Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 1 April 2014
Received in revised form 14 November 2014
Accepted 20 November 2014
Available online 27 November 2014
Keywords:
Paleotethys
Neotethys
Metallogeny
Tectonics
Magmatism
Subduction
Collision
Ore deposits
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.11.009
0169-1368/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
a b s t r a c t
This paper reviews the tectonic, magmatic, and metallogenic history of the Tethyan orogen from the Carpathians
to Indochina. Focus is placed on the formation of porphyry Cu Mo Au deposits, as being the most characteristic mineral deposit type formed during both subduction and collisional processes in this region. Relatively little
is known about the history of the Paleotethys ocean, which opened and closed between Gondwana and Eurasia in
the Paleozoic, and few ore deposits are preserved from this period. The Neotethyan ocean opened in the
PermianEarly Triassic as the Cimmerian continental fragments (the cores of Turkey, Iran, Tibet, and Indochina)
rifted from the northern Gondwana margin and drifted northwards. These microcontinents docked with the
Eurasian margin at various points in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, and formed a complex archipelago involving
several small back-arc basins and remnants of the Paleotethyan ocean. The main Neotethyan ocean and these
smaller basins were largely eliminated by collision with India and AfricaArabia in the early Eocene and earlymid Miocene, respectively, although Neotethyan subduction continues beneath the Hellenic arc and the Makran.
The majority of porphyry-type deposits are found in association with Neotethyan subduction (mainly in the
Mesozoic and Paleogene), and syn- to post-collisional events in the mid-Paleogene to Neogene. They are found
throughout the orogen, but some sections are particularly well-endowed, including the CarpathiansBalkans
Rhodopes, eastern TurkeyLesser CaucasusNW Iran, SE IranSW Pakistan, southern Tibet, and SE Tibet
Indochina. Other sections that appear barren may reect deeper levels of erosion, young sedimentary cover, or
lack of exploration, although there may also be real reasons for low prospectivity in some areas, such as minimal
subduction (e.g., the western Mediterranean region) or lithospheric underthrusting (as proposed in western
Tibet).
Over the last decade, improved geochronological constraints on the timing of ore formation and key tectonic
events have revealed that many porphyry deposits that were previously assumed to be subduction-related are
in fact broadly collision-related, some forming in back-arc settings in advance of collision, some during collision,
and others during post-collisional processes such as orogenic collapse and/or delamination of subcontinental
mantle lithosphere. While the formation of subduction-related porphyries is quite well understood, collisional
metallogeny is more complex, and may involve a number of different processes or sources. These include melting
of: orogenically thickened crust; previously subduction-modied lithosphere (including metasomatized mantle,
underplated mac rocks, or lower crustal arc plutons and cumulates); or upwelling asthenosphere (e.g., in
response to delamination, slab breakoff, back-arc extension, or orogenic collapse).
The most fertile sources for syn- and post-collisional porphyry deposits appear to be subduction-modied lithosphere, because these hydrated lithologies melt at relatively low temperatures during later tectonomagmatic
events, and retain the oxidized and relatively metalliferous character of the original arc magmatism. Unusually
metallically enriched lithospheric sources do not seem to be required, but the amount of residual sulde phases
in these rocks may control metal ratios (e.g., Cu:Au) in subsequent magmatic hydrothermal ore deposits. Relatively Au-rich deposits potentially form in these settings, as observed in the Carpathians (e.g., Roia Montan),
Turkey (Kisladag, pler), and Iran (Sari Gunay, Dalli), although the majority of syn- and post-collisional porphyries are CuMo-rich, and resemble normal subduction-related deposits (e.g., in the Gangdese belt of southern
Tibet). This similarity extends to the associated igneous rocks, which, being derived from subduction-modied
sources, largely retain the geochemical and isotopic character of those original arc magmas. While still retaining
a broadly calc-alkaline character, these rocks may extend to mildly alkaline (shoshonitic) compositions, and may
display adakite-like trace element signatures (high Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios) reecting melting of deep crustal garnet amphibolitic sources. But they are otherwise hard to distinguish from normal subduction-related magmas.
