TOPIC 1 - THE CHEMICAL EARTH

CONTEXTUAL OUTLINE
ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE

Domain: knowledge and understanding

The Earth includes a clearly identifiable biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere. All of these are mixtures of thousands of substances and the use of this
pool of resources requires the separation of useful substances. The processes of
separation will be determined by the physical and chemical properties of the
substances.
In order to use the Earths resources effectively and efficiently, it is necessary to
understand the properties of the elements and compounds found in mixtures that
make up earth materials. Applying appropriate models, theories and laws of chemistry
to the range of earth materials allows a useful classification of the materials and a
better understanding of the properties of substances.
This module increases students understanding of the nature, practice, applications
and uses of chemistry.
Refer to the Science Years 710 Syllabus for the following:
5.7.1a)
describe features of and the location of protons, neutrons and electrons in
the atom
5.7.2a)
identify the atom as the smallest unit of an element and distinguish
between atoms and molecules
5.7.2b)
describe some relationships between elements using the Periodic Table
5.7.3a)
identify that a new compound is formed by rearranging atoms rather than
by creating matter
5.7.3b)
classify compounds into groups based on common chemical
characteristics
5.7.3c)construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range
of chemical reactions
5.7.3d)
identify a range of common compounds using their common names and
chemical formulae
5.7.3e)

qualitatively describe reactants and products in chemical reactions

Preliminary Chemistry 2014|The Chemical Earth

SECTION 1
1.1-

CONSTRUCT WORD AND BALANCED FORMUL AE EQUATIONS OF CHEMICAL

REACTIONS AS THEY ARE ENCOUNTERED

This dot point will be dealt with using questions through the course.
1.2-

IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND

MIXTURES IN TERMS OF PARTICLE THEORY

Types of
Matter
Pure
Substanc
es
Elements
Only one type of atom
Cannot be seperated
into parts by physical
or chemical means

Compound
s
2 or more types of
atom chemically
bonded in a fixed ratio
Can be chemically
sperated into the
elements present

Mixtures
Impure substances
which may contain
many atoms and
molecules which are
NOT chemically
bonded to one another
Can be seperated by
physical means

ELEMENTS

Pure substances that contain only one type of matter

particle (atom)
Most have definite melting and boiling point (carbon
diamonds are an exception)
The atoms may be separate:
Or be bonded in pairs:
Or in a 3 dimensional lattice array

All of these only contain one type of atom

COMPOUNDS

Pure substances which contains 2 or more types of atoms which are chemically bonded
together in a fixed ratio
o Can be ionic: forming a continuous lattice such as NaCl
o Can be compounds: forming single molecules such as H2O

MIXTURES

Impure substances which can consist of combinations of other pure substances (elements or
compounds)
Can be homogenous or heterogeneous
o A homogenous mixture are uniform through the mixture e.g. A salt solution
o A heterogeneous mixture is not uniform throughout the mixture - we can recognise
different materials in the composition e.g. Concrete consists of aggregate, cement and
sand

COMPARING THE PROPERTIES

Material

Bauxite (mixture)

Aluminium oxide
(compound)

Aluminium
(element)

Red pebbly solid

Crystalline white solid

Silvery lustrous solid

Melting Point

No definite melting point

Melting point is 2045C

Melting point is
660C

Composition

Composition varies from

mine to mine

Constant composition by
mass (52.9% aluminium)

Can be separated into

aluminium oxide, iron (III)
oxide and dirt

Can be decomposed (by

electrolysis) into
aluminium and oxygen

Cannot be
decomposed into
simpler substances

Density varies with

composition

Density is 4.0 g/ml

Density is 2.7 g/ml

Fairly easily ground into a

fine powder

The small crystals are

hard and brittle

Fairly soft, but

malleable and ductile

Appearance
and state

Decompositio
n
Density
Properties

Pure aluminium

1.3 - IDENTIFY THAT THE BIOSPHERE, LITHOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERE

CONTAIN EXAMPLES OF MIXTURES OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

This dot point stresses the importance of knowing that mixtures occur everywhere.
LITHOSPHERE

