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Bishwajit Mazumder
Nursing Instructor
Dhaka Nursing College, Dhaka

1. Cell Reproduction:
1.1 Cell growth
1.2 Cell division
1.3 Regulating the cell cycle
1. Cell Reproduction
Cell reproduction is the process by which cells divide to form new
cells. Each time a cell divides, it makes a copy of all of
its chromosomes, which are tightly coiled strands of DNA, the genetic
material that holds the instructions for all life, and sends an identical
copy to the new cell that is created.
A chromosome consists of two halves, called Chromatids. These
halves are divided in their center by a centromere. This structure is
what attaches to spindle fibers during mitosis to pull one chromatid to
each side of the cell when it divides.
In humans, 44 of the chromosomes consist of autosomes, and the
remaining two are the sex chromosomes. These chromosomes
determine the gender of the organism. (A male has an X and a Y,
while a female has to Xs).
In addition, all the chromosomes in an organism excluding the sex
chromosomes are part of a homologous pair. They contain genes to
control the same traits but the genes do not have the same
instructions. For example, one chromosome might have the genes for
brown eyes while its homolouge might have genes for blue eyes. One
homolouge is inherited from the mother while the other is inherited
from the father.
Function of chromosome:
In the broadest sense, chromosome functions refer to control of all the
activities of a living cell. These functions can be elaborated as:
Cell Division Process:
Chromosomes are essential for the process of cell division and are

responsible for the replication, division, and creation of daughter cells

that contain correct sequences of DNA and proteins. They are
responsible for building muscles and tissues, growth and repair, as
well as the synthesis of thousands of enzymes, like DNA replication
enzymes produced by the body. Chromosome functions include
holding genes -- the units of heredity.
Gene packaging:
Genes are located at a particular point on a chromosome, known as its
locus. Each chromosome contains DNA in a double helix structure,
which houses thousands of genes along the strand, each with their
own loci. Genes are the units that hold codes, which control the
building and maintenance of cells.
Packaging of regulatory elements:
The DNA present in a chromosome houses genes, regulatory
elements, and other nucleotide sequences. The regulatory sequence
present in the nucleic acid molecule affects the accentuation and
degeneration of specific genes, producing a variation in parentdaughter genetic traits.
DNA Packaging:
Chromosomes are often referred to as the 'packaging material' that
hold DNA and proteins together in eukaryotic cells (cells that have a
nucleus). Cell division is a continuous process that must occur for an
organism to function, whether for growth, repair, or reproduction. In
fact, chromosomes differ structurally more between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes as opposed to different species.
Genetic code storage:
Chromosome contains the genetic material that is required by the
organism to develop and grow, DNA molecules are made of chain of
units called genes. Genes are those sections of the DNA which code
for specific proteins required by the cell for its proper function.
Sex determination: human have 23 pairs of chromosomes out of
which one pair is the sex chromosome. Female have two X
chromosomes and male have one X and Y chromosome. The sex of

child is determined by the chromosome passed down by the male. If

X chromosome is passed out of XY chromosome, the child will be a
female and if a Y chromosome is passed a male child develops.
1.2 Cell division
Depending on the type of cell, there are two ways cells divide
mitosis and meiosis. Each of these methods of cell division has
special characteristics.
Mitosis cell division.
Mitosis is the process of cellular division that produces identical
daughter cells from one mother cell. In single-cell organisms like
protists, mitosis produces two whole organisms. In multicellular
organisms, mitosis is the process by which the animal grows and
repairs its tissues.
There are five steps in mitosis.
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

Prophase. The shape of the DNA changes. Other changes take

place in the cytoplasm.
Prometaphase. Chromosomes start to move because
microtubules are attaching to them.
Metaphase. Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell,
pulled there by microtubules. Sister chromatids line up on each
side of the metaphase plate. This can be compared to putting one
left shoe on one side of the plate and one right shoe on the other
side of the plate.
Anaphase. Pairs of sister chromatids split and are pulled to
opposite sides of the cell by the microtubules. This is like putting
the left shoes into different sides of the cell; the same thing
happens with the right shoes. At the end of anaphase, there is one
complete set of chromosomes on each side of the cell and the sets
are identical.
Telophase. DNA returns to the state it was in during interphase.