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Small, post-collisional mac, alkaline volcanic centers are common throughout the orogen, but for the most part
appear to be barren. However, similar rocks in other post-subduction settings around the world are associated
with important alkalic-type porphyry and epithermal Au Cu deposits, and the potential for discovery of such
deposits in the Tethyan orogen should not be overlooked.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Paleotethys and Neotethys ocean basins formed in the Paleozoic
and Mesozoic, respectively, between the Laurentian/Laurasian continental masses to the north, and the Gondwana continents to the
south. Plate tectonic reconstructions for the Paleotethys are the subject
of considerable debate, and models from, for example, C.R. Scotese
(PALEOMAP Project, www.scotese.com) and Stampi and Borel
(2004) disagree in many details such as subduction polarity and the
locations of individual continental fragments. Nevertheless, there is
general agreement that the Paleotethys ocean basin was rst formed
in the mid-Paleozoic, and was then progressively destroyed by convergence between Laurentia and Gondwana, culminating in formation of
the supercontinent Pangea in the late Paleozoic (Fig. 1A). Stampi and
Borel (2004) indicate that by the Late Triassic, only small remnants of
the Paleotethys remained. Meanwhile, the Neotethyan ocean basin
had begun forming in the PermianEarly Triassic by rifting of the
Cimmerian continental fragments from the northern margin of
Gondwana (Fig. 1A). These fragments include the cores of present-day
Turkey, Iran, Tibet, and Indochina, which swept northwards as the
Paleotethys closed, eventually to accrete to the southern margin of
Laurasia in the Late TriassicEarly Jurassic. From this point forward,
the history of the Neotethys involves northward subduction below the
accretionary Laurasian margin (Figs. 1B and 2), the opening of small
back-arc basins along that margin (e.g., the Pindos and Vardar oceans),
and eventual (ongoing) closure by collision with AfricaArabia and
India (Fig. 2D).
Relatively few known mineral deposits are convincingly associated
with the Paleotethys ocean, and its geological record is not well
preserved. In contrast, the record is much better for the Neotethys,
and numerous world class mineral deposits are associated with its
formation and closure. Consequently, the focus of this paper is largely
on the Neotethys ocean, and in particular Neotethyan subduction- and
collision-related magmatism on the Laurasian margin. Porphyry Cu
Mo Au and related epithermal Au Cu deposits are the predominant
mineral deposit type in the orogen, and, while some of these deposits
appear to be related to normal subduction-related magmatism
(e.g., Clark and Ullrich, 2004; von Quadt et al., 2005), there has been increasing recognition that many are related to post-subduction collisional processes (e.g., C.R. Harris et al., 2013; Harangi et al., 2007; Heinrich
and Neubauer, 2002; Hou et al., 2003, 2004; Hou et al., 2009; J.X. Li
et al., 2011; Jankovi, 1997; Lu et al., 2013a,b; Moritz et al., 2010;
Neubauer, 2002; R. Wang et al., 2014a, 2014b, 2014c; Richards, 2009;
Richards et al., 2006; Rou et al., 2004; Shaei et al., 2009; X.-S. Wang
et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2009). The wide range of tectonic settings represented along the Neotethyan orogenic belt thus provides a good
opportunity to study porphyry ore formation in response to different
geodynamic processes.
The Neotethyan orogen stretches for over 12,000 km from the Alps,
through the CarpathiansBalkans, Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan, Tibet, and
Indochina, and includes sections where Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere
is still being subducted (the eastern Mediterranean and the Makran) to
advanced continental collision (the Alps and Himalayas). In order to
organize the presentation of material in this review, I have separated
the orogen into three main sections, based on their predominant
geodynamic context: (1) the collided arcs of the Carpathians and
Balkans; (2) the incipient Afro-Arabian collision zone of TurkeyIran
Western Pakistan; and (3) the advanced Indian collision zone of the
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Alaska
LAURASIA
North
China
South
China
Europe
Sierra Nevada
North
America
Tibet
Turkey Iran
T eth
yan
Tr
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Gulf of
Mexico
ench
NEOTETHYS
OCEAN
Africa
Central
Atlantic
Ocean
Indochina
Southeast
Asia
Arabia
South
America
GONDWANA
India
Australia
Antarctica
Ancient landmass
Modern landmass
Subduction zone
Mid-ocean ridge
Siberia
PANTHALASSIC OCEAN
Kazakhstania
North China
PANGEA
ngean
al Pa
Centr
South
America
Mts.