The lithosphere is the crust of the Earth. It is composed of rocks which are mixtures of minerals
i.e crystalline compounds.
o There are many types of rock in the lithosphere, each a unique mixture with different
minerals in varying proportions

HYDROSPHERE

The hydrosphere encompasses all the liquid on Earth. This mainly includes the oceans but also
includes rivers and lakes.
o The water can contain either suspended solids (dirt), dissolved compounds (salt) or
dissolved elements such as oxygen and nitrogen

ATMOSPHERE

This is the gaseous part of the Earth i.e. the air.

o Air is a mixture of various gases such as nitrogen, oxygen and argon, but also some
compounds such as water vapour and carbon dioxide

BIOSPHERE

Refers to the parts of the Earth where living things are found; and thus includes some parts of
the other spheres
o Living things are composed of complex mixtures
Water - Hydrogen, Oxygen
Carbohydrates- Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Proteins(amino acids) - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur

Give 3 specific examples of mixtures in the Biosphere:

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1.4-

IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE PROCEDURES THAT CAN BE USED TO SEPARATE

NATURALLY OCCURRING MIXTURES OF: SOLIDS OF DIFFERENT SIZES, SOLIDS AND
LIQUIDS, DISSOLVED SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES.

Remember that mixtures are impure substances and can be separated by physical means. This is
because the particles in a mixture are not chemically bound to one another, and thus the individual
properties of each particle can be used to physically separate them.
MAGNETIC SEPARATION AND SIEVING
These two methods are used to separate two solids with differing properties

Magnetic Separation uses a magnet (powerful electromagnet in industry) to extract magnetic

materials from other solids: such as Iron from crushed iron ore
Sieving is a familiar technique used to separate substances with different particle sizes.

FILTRATION, DECANTING AND CENTRIFUGATION

These processes are used if a solid is suspended in a liquid, NOT
dissolved

When left to stand, this mixture may separate by

sedimentation but In the laboratory it can be achieved
using filtration
o This process employs filter paper which act like a
fine sieve where only water molecules (and small
molecules) can pass through the holes; thus
leaving solids behind
Centrifugation involves using the inertial force provided
spinning to cause suspended particles to sink to the
bottom quickly.

by
very

by

EVAPORATION, CRYSTALLISATION AND DISTILL ATION

These are processes to separate dissolved solids in liquids. (solutions)

Evaporation simply involves boiling away the liquid solvent leaving behind the solid solute.
This happens because the water is more volatile than salt.

Crystallisation involves the separation of solutions which contain more than one dissolved
solid.
o Since different solutes have different solubilities, as you take away the solvent; solutes
will begin crystallising at different times.
Solutes with low solubilities will crystallise out first
Distillation involves collecting the liquid solvent.
o If separating for example, a salt and water mixture. The water will be boiled away then
condensed and collected.

Most commonly distillation is used to separate solutions of miscible liquids with

different boiling points.
What does miscible mean? __________________________________
The substance with the lower bowling point will be turned into a vapour before
condensing (after being cooled). The distillate will then trickle out to be collected

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
This is a technique very similar to normal distillation, except involving substances with very close
boiling points.

The internal surface of a fractionating column provides surface area which allows gases to
cool. This means that liquids of the lowest boiling point will condense towards the top of the
fractionating column. Thus as the temperature keeps increasing, the first fraction to be
separated will be the one with the lowest boiling point. Liquids with higher boiling points will
condense in the column quickly and fall back down. (until a high enough temperature is
reached)
o Used to separate water and alcohol which both have very similar boiling points.
o Also used to separate crude oil which is made of many fractions with progressively
higher boiling points.
Fractional Distillation is also used to separate gases after they have been liquefied

SEPARATING FUNNEL
When two liquids do not mix (immiscible) they can be used separated using a separating funnel. The
denser layer will be run off first, leaving the less dense layer behind.

