g. Drive for elimination of waste:
Our body cannot bear anything excess or anything waste. Excess water
is sent out in the form of urine or sweat. So also digested food particles
after absorption of nutritional substances are sent out in the form of
stools. We experience discomfort until these wastes are eliminated.
h. Sex motive:
This is a biological motive, arises in the organism as a result of
secretion of sex hormones-like androgens and estrogens. Sex need is
not essential for the survival of the individual, but it is essential for the
survival of the species. However, fulfillment of the sex need is not like
satisfying hunger or thirst.
The society and the law exercise certain codes of conduct. Human
being has to adhere to these rules. Usually this need is fulfilled
through marriage.

i. Maternal drive:
This is an instinct or an inborn tendency. Every normal woman aspires
to become a mother. Psychologists have
Motivation, Emotion and Attitudinal Processes 123 learnt from related
studies that, this is a most powerful drive. That is why in many cases
the women who cannot bear children of their own, will sublimate that
motive and satisfy it through socially acceptable ways, like working in
orphan schools, baby sittings or adopting others children.

II) Social Motives:

Physiological motives discussed above pertain to both animals as well
as human beings, but the social motives are specific only to human
beings. These are called social motives, because they are learnt in
social groups as a result of interaction with the family and society.
That is why their strength differs from one individual to another.
Many social motives are recognised by psychologists. Some of the
common social motives are:
a. Achievement motive:
Achievement motivation refers to a desire to achieve some goal. This
motive is developed in the individual who has seen some people in the
society attaining high success, reaching high positions and standards.
He/she develops a concern to do better, to improve performance.
David C Mc Clelland who conducted a longitudinal study on
characteristics of high and low achievers found that the high achievers
choose and perform better at challenging tasks, prefers personal
responsibility, seeks and utilizes feedback about the performance
standard, having innovative ideas to improve performance.
On the other hand, low achievers do not accept challenges, puts on
average standards and accepts failures easily. Parents must try to

inculcate leadership qualities in children for better achievement in

their future life.
They must allow children to take decisions independently, and guide
them for higher achievement from the childhood, so that the children
develop high achievement motivation.
b. Aggressive motive:
It is a motive to react aggressively when faced frustrations. Frustration
may occur when a person is obstructed from reaching a goal or when
he is insulted by others. Even in a fearful and dangerous do or die
situation the individual may resort to aggressive behaviour. Individual
expresses such behaviour to overcome opposition forcefully, which
may be physical or verbal aggression.
c. Power motive:
People with power motive will be concerned with having an impact on
others. They try to influence people by their reputation. They expect
people to bow their heads and obey their instructions.
Usually people with high power motive choose jobs, where they can
exert their powers. They want people as followers. They expect high
prestige and recognition from others. For example, a person may
aspire to go for jobs like Police Officer, Politician, Deputy
Commissioner, etc.
d. Acquisitive motive:
This motive directs the individual for the acquisition of material
property. It may be money or other property. This motive arises as we
come across different people who have earned a lot of money and
leading a good life. It is a human tendency to acquire all those things
which appear attractive to him.

e. Curiosity motive:
This is otherwise called stimulus and exploration motive. Curiosity is a
tendency to explore and know new things. We see people indulge in a
travelling to look at new places, new things and new developments
taking place outside their environment.
People want to extend their knowledge and experiences by exploring
new things. Curiosity motive will be very powerful during childhood.
That is why they do not accept any toy or other articles unless they
examine them from different angles, even at the cost of spoiling or
breaking the objects.
f. Gregariousness:
This is also known as affiliation need. Gregariousness is a tendency to
associate oneself with other members of the group or same species.
The individual will be interested in establishing, maintaining and
repairing friendly relationships and will be interested in participating
in group activities.
Individual will conform to social norms, mores and other ethical codes
of the groups in which he/she is interested. To the greater extent
gregariousness is developed because many of the needs like basic
needs, safety and security needs are fulfilled.
In addition to the above there are some other social motives like need
for self-esteem, social approval, self-actualization, autonomy, master
motive, combat, defense, abasement, etc.

III) Personal Motives:

In addition to the above said physiological and social motives, there
are some other motives which are allied with both of the above said
motives. These are highly personalized and very much individualized
motives. The most important among them are:

a. Force of habits:
We see different people having formed different habits like chewing
tobacco, smoking, alcohol consumption, etc. There may be good habits
also like regular exercising, reading newspapers, prayers, meditations,
etc. Once these habits are formed, they act as drivers and compel the
person to perform the act. The specialty of habits is that, they motivate
the individual to indulge in that action automatically.
b. Goals of life:
Every normal individual will have some goals in the life. They may be
related to education, occupation, income, sports, acquisition of
property, public service, social service, etc. Once a goal is set, he will
be motivated to fulfil that goal. The goals people set, depend upon
various factors like knowledge, information, guidance, support,
personality, facilities available, aspirations, family and social
background, etc.
c. Levels of aspirations:
Aspiration is aspiring to achieve or to get something or a goal. But
such achievement depends upon the level of motivation the individual
has. Every individual will have a goal in his life and strive to reach that
goal. But the effort to attain that goal varies from one individual to
another. The amount of satisfaction he gains depends upon his level of
aspiration.
For example, if a student is expecting 80% of marks in examination,
gets only 75%, he may be unhappy. On the other hand, a student
expecting failure may feel very happy if he gets just 35% passing
marks, because, the student with high level of aspiration works hard,
whereas the student with low level may not.
Hence, always higher level of aspiration is advisable. However, it
should be on par with his abilities also. Because, if an individual

aspires for higher level of achievement without possessing required

ability, he will have to face frustration and disappointment.
d. Attitudes and interests:
Our attitudes and interests determine our motivation. These are
specific to individual. For example, a person within the family, may
have positive attitude towards family planning and all others having
negative attitudes.
So also, interests differ from one individual to another. Example,
interest in sports, T.V, etc. Whenever we have a positive attitude, we
will have motivation to attain. In negative attitude, we will be
motivated to avoid. If a person is interested in music, he will be
motivated to learn it. In this way, our personal motives determine our
behaviour.
Unconscious motivation:
Sigmund Freud, the famous psychologist has explained elaborately
about unconscious motivation. According to him, there are certain
motives of which we are unaware, because they operate from our
unconscious.
These motives or desires which are repressed by our conscious remain
in our unconscious and will be influencing our behaviour.
Our irrational behaviour, the slip of tongue, slip of pen, amnesia,
multiple personality, somnambulism, etc., are some examples of such
behaviours for which we do not have answers apparently.
These motives can be delineated only by psychoanalysis. Many times
psychosomatic disorders like paralysis, headaches, gastric ulcers, etc.,
also may be due to unconscious motivation.