PALEO-TETHYS
OCEAN
Africa
South China
Indochina
Turkey
IranCIMM
Tibet
GONDWANA
South
Africa
Malaya
NEOTETHYS
OCEAN
India
Australia
Antarctica
C. R. Scotese, (c) 2012, PALEOMAP Project
(www.scotese.com)
Fig. 1. A. Paleogeography of the Paleotethys ocean in the Late Permian; note the incipient rifting of the Cimmerian continental fragments from the northern Gondwana margin to form the
Neotethys ocean. B. Paleogeography of the Neotethys ocean at its maximum extent in the Late Jurassic; initiation of rifting to form the central Atlantic ocean at this time, followed by south
Atlantic rifting in the Cretaceous, resulted in anticlockwise rotation and northward drift of AfricaArabia (and later India) to progressively close the Neotethys ocean in a scissor-like
motion around an axis close to the western Mediterranean. Images reproduced with permission from Scotese (2007). Abbreviation: CIMM = Cimmerian continental fragments (parts
of Turkey, Iran, Tibet, Indochina).
Vardar ocean to the northeast beneath the Serbo-Macedonian continent in the Late Jurassic led to arc magmatism in the Rhodopes dated
from 164 to 155 Ma (Fig. 2A; Anders et al., 2005; Jahn-Awe et al.,
2010). The Vardar ocean nally closed in the Late Cretaceousearly
Cenozoic, resulting in collisional tectonics (Fig. 2B, C; Robertson et al.,
2013b).
A number of large porphyry CuAu and related high-suldation Au
deposits were formed in association with Late Cretaceous calc-alkaline
arc magmatism in this region (Ciobanu et al., 2002; Clark and Ullrich,
2004; Jankovi, 1997; Lips, 2002), which has been variously termed
the Bananitic magmatic and metallogenic belt (BMMB; Ciobanu et al.,
2002) or the ApuseniBanatTimokSrednogorie belt (ABTS; von
Quadt et al., 2005). Major porphyry CuAu deposits include: Moldova
Nou in Romania; Majdanpek, Veliki Krivelj, and Bor in Serbia; and
Elatsite and Assarel in Bulgaria (Fig. 3). The large Chelopech highsuldation epithermal Au deposit in Bulgaria is spatially associated
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D) 50340
350
10
20
30
40
60
70
80
90
100
110
50
Eurasia
Black Sea
40
50
15 Ma
SA
40
Pamir
K
B
TA
Qiangtang
SS
CI
Lhasa
30
30
Arabia
Africa
Makran
India
20
20
Indochina
10
340
C) 50330
350
10
20
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40
50
60
70
80
90
100
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350
10
20
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90
50 Ma
Sabzevar
Ocean
Black Sea
SA
Pamir
40
Qiangtang
K
SS
B
TA
30
100
50
Eurasia
40
10
110
L
Z
Lhasa
Kohistan
A
CI
30
Neotethys
Makran
Indochina
20
Africa
B)
10
330
310
40
340
320
350
330
0
340
20
Arabia
10
350
20
0
India
30
10
40
20
50
30
60
40
70
50
80
60
90
70
10
100
80
40
100 Ma
Eurasia
30
Vardar
30
M
R
Blac
P
20
Sabzevar
Ocean
k Se
Lhasa
SA
SS
10
0
310
A)
300
40
CI
20
Kohistan
Indochina
Makran
TAB
Africa
tang
Qiang
Pamir
10
Neotethys
320
330
340
350
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20
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310
320
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10
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40
145.5 Ma
North
America
Qian
Pamir
Vardar
30
a
has
Black Sea
SA
M
P
20
gtan
Eurasia
30
SS
Kohistan
CI
Indochina 20
A
Makran
10
10
Africa
0
300
Neotethys
TAB
310
320
330
340
350
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
70
Fig. 2. Paleogeographic reconstructions of the Neotethyan region at (A) 145.5, (B) 100 Ma, (C) 50 Ma, and (D) 15 Ma. These reconstructions are redrawn from maps generated using the
Ocean Drilling Stratigraphic Network's Plate Tectonic Reconstruction Service (www.odsn.de/odsn/services/paleomap/paleomap.html). Plate motions are modeled relative to a magnetic
reference frame, using a Mercator projection. Blue lines represent present-day coastlines, for reference. Locations of major porphyry deposits forming around the time of each image are
approximate; see Fig. 3 for more precise locations, deposit names, and ages. Abbreviations: A = Afghan block; C = Carpathians; CI = Central Iranian block; K = Kirehir block; L = Lut
block; M = Moesian Platform; P = Pontides; R = Rhodopes; SA = South Armenian block; SSZ = SanandajSirjan Zone; TAB = TaurideAnatolide block.