SUMMARY OF PHYSICAL SEPARATION PROCESSES

Process Physical
Property
used in
separation
Filtration

Evaporation

Description/example

Particle size

Solid separated from a liquid by passing through

a fine screen (filter paper) that collects the
solids of a particle
e.g. air filters in cars, grounded coffee for
certain machines

Boiling point

Used to separate a solution to leave a solid

behind after the boiling process
e.g. salt from sea water

Separate soluble substances with different

solubilities by heating up water and allowing it
to cool down or evaporate
e.g. separation of sugar from sugar cane

Separating two liquids by heating them up and

allowing them to boil at different temperatures
e.g. Salt from water, separation of essential oils

Volatility

Crystallisatio
n
Distillation

Solubility
Temperature

Boiling point

Small differences in
boiling point

Used to separate several different liquids with

similar boiling points. Involves numerous
vaporisation-condensation steps
e.g. separation of crude oil

Chromatogra
phy

Absorbability

Separate substances by allowing them to cling

to inert substances at different rates. Allows
each pigment to be collected separately
e.g. dyes can be separated

Centrifugatio
n

Density

Separates mixtures of chemicals through a

spinning motion. Usually used to separate solids
from liquids
e.g. blood serum

Froth
flotation

Density

Used to refine ores. Metal clings to air bubbles

while the rest sinks to the bottom. Froth
collected and metal is removed
e.g. refining of copper ores

Settling and
decantation

Density

Allowing the particles to settle to the bottom

then pour off the liquid
e.g. wine making

Using a magnet to separate metallic substances

from mixtures

Fractional
Distillation

Magnetic
separation

Particle size

Particle size

Wettability

Wettability
Magnetic
differences

1.5-

ASSESS SEPARATION TECHNIQUES FOR THEIR SUITABILITY IN SEPARATING

EXAMPLES OF EARTH MATERIALS, IDENTIFYING THE DIFFERENCES IN PROPERTIES
WHICH ENABLE THESE SEPARATIONS

This dot point will be assessed after questions are completed and the previous dot point is studied.
1.6-

DESCRIBE SITUATIONS IN WHICH GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS SUPPLIES USEFUL DATA

FOR CHEMISTS AND OTHER SCIENTISTS

GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
This is a technique which allows the composition of a mixture to be found by separating out the
components and weighing them. It is an analytical tool which is very useful in industries such as
mining, pharmaceutical and food.
This is a form of quantitative analysis which may involve many steps. It can be used for:

Finding percentage alcohol in drinks

Nutritional content of foods
Composition of soils
Purity of a product
Purity of an ore
Accuracy of advertising claims

Q. Construct a method for find the percentage content of salt in stream water.
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Q. Find the percentage content of a 5 mL sample of stream water with these properties.

0.05 g of salt
1.25 g of debris

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1.7-

APPLY SYSTEMATIC NAMING OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS AS THEY ARE

INTRODUCED IN THE LABORATORY

Inorganic compounds are compounds which do not contain carbon as their main constituent.

Examples would include: salt, water, metals, gases

There are two main classes of compounds; ionic and covalent, each with their own naming system.
This will be encountered later on in the topic.
1.8-

IDENTIFY IUPAC NAMES FOR CARBON COMPOUNDS AS THEY ARE ENCOUNTERED

Carbon compounds make up a whole field of chemistry (called organic chemistry) and are very
important to life.
1. COUNT THE NUMBER OF CARBON ATOMS AND IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF BONDING
The number of carbon atoms will tell you what the prefix will be for the name.
The type of bonding will tell you the suffix (last part) of the name.

Prefix

Number of
Carbon
Suffix
Type of Bond
AtomsSingle C-C
-ane

1
meth -ene
2
eth -yne

prop

but

pent

hex

hept

Double C=C
Triple CC
Name these organic compounds:

When you have a

compound with a
double bond, you must be sure to
oct 8
its position in the carbon chain. You
do this by giving it the lowest possible number IF there is ambiguity.
numbering of bonds has the highest priority.

label
The

SECTION 2
2.1

- EXPL AIN THE REL ATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE REACTIVITY OF AN ELEMENT

AND THE LIKELIHOOD OF ITS EXISTING AS AN UNCOMBINED ELEMENT

Essentially; the less reactive an element, the greater the likelihood of it existing as an
uncombined element. This is because more reactive elements will quickly form strong
compounds and thus are rarely found uncombined. On the other hand, less reactive elements
will not react, or will react much more slowly.