Cytokinesis then divides the rest of the cell, and two identical cells
result.
Meiosis
Meiosis is the process of cellular division that produces the gametes
which take part in sexual reproduction. Where mitosis produces two
daughter cells from one mother cell, meiosis produces four daughter
cells from one mother cell. The end products of meiosis, the gametes,
contain only half the genome of a organism. This is like each cell
ending up with only a single shoe; there are not pairs in these cells
anymore. The two gametes fuse to produce a zygote . Because each
gamete has half the genetic material of the mother cell,
this fusion results in a zygote with the correct amount of genetic
material.
There are two stages in meiosis, meiosis I and meiosis II. There are
five steps in meiosis I.
Interphase I. Chromosomes replicate, resulting in two identical sister
chromatids for each chromosome.
Prophase I. Chromosomes change shape. Homologous pairs of
chromosomes, each with two sister chromatids, come together in a
process called synapsis. This tetrad of chromatids is joined in several
places, called chiasmata, and crossing-over occurs.
Metaphase I. Tetrads line up on the metaphase plate, still joined.
Anaphase I. Homologous chromosomes split apart. Sister chromatids
remain together. Microtubules pull each homologue to opposite sides
of the cell. This is like putting the left shoes on one side and the right
shoes on the other.
Telophase I and Cytokinesis. The cell divides. Each cell contains a
pair of sister chromatids.

Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm. This usually occurs with

mitosis, but in some organisms this is not so.
Meiosis Cell Division
Meiosis is the other main way cells divide. Meiosis is cell division
that creates sex cells, like female egg cells or male sperm cells. In
meiosis, each new cell contains a unique set of genetic information.
After meiosis, the sperm and egg cells can join to create a new
organism.
During meiosis, a small portion of each chromosome breaks off and
reattaches to another chromosome. This process is called "crossing
over" or "genetic recombination." Meiosis has two cycles of cell
division, conveniently called Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
Meiosis I: Meiosis I halves the number of chromosomes and is also
when crossing over happens. Meiosis I can be broken down into four
substages: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase I
Prophase I - most of the significant processes of Meiosis occur
during Prophase I.
The chromosomes condense and become visible
The centrioles form and move toward the poles
The nuclear membrane begins to dissolve
The homologs pair up, forming a tetrad.
Metaphase I:
Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the
centromeres.
The tetrads line up along the cell equator
Anaphase I

The centromeres break and homologous chromosomes separate

(note that the sister chromatids are still attached)
Cytokinesis begins
Telophase I
The chromosomes may decondense (depends on species)
Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two haploid daughter
cells
Meiosis II: Meiosis II halves the amount of genetic information in
each chromosome of each cell. Meiosis II can be broken down into
four substages: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase
II
Prophase II
Centrioles form and move toward the poles
The nuclear membrane dissolves
Metaphase II
Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the
centromeres
The sister chromatids line up along the cell equator
Anaphase II
The centromeres break and sister chromatids separate
Cytokinesis begins
Telophase II
The chromosomes may decondense (depends on species)

Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating four haploid

daughter cells

Difference between mitosis and meosis

Mitosis
Meosis
Take place in the somatic cells of Taka place in the germ cells.
the body
Occurs in both sexually as well
Occurs only in sexually
as asexually reproducing
reproducing organisms.
organisms.
The cell divides only once.
There are two divisions, the first
and second meiotic divisions.
Interphase precedes prior to each Interphase precedes only in
division.
meiosis I. It does not occur prior
to meiosis II.
DNA replication takes place
DNA replication takes place
during interphase I.
during interphase I but not
interphase II
The DNA replicates once for one The DNA replicates once for two
cell division.
cell divisions.
The duration of prophase is
Prophase comparatively longer
short, usually of a few hours.
and may take days.
Prophase is comparatively
Prophase is complicated and
simple.
divided into leptotene, zygotene,
pachytene, diplotene, and
diakinesis.
The cell divides only once and
There are tw0 cell divisions but
the chromosomes also divide
the chromosomes divided only
only once.
once.
There is no synapsis.
Synapsis of homologous
chromosomes take place during
prophase.

