CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The health of infrastructures is a growing concern for state and local

government.

Today, bridges are becoming structurally deficient due to various

problems and situations. Exposure to various environmental conditions, such as

floods, earthquakes, and wind loads can lead to rust damages, cracking, and even
buckling.

Also, damages can occur depending on how the bridge is used and

maintained. The use of road salts may lead to future deck problems and excessive
truck loadings can usually result in fatigue failure. These damages along with other
forms of deterioration prevent the bridge from functioning healthy and safe. In many
instances, the cost of repairing or replacing the structure is too high. This is why
structural health monitoring is important to the long-term safety of bridges.

If

problems can be detected before they become critical, money and time can be saved,
as well as years on the life of the bridge.
Truss bridges are at risk more than most other types of bridges when it comes
to these damages, mainly because their structurally complex design and age. A large
percentage of the truss bridges in New York State were built in the early and midtwentieth century, and are becoming structurally deficient to greater extents. It would
be easy to replace most of the truss bridges, however cost and historical preservation
become issues. Usually the cost to rebuild is too high, and in some cases the bridges
are just restored because of their historical value. Now, in order to determine if the
truss bridges can be preserved, a health monitoring system must be used.
If the repair process is going to be the most efficient, then the bridge needs to
be studied to determine its condition and locate its critical members. Inspection of the
bridge may be necessary and helpful in assessing large scale damages. However,
most of the failures on truss bridges are due to cracks and deterioration that are not
visible.

With the aim of providing a complete and accurate assessment of the

condition of the bridge, a different system must be used. A network of wireless

sensors may be set up on the bridge in order to monitor the bridge. The system uses a
1

combination of sensors, such as strain gauges and accelerometers. These sensors then
measure the response of the bridge to various load cases. The placement and quantity
of the sensors is important to testing, because different areas of the bridge take on
different levels of load during the testing. Loads are generated as vehicles pass over
or thru the bridge or simply as a result of environmental changes, such as temperature
variations. The strain gauges gather measurements that are useful in showing how the
bridge behaves under certain levels of loading and how the loads are shed by the
bridge.

The vibration measurements from the accelerometers measure the

accelerations at different sections of the bridge which can provide the natural
frequencies and mode shapes for the structure. Once the measurements are taken,
they can then be evaluated using various post-processing and visualization tools in
order to map areas of structural damage or vulnerability in the bridge.
A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle without closing the
way beneath. The required passage may be for a road, a railway, pedestrians, a canal
or a pipeline. The obstacle to be crossed may be a river, a road, railway or a valley.
In other words, bridge is a structure for carrying the road traffic or other
moving loads over a depression or obstruction such as channel, road or railway. A
bridge is an arrangement made to cross an obstacle in the form of a low ground or a
stream or a river without closing the way beneath.
A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a
truss, a structure of connected elements forming triangular units. The connected
elements (typically straight) may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes
both in response to dynamic loads.
A truss is a structure composed of members connected together to form a rigid
framework. Members are the load-carrying components of a structure. In most trusses,
members are arranged in interconnected triangles, as shown below. Because of this
configuration, truss members carry load primarily in tension and compression.
Because trusses are very strong for their weight, they are often used to span long
distances. They have been used extensively in bridges since the early 19 th century;
however, truss bridges have become somewhat less common in recent years. Today

trusses are often used in the roofs of buildings and stadiums, in towers, construction
cranes, and many similar structures and machines.

Fig. 1.1 Typical Truss Bridge

Trusses, like all structures, are designed by civil engineers with special
expertise in structural analysis and design. These men and women are called structural
engineers.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Merritt and Brocken brought (2000) defines truss as a structure that acts like a
beam but with many components or members, subjected primarily to axial stresses,
and arranged in triangular patterns. The ideal design of trusses is the one where the
end of each member at joint is free to rotate independent of the other members at the
same joint. Otherwise, the member will be subjected to secondary stresses. On the
other hand, if a truss subjected to loads other than joint or panel loads, then bending
stresses would produce in that particular member.
Early U.S engineers McMillan Britton & Kell Pty constructed pin connected
trusses, in order to eliminate secondary stresses due to rigid joints. Europeans
primarily used rigid joints. The rigid trusses gave satisfactory service and eliminated
the possibility of frozen pins, which induce stresses not usually considered in design.
Experience indicates that rigid and pin-connected trusses are nearly equal in cost,
except for long span. Therefore modern design prefers rigid joints.

CHAPTER 3
HISTORY OF TRUSS BRIDGE

When people reflect on "historic bridges," they most often envision covered
wooden truss bridges. With its picturesque design, the wooden truss bridge has a near
universal appeal. For many years, travelogues and historians alike have documented
them and promoted their preservation, more than any other bridge type.
For centuries, builders used timber as a construction material for trusses,
possibly even for truss bridges. However, it was not until 1570 that Andrea Palladio
published Four Books on Architecture, the first written documentation concerning
wooden truss bridges (Hayden 1976:51). Palladio, the first to promote the use of
wooden trusses for bridge design, described several wooden trusses including the
basic Kingpost and Queen post designs. However, builders in Europe erected few
wooden truss bridges until the eighteenth century, and then most commonly in heavily
wooded countries such as Switzerland.
Beginning in the late 1700s, builders extensively erected wooden truss bridges
in the United States, and by the mid-1800s, this country led the world in wooden truss
bridge design (Steinman and Watson 1957:114). A combination of factors contributed
to the quick rise of the United States in wooden truss design. In the mid-1700s the
United States contained a very limited transportation system, and the Revolutionary
War virtually destroyed this already inadequate system. By the late 1700s, the recently
formed United States needed a much expanded and improved system. Further, while
the iron industry did not have widespread influence, timber and men to mill the timber
seemed limitless. Wooden truss bridges, which used short timbers built up in sections,
seemed an ideal solution.
In the early nineteenth century, a variety of builders devised various bridge
designs that they promoted. In a highly competitive and fluid field, every builder tried
5

to devise the truss that would be economical, simple to construct, and viable for
longer lengths. Out of a large number of builders, Timothy Palmer (1751-1821), Louis
Wernwag (1770-1843), and Theodore Burr (1771-1822) led the development of
wooden truss bridge construction in the United States (Steinman and Watson
1957:117-120). During this period, builders knew little about the specific mechanics
of how truss bridges worked and their exact limitations. Thus, for greater strength and
additional length, builders commonly utilized a combination arch and truss design,
often called "camelback" or "hump" bridges due to the appearance of an arch (Ortega
1991:2-5). Both Palmer and Wernwag used as their main component an arch
supplemented by a truss. In 1806 Burr introduced the first patented bridge system
widely used in the United States, a truss supplemented by an arch (DeLony 1994:10).
While Burr was