For example, Gold is an unreactive metal which is why it is found in its uncombined
form.
Sodium is a very reactive metal and must be kept in oil to prevent it from reacting with
the air. It is NOT found in elemental form

2.2 - CL ASSIFY ELEMENTS AS METALS, NON-METALS AND SEMI-METALS ACCORDING

TO THEIR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The elements of the periodic table can be grouped into 3 categories.

METALS
Metals are found towards the left of the periodic table. The following are the general properties
of metals.

High melting and boiling points

High density
High tensile strength
Good electrical and thermal conductors
Shiny solids (apart from Mercury)
Ductile (easily stretched into wires) and Malleable (easily flattened into sheets)
Form positive ions

SEMI-METALS
Semi-metals have intermediate properties of metals and non-metals. The lie in a band in
between the metals and non-metals. They generally have high boiling points are a crystalline
solids like metals but tend to be poor conductors like non-metals.

NON-METALS
Non-metals are found at the right of the periodic table (apart from H). The following are the
general properties of non-metals.

Can be solid, liquid or gas at room temperature (mostly gases)

Wide range of melting and boiling points
Poor electrical and thermal conductors (semi-conductors)
Dull or flat appearance, often powder
Not malleable or ductile, brittle like non metals
Form negative ions

EXAMPLE TABLE

Property Copper (metal)

Silicon (semimetal)

Sulfur (nonmetal)

High

High

Low

Very high

Semi-conductor

Very low

8.96

2.32

2.07

Melting Point
()

1083

1414

115

Boiling Point

2600

3265

445

Lustre
Electrical
Conductivity
Density (g/

3
cm )

2.3- ACCOUNT FOR THE USES OF METALS AND NON-METALS IN TERMS OF THEIR
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Metals and non-metals each have their own specific physical properties which make them useful
for different purposes.
For example: Copper is used for electrical wiring because of its ductility, electrical conductivity
and relatively low reactivity. Furthermore gold is used for jewellery because of its malleability,
ductility, lustre and very low reactivity.
Semi metals are used for their intermediate properties such as their semi conducting ability.
Non-metals can be used for a variety of different purposes. The noble gases are extremely
unreactive and are used in halogen and neon lighting. Air (which is a mixture of non-metal
gases) is used as an insulator.

10

SECTION 3
3.1-

IDENTIFY THAT MATTER IS MADE OF PARTICLES THAT ARE CONTINUOUSLY MOVING

AND INTERACTING

3.2-

DESCRIBE QUALITATIVELY THE ENERGY LEVELS OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS

3.3-

DESCRIBE ATOMS IN TERMS OF MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

The basis of chemistry is understanding the movement of subatomic particles and the manner which
they interact with one another. First we must revise the basic structure of an atom.
MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
The current theory supports an atom consisting of an inner nucleus, surrounded by charged
electrons.
NUCLEUS
The nucleus of an atom consists of neutrons and protons. These are particles of similar size and
mass, except neutrons are uncharged and protons are positively charged.
The number of neutrons and protons in an atom is its mass number.
OUTER SHELL
The outer shell of atoms are the most important in chemistry. Negatively charged electrons orbit
the positively charged nucleus. In an uncharged atom the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons. Electrons weigh so little when compared to a neutron or proton that their mass is essentially
negligible.

As demonstrated in the diagram, these electrons exist in designated shells, which each have a
maximum number of electrons. These shells are also called energy levels, with the first energy levels
being the one with the lowest energy. Thus bigger atoms which have more electrons will have more
energy levels.
Energy Level (n)

Number of Electrons (2

18

11

MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

The atomic number tells us the number of protons and it is the one which determines what the
element is. If the atomic number (number of protons) changes, then the element will be different. The
mass number tells us the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. One particular element may
have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. This is called an isotope.

A
z

Mass number (protons + neutrons)

Symbol
Atomic number (protons)

E.g. Hydrogen has 3 isotopes.