The two chromatids of a

chromosome do not exchange
segments during prophase.
Each chromosome consists of
two chromatids united by a
centromere.
The arms of the prophase
chromatids are close to one
another.
Chromosomes are already
duplicated at the beginning of
prophase.

Chromatids of two homologous

chromosome exchange segments
during crossing over.
The two homologous from
bivalents or etrads. Each
bivalents has four chromatids
and two centromers.
The arms of the chromatids are
separated widely in prophase II.
When prophase I commences the
chromosomes appear single.

1.3 Regulating the cell cycle

The cell cycle is the steps that cells take to grow, develop,
and reproduce. It can be broken down into five steps:
1.
2.

G1 Phase
S Phase

3.

G2 Phase

4.

M Phase

5.

Cytokinesis
G1 Phase
During the G1 Phase, the cell grows and stores up energy that it
will use during cell division. Nutrients are taken in and all the usual
cell processes take place. Once cells are fully grown, they proceed on
to the S Phase.
S Phase
During the S Phase, the DNA in the cell's nucleus is copied. This
means that the cell then attains two copies of the entire necessary

DNA for normal cell activity, leaving a full set to be transferred into
the new cell that will be created after the cell divides.
G2 Phase
During this phase, the cell prepares for cell division. This phase
represents a time gap between the time when the cell copies its DNA
and when it divides.
M Phase
During this phase, cell division takes place through Mitosis.
Cytokinesis
During Cytokinesis, the cytoplasm in the cell divides
and the cell's membrane pinches inward and the cell begins to divide.
Also, when plant cells divide, a cell plate forms between the two new
cells to divide them
Other Methods of Cell Reproduction
Several other methods of cell reproduction exist. These
include meiosis and binary fission. During binary fission, bacterial
cells divide asexually. Meiosis is used to change diploid body cells
into haploid reproductive cells.
Binary Fission
Bacterial cells reproduce through a process called binary fission.
During this process, bacterial cells reproduce by budding new
genetically identical organisms from portions of their bodies. Asexual
reproduction is a disadvantage to mitosis because it negates the
positive effects of genetic variation and recombination.
1.1 Cell growth:
The term cell growth is used in the contexts of biological cell
development and cell division (reproduction). When used in the
context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where
a cell, known as the "mother cell", grows and divides to produce two
"daughter cells" (M phase). When used in the context of cell
development, the term refers to increase in cytoplasmic and organelle

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volum (G1phase), as well as increase in genetic material (G2 phase)

following the replication during S phase.
Cell growthan increase in cytoplasmic mass, chromosome number,
and cell surfaceis followed by cell division, in which the
cytoplasmic mass and chromosomes are distributed to the daughter
cells. An increase in cytoplasmic mass does not always occur during
cell-division cycles, however. During the early development of an
embryo, for example, the original egg cell, usually a very large cell,
undergoes repeated series of cell divisions without any intervening
growth periods; as a result, the original egg cell divides into
thousands of small cells. Only after the embryo can obtain food from
its environment does the usual pattern of growth and mitosis occur.

The increase in size and changes in shape of a developing organism

depend on the increase in the number and size of cells that make up
the individual. Increase in cell number occurs by a precise cellular
reproductive mechanism called mitosis. During mitosis the
chromosomes bearing the genetic material are reproduced in the
nucleus, and then the doubled chromosomes are precisely distributed
to the two daughter cells, one of each chromosomal type going to
each daughter cell. Each end of the dividing cell receives a complete
set of chromosomes before the ends separate.