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328
3.3. Neogene
4.2. Mesozoic
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332
1993; Petterson, 2010; Searle et al., 1999), although much less is known
about the Mesozoic history of the Pamir.
The Kohistan terrane is considered to have formed as a Cretaceous
(~13490 Ma) intra-oceanic arc overlying a north-directed subduction
zone (Fig. 2A, B; Bard, 1983; Bignold and Treloar, 2003; Petterson and
Treloar, 2004; Petterson, 2010; Bouilhol et al., 2011). It is of signicant
geological interest because subsequent collisional uplift has exposed
an almost complete section of oceanic arc crust, from upper crustal
volcanic sequences (the Chalt Volcanic Group) and coeval tonalitic intrusions of the early Kohistan batholith, through gabbroic intrusions
and layered mac cumulates of the lower crustal Chilas Complex, to
the lowermost macultramac Kamila amphibolites and Jijal Complex
(Bignold et al., 2006). The petrology of these unique lower crustal rocks
has been studied in detail by Jagoutz and co-workers (op. cit.) and
Dhuime et al. (2009).
While the origin of the Kohistan arc is relatively well established,
debate arises concerning its collisional history, with some authors proposing accretion rst to the Indian plate margin in the Late Cretaceous
at ~ 85 Ma or later (Bard, 1983; Bouilhol et al., 2013; Chatterjee et al.,
2013; Khan et al., 2009), and others arguing for initial accretion to the
Asian margin at ~ 10075 Ma (Bignold et al., 2006; Petterson, 2010;
Petterson and Treloar, 2004; Rehman et al., 2011; Searle et al., 1999;
Treloar et al., 1996). Whichever interpretation is correct, the collision
caused Late Cretaceous crustal thickening, amphibolite to granulite
facies metamorphism of the lowermost crustal sequences (Bouilhol
et al., 2011; Jan and Howie, 1981; Petterson, 2010; Petterson and
Treloar, 2004), and partial melting to form calc-alkaline gabbro
granodiorite plutons (8540 Ma; Bignold et al., 2006).
Despite preservation of upper crustal volcanic and subvolcanic sequences, no porphyry-type deposits are known in Kohistan. However,
small deposits of CuAuPGE-bearing suldes occur in dunites in the
Chilas Complex (author's unpublished data), and chromite is mined
from layers or pods in the ultramac Jijal Complex.
5.2.2. TibetIndochina
The Cretaceous period saw widespread arc magmatism across the
Tibetan plateau, with uplift beginning as an Andean-type margin in
the Late Cretaceous (~ 85 Ma), and reaching its maximum extent by
~ 45 Ma (Ding et al., 2014; Rohrmann et al., 2012). Early Cretaceous
adakite-like calc-alkaline intrusions in the northern Lhasa terrane
have been related to slab breakoff in the south-directed Bangong
Nujiang subduction zone (H. Wu et al., in press), whereas similar Early
Cretaceous intrusions in the southern Gangdese magmatic belt of the
Lhasa terrane are interpreted to have been generated by melting of
Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere (Zhu et al., 2009). In contrast, Late
Cretaceous adakite-like intrusions in the Gangdese belt are interpreted
to have been derived by partial melting of juvenile mac lower crust,
underplated during Cretaceous subduction, and thickened by at
subduction from ~ 8070 Ma (Wen et al., 2008a,b). In SE China (close
to Pulang), a late- or post-collisional origin (with respect to collision
between the Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes) has been proposed for
Late Cretaceous adakite-like intrusions and associated MoCu mineralization (X.-S. Wang et al., 2014).