Name Formula

Protons

Neutrons
Abundance

Hydrogen-1
Hydrogen-2
Hydrogen-3

1
1

2
1

3
1

99.98%

00.012%

trace

The mass number on the periodic table is calculated by using the relative abundances of the
isotopes that exist for an element
3.4-

DESCRIBE THE FORMATION OF IONS IN TERMS OF ATOMS GAINING OR LOSING

ELECTRONS

3.5-

APPLY THE PERIODIC TABLE TO PREDICT THE IONS FORMED BY ATOMS OF METALS
AND NON-METALS

When atoms lose or gain electrons they are also losing and gaining charge. All atoms are electrically
neutral, because the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
When atoms lose an electron, they lose a negative charge thus becoming positive. This positive ion is
called a cation.
When atoms gain an electron, they gain a negative charged, thus becoming negative. This negative
ion is called an anion.
FORMATION OF CATIONS AND ANIONS
The periodic table tells us about what type of atoms will form anions and Cations more easily. Those
towards the left easily lose electrons, to form Cations. Those towards the right attract electrons to
form anions.

12

The purpose of accepting or donating electrons is obtain the best possible energy state. As a
general rule for our study, this state is an outer shell configuration of 8 electrons.
Cations
Lets use the example of Aluminium.
Aluminium has a ground state electron configuration of 2.8.3
Being a metal, it can easily lose these outer 3 electrons to get a new electron configuration of 2.8 with
a charge of 3+. This will be the Al3+ ion: Al Al3++ 3eAnions
Lets use the example of Oxygen.
Oxygen has a ground state configuration of 2.6. It only needs two more electrons to complete its outer
shell configuration and give a new configuration of 2.8. This will be the O2- ion
O + 2e- O2PERIODIC TABLE
The periodic table is arranged in such a manner which makes predicting what ions will form very easy.
Remember that periodic table is sorted into horizontal periods and vertical groups.

Periods denote the outermost energy level of an atom. I.e. The first period of elements all have
one energy level.
Groups all have the same number of valence electrons. I.e. The first group of elements (on
the left) all have 1 valence electron.
o The transition metals are hard to predict. Some have variable valencies, but most form 2 +
ions.
o Group IV, starting with carbon can either donate 4 electrons or accept 4 electrons
o Group VII all have 7 outer electrons and thus form the stable -1 ion.

3.6-

APPLY LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURES TO: THE FORMATION OF IONS AND THE
ELECTRON SHARING IN SOME SIMPLE MOLECULES

Lewis dot structures are a useful model to show simple molecules. They have the chemical symbol of
an atom surrounded by its valence electrons represented as dots.

If representing an ion, brackets are used. Remember to always use dots, unless otherwise instructed.

13

Students must be familiar with writing equations for ion formation. This will be important in the next
dotpoint.
3.7-

- DESCRIBE THE FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS IN TERMS OF THE

ATTRACTION OF IONS OF OPPOSITE CHARGE

THE FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

As discussed before, when atoms lose or gain electrons they form charged ions. It makes sense that
oppositely charged ions would interact with one another.
This gives rise one very important type of intramolecular bonding (bonding inside a molecule) called
ionic bonding. Ionic bonding is responsible for holding together all salts such as Sodium Chloride, and
typically results between a metal and a non-metal.

The sodium atom donates an electron to the chlorine atom to form a sodium cation and chloride anion.
These ions are attracted to each other by electrostatic attraction, and many of these atoms form an
ionic lattice.
In the solid state, ions take up fixed positions in an orderly manner. Below are two 2D
representations of the 3D NaCl lattice.

14

One important thing to note about ionic compounds, is that they do not exist as molecules, but
instead as extensive lattices.
Write out some examples of Ionic Compounds and their formation

3.8-

DESCRIBE MOLECULES AS PARTICLES WHICH CAN MOVE INDEPENDENTLY OF EACH

OTHER

3.9-

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MOLECULES CONTAINING ONE ATOM (THE NOBLE GASES)

AND MOLECULES WITH MORE THAN ONE ATOM

MOLECULE
A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can have a separate existence, and can
move around independently of other particles.

It is important to note that noble gases can exist as molecules with only one atom
o Molecules such as Oxygen, Nitrogen and Fluorine however are all diatomic
Lattice structures such as ionic compounds are not molecules

3.10 - DESCRIBE THE FORMATION OF COVALENT MOLECULES IN TERMS OF SHARING OF

ELECTRONS
We now encounter the other type of intramolecular bonding: covalent bonds. Remember that when
atoms bond, they are trying to achieve a full outer shell. As opposed to ionic bonding, this can also be
done through the sharing of electrons, and happens between non-metal atoms.
Example: Chlorine

15

When each atom donates one electron to the bond, it is called a single bond. Accordingly, if each
atom donates two or three electrons it is called a double or triple bond respectively.
Covalent bonding is responsible for all the gases we breathe and much of the environment around us.

3.11- CONSTRUCT FORMUL AE FOR COMPOUNDS FORMED FROM: IONS, AND ATOMS
SHARING ELECTRONS
IONIC COMPOUNDS
Remember that ionic compounds are lattices of positive and negative ions. There are particular ways of
naming and writing ionic compounds.
Naming of Simple Ionic Compounds
1

The metallic element is named first

The name of the non-metal is shortened

The suffix 'ide' is added to this shortened name

i.e. MgCl2 : Magnesium Chloride

Note that the existence of two chlorine atoms does not need to be acknowledged. Since we know the
charge of the ions, the exact chemical formula of Magnesium Chloride can be determined from its
name.
Naming of Ionic compounds involving radicals
You may see ionic compounds such as NaSO4: Sodium Sulfate.
The Sulfate anion acts like any other anion, with its own designated negative charge. It is an example of
a radical. Here are some common radicals:

Name

16

Polyatomic Ion

Charge

Ammonium

NH4

Hydroxide

OH-

-1

Nitrate

NO3

-1

Sulfate

SO42-

-2

+1

Carbonate

CO32-

-2

Metal and non-metal compounds; three or more elements (Ionic compound)

1. The metallic element is named first
2. The chemical radical is named second

COVALENT COMPOUNDS
1
2
3
4
5
6

If hydrogen is present, it is named first

If no hydrogen, the solid non-metal is named first
If only two elements are present, the prefixes 'mon', 'di', 'tri', 'tetra' and so on are used to indicate
how many atoms of the second element are in the molecule
It is also used for the first element but only if there is more than 1 atom in the element
If only two elements are present, the name of the second is shortened and the suffix 'ide' is used as
before
If more than two elements are present, the first is named followed by the name of the radical

i.e. N2O4: Dinitrogen Tetroxide

17

SECTION 4
1

- IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE IN

TERMS OF REARRANGEMENT OF PARTICLES

Physical and chemical changes are both prominent things which we observe in our day to day lives, but
we must be able to distinguish between them.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND PHYSICAL CHANGES
A physical property is one that involves the substance itself rather than reactions. For example,
hardness, melting point, boiling point, electrical conductivity, colour, appearance, malleability and
ductility are all physical properties.
Physical changes can be things like changing in state, or changing a physical property, or separation
using physical techniques. Notice that in all of these physical changes, no strong covalent bond are
broken. The next dot point will explore this in greater detail.

Energy change required is relatively small

Often reversible

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Chemical properties describe how a substance will react with other substances. For example, the
electron configuration, how inert or reactive a substance is and degree of characteristic reactions (such
as acid/base) are all chemical properties.
Chemical changes are those in which new substances with different compositions and properties are
formed. A chemical change includes chemical reactions such as decomposition, combustion and
synthesis.

Usually new substance being formed

o Colour change, gas evolved etc.
Usually irreversible
Require a relatively large amount of energy

- SUMMARISE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE BOILING AND ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER AS

AN EXAMPLE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

Boiling water is simply a change of state, from a liquid to a gas. It is thus a physical change. No new
molecules are formed, because the water molecules are still intact. It is the intermolecular forces
between water molecules that are broken, and not the bonds inside them.
Electrolysis involves using electricity to break apart water molecules, forming Oxygen and Hydrogen
in the process. This is a chemical change, as suggested by the formation of new molecules.

- IDENTIFY LIGHT, HEAT AND ELECTRICITY AS THE COMMON FORMS OF ENERGY THAT MAY
BE RELEASED OR ABSORBED DURING THE DECOMPOSITION OR SYNTHESIS OF SUBSTANCES
AND IDENTIFY EXAMPLES OF THESE CHANGES OCCURRING IN EVERYDAY LIFE
- EXPL AIN THAT THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY NEEDED TO SEPARATE ATOMS IN A COMPOUND IS
AN INDICATION OF THE STRENGTH OF THE ATTRACTION, OR BOND, BETWEEN THEM

18

ALL REACTIONS REQUIRE ENERGY TO BEGIN REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THEY

RELEASE HEAT OR REQUIRE HEAT.
SYNTHESIS
Synthesis is a type of chemical reaction in which a new substance is made. Elements cannot be
synthesised as they are the simplest building blocks. New compounds and molecules such as water
and ammonia can synthesized. These reactions may initially require some energy in the form of heat,
but may release energy in the overall reaction.

DECOMPOSITION
Decomposition is a chemical reaction where a substance is broken down. An example of this would
be the breakdown of water by electrolysis. Another example would be the decomposition of Copper
Carbonate by heat. Silver Nitrate is a special compound which also decomposes when exposed to light
(to form a black compound, used in early photographic development). Different forms of energy for
certain chemical reactions. Heat, light and electricity are the main examples.

However there is also something else very important about decomposition. The more energy required
to decompose a substance, the stronger the bonds in a substance must be. Thus the amount of
energy put into decomposition is an indication of how strong the bond is. Remember that all elements
must be obtained from the environment by decomposition of certain compounds.

19

SECTION 5
5.1-

IDENTIFY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

Physical and chemical properties are outlined above.

ELEMENTS
In its pure elemental form an element will have distinct chemical and physical properties. E.g. Oxygen
COMPOUNDS
Compounds contain two or more elements with two or more atoms chemically bonded to one another.
The properties of a compound often have nothing to do with the properties of its constituent
elements. Compounds will also have their own distinct chemical and physical properties. E.g. Water
MIXTURES
A mixture does not have its own distinct chemical and physical properties. Instead, its chemical and
physical properties are those of the constituent elements and compounds.
5.2-

DESCRIBE THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES USED TO CLASSIFY COMPOUNDS AS

IONIC OR COVALENT MOLECUL AR OR COVALENT NETWORK

5.3-

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN METALLIC, IONIC AND COVALENT BONDS

5.4-

DESCRIBE METALS AS THREE DIMENSIONAL L ATTICES OF IONS IN A SEA OF

ELECTRONS

5.5-

DESCRIBE IONIC COMPOUNDS IN TERMS OF REPEATING THREEDIMENSIONAL L ATTICES OF IONS

IONIC COMPOUNDS
Made of a repeating structured lattice of positive and negative ions. Example: Salt

COVALENT
MOLECULAR
These are compounds which
consist of two or more
different atoms covalently bonded
together to form a molecule which can
exist independently. Example: Water
A key thing to identify about covalent molecular compounds is that the only intramolecular bonds
they have are covalent molecular, and that they have no covalent bonds between molecules. So
how is water held together? Instead of covalent bonds, there are other weaker intermolecular forces
which cause molecules to be attracted to one another.

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COVALENT NETWORK
There is also another type of compound called covalent network. These are similar to covalent
molecular compounds and also ionic compounds in some ways. Instead of weak intermolecular
between molecules, a covalent network consists of continuous, structured arrange of atoms
covalently bonded to one another. Unlike an ionic compound there are no charged ions. Example:
Diamond, Quartz

METALS
Metallic compounds are unique to what we have examined so far. The model states that there is a three
dimensional lattice of positively charged metal ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised valence
electrons. These electrons can move around freely, and this model explains many of the physical
properties of metals.
We must explain why they are:

Malleable and Ductile

Lustrous
Good conductors of heat and electricity

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The unique properties of each type of compound result in a set of physical properties which can easily
be identified and explained.

Ionic

Covalent
molecular

Covalent
Network

Metallic

Good conductors but

only in the liquid
state or if dissolved.

Poor

Poor (exception;
graphite)

Good conductors

Melting
Point

High

Low

Very High

High

Physical
State

Solid

Usually gas

Solid

Solid (mercury
exception)

Hard but brittle

If solid, usually
soft and pliable

Very Hard

Hard, but also

malleable and
ductile.

Conducti
vity

Hardness

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5.6-

EXPL AIN WHY THE FORMUL A FOR AN IONIC COMPOUND IS AN EMPIRICAL

FORMUL A

An empirical formula specifies the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element in
the compound. Remember that you cannot have a molecule of an ionic compound, because it is a
continuous lattice. Thus formula of an ionic compound merely tells you the ratio of the elements that
make up its lattice.

5.7-

IDENTIFY COMMON ELEMENTS THAT EXIST AS MOLECULES OR AS COVALENT

LATTICES

The formation of a covalent bond involves sharing electrons, which cannot happen between every
element. The purpose is to attain a stable octet configuration. This happens between non-metal
atoms, such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Covalent lattices also need covalent bonds, and only form with elements such as carbon, silicon,
sulphur and phosphorus.
5.8-

EXPL AIN THE REL ATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTIVITY

AND HARDNESS AND THE STRUCTURE OF IONIC, COVALENT MOLECUL AR
AND COVALENT NETWORK STRUCTURES

This is addressed in the table at

5.64.A- PL AN AND SAFELY PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION TO SHOW THE
DECOMPOSITION OF A CARBONATE BY HEAT, USING APPROPRIATE TESTS TO IDENTIFY
CARBON DIOXIDE AND THE OXIDE AS THE PRODUCTS OF THE REACTION
This is an important experiment with a few key tests. Remember it is a decomposition reaction in
which a compound is broken down. In this experiment there was:

Large amounts of energy involved (Bunsen burner)

A colour change in the solid in the test tube (to form a black powder)
The production of a gas and bubbles of gas coming out of the delivery tube
Limewater test; the limewater became cloudy when the gas bubbled through it

These are all indications of chemical change.

LIMEWATER TEST
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
The calcium hydroxide solution will form a fine precipitate which creates a cloudy solution in the
presence of carbon dioxide.
This is an important test for identifying the presence of the colourless gas carbon dioxide.

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4.C- OBSERVE THE EFFECT OF LIGHT ON SILVER SALTS AND IDENTIFY AN

APPLICATION OF THE USE OF THIS REACTION
Many silver compounds will decompose if exposed to sunlight. For example: Two pieces of filter
paper soaked in silver nitrate solution and placed in differing light conditions will show dark spots on
the one which has been exposed.

This dark colour is due to extremely small crystal of silver.

4.E- ANALYSE AND PRESENT INFORMATION TO MODEL THE BOILING OF WATER
AND THE ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER TRACING THE MOVEMENTS OF AND
CHANGES IN ARRANGEMENTS OF MOLECULES
POP TEST
This test is used to identify hydrogen.

5.A- PERFORM A FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION TO COMPARE THE PROPERTIES OF

SOME COMMON ELEMENTS IN THEIR ELEMENTAL STATE WITH THE PROPERTIES
OF THE COMPOUND(S) OF THESE ELEMENTS (EG MAGNESIUM AND OXYGEN)

Propert
ies

Magnesium

Oxygen

Magnesium
Oxide

Metallic solid, shiny, flexible,

conductor

Colourless, odourless,
non-conducting gas

Brittle, white, nonconducting powder

5.B - CHOOSE RESOURCES AND PROCESS INFORMATION FROM SECONDARY

SOURCES TO CONSTRUCT AND DISCUSS THE LIMITATIONS OF MODELS OF IONIC
LATTICES, COVALENT MOLECULES AND COVALENT AND METALLIC L ATTICES
Models help us visualise structures and mechanisms we will never be able to see, however they still
have limitations:

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Ionic and covalent bonds are not stick-like structures

Real atoms and ions are not solid balls
Subatomic particles are constantly moving and breaking/reforming bonds
Models are not to scale
Models are often coloured

Questions

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