5.3. Paleogene
It is now generally agreed that India began to collide with the
accretionary Asian margin in the early Eocene at ~ 5550 Ma (Guillot
et al., 2003; Khan et al., 2009; Meng et al., 2012; Rehman et al., 2011;
Searle et al., 1999; Treloar et al., 1996; Zhang et al., 2012), although
some authors call for an earlier onset (e.g., ~ 7065 Ma; Cai et al.,
2011), and others for a later event (e.g., ~40 Ma; Bouilhol et al., 2013;
~ 34 Ma; Aitchison et al., 2007; Fig. 2C, D). Some of the disagreement
in these estimates may arise because collision was likely not a single
event, and may have been diachronous along the orogen (White and
Lister, 2012). The Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere slab is thought to
333
334
2006; Shaei, 2010), but differ little from those of the precursor arc
magmas (which themselves reect the homogenized isotopic composition of the lower crustal MASH zone).
Precursor subduction magmatism and lithospheric metasomatism is
important for three reasons: (1) Aqueous metasomatism and addition
of lower crustal cumulates rich in hydrous minerals such as amphibole
generates lithologies that are inherently more fusible than typical
anhydrous (granulitic) lower crustal assemblages; they are therefore
easier to melt during later tectonic processes such as crustal thickening,
or thinning with mac magma invasion. (2) The passage of arc magmas
through the crust can be expected to leave at least some metal behind in
these metasomatic and cumulate zones, which can be remobilized
during later partial melting. (3) Partial melts from such subductionmodied source rocks will be hydrous and oxidized (unless reduced
lithologies are present in the lower crust, as perhaps in Japan; Sato, 2012;
Tomkins et al., 2012), and will therefore have the potential to form magmatichydrothermal ore deposits upon upper crustal emplacement.
It is also notable that partial melting of garnet amphibolitic sources
such as those expected to be developed in the roots of continental arcs
will produce magmas with high Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios (due to the
presence of garnet and suppression of plagioclase crystallization; Kay
et al., 1991; Haschke et al., 2002; Richards and Kerrich, 2007; Richards,
A) Subduction
335
B) Terrane collision
Collision-related
porphyry Cu-Au
Arc porphyry
CuMoAu
Continental
Ocean
SCLM
ab
n
io
at
dr
hy
de
Asthenospheric
partial melting
Continental
Ocean
crust
Sl
Subducting
oceanic
lithosphere
MASH
zone
Subducting
oceanic
lithosphere
Back-arc
alkalic Cu-Au
Collided
terrane
crust
SML
SCLM
Asthenospheric
corner flow
convection
Back-arc
asthenospheric
convection
Upwelling
asthenosphere
Slab breakoff
C) Continental collision
with underthrusting
Continental
crust
SML
Thickened
continental
crust
D) Post-collision relaxation
delamination
Continental
crust
Post-collisional
porphyry CuMoAu
SML
Post-collisional
alkalic Cu-Au
Thickened
continental
crust
SCLM
SCLM
SCLM
Upwelling
Up
asthe
asthenosphere
Upwelling
asthenosphere
Slab breakoff
M
SCLM
ination
delamination
Fig. 4. Schematic models of various subduction and collisional tectonic settings thought to characterize the Tethyan orogen at various times and locations, and suggested mechanisms for generating porphyry-type mineralization. (A) Normal subduction and arc magmatism generating typical calc-alkaline Cu Mo Au porphyry deposits from lower crustal meltingassimilation
storagehomogenization (MASH) zones. (B) Terrane collision (e.g., arc or microcontinent collision) with calc-alkaline Cu Mo Au porphyry deposits formed by remobilization of subduction-modied lithosphere (SML), and potential alkalic-type porphyry or epithermal CuAu deposits in back-arc extensional settings derived from metasomatized asthenosphere.
(C) Continental collision with lithospheric underthrusting; this setting does not appear to be conducive for porphyry-type mineralization due to exclusion of hot asthenosphere from
below much of the orogen; S-type magmatism from crustal melting might host lithophile element deposits. (D) Post-collisional orogenic collapse and/or delamination of subcontinental
lithospheric mantle (SCLM) may bring hot asthenospheric mantle into close contact with subduction-modied lithosphere (SML), generating calc-alkaline to mildly alkaline Cu Mo
Au porphyry deposits; alkalic-type porphyry or epithermal CuAu deposits might also potentially form in such settings, although there are few known examples in the Tethyan belt.
336
8. Conclusions
The Tethyan orogen stretches for over 12,000 km from the Alps to
the Himalayas, and beyond, and hosts numerous small to world-class
porphyry Cu Mo Au and related epithermal Au Cu deposits.
Until relatively recently, it was assumed that most of these deposits
were formed by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere and the generation of hydrous, oxidized arc magmas. While this appears to be true
for the relatively small number of Mesozoic deposits preserved in the
belt, which formed by subduction of Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere,
this does not now appear to be the case for the majority of Cenozoic
deposits. Improved geochronological constraints, both on the ore
deposits themselves and on regional tectonic history, have shown
over the past decade or so that many of these deposits in fact postdate oceanic subduction, and many have formed during or after collisional orogenic events. The mid-Miocene porphyry CuMo deposits in
southern Tibet are the clearest examples of post-collisional systems,
post-dating subduction and slab breakoff by 30 m.y. Despite the complex and disputed history of the IndianAsian collision, this time gap is
too large to allow for a direct subduction involvement in magmatism
and ore formation in any reasonable tectonic reconstructions. These
magmatichydrothermal systems instead appear to have formed by
remobilization of deep lithosphere modied by prior subduction processes (e.g., SCLM metasomatism and addition of cumulates and plutons to
the lower arc crust). Processes that can cause this remobilization by partial melting include crustal thickening, crustal thinning, and SCLM delamination, commonly including heating by upwelling asthenospheric melts.
Elsewhere along the Tethyan orogen the situation is not so clear,
being complicated by the fact that closure of the Tethyan ocean was
not a single event. The earliest closure events that eliminated the old
Paleotethys lithosphere were concluded in the Paleozoic, and few
deposits related to this subduction and collision event are preserved
(Pulang and Yangla in the Indosinian belt are examples). After a pulse
of Cretaceous arc magmatism and associated porphyry deposits
(e.g., in the Balkans, Caucasus, and central Tibet), the Cenozoic was
characterized by back-arc and syn- or post-collisional magmatism,
generated by complex interactions between the former Cimmerian
continental fragments and the Eurasian plate margin. The opening
of numerous small back-arc basins and closure of strands of the
Neotethyan ocean over small geographic distances and short timescales led to a complex geological record in which it is difcult to ascribe
particular igneous sequences to a specic subduction or collisional
events. Nevertheless, carefully constrained tectonic reconstructions
and improved geochronology have led to the conclusion that most of
the porphyry and epithermal deposits formed during this period in
the western and central parts of the orogen were not formed directly
from subduction processes, but reect tectonomagmatic adjustments
to the onset of collision. Some deposits appear to be truly postcollisional, as in Tibet, and may reect lithospheric responses such as
SCLM delamination or extensional orogenic collapse (as in Anatolia).
Acknowledgments
I thank Zengqian Hou for inviting me to write this review paper, and
Ali Imer, Amir Razavi, Rui Wang, Jing-jing Zhu, and Jinxiang Li for collaborations on various projects throughout the Tethyan belt. Yongjun Lu
and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for helpful comments on the
manuscript. Christopher Scotese is thanked for permission to reproduce
his plate reconstruction maps in Fig. 1. This work was supported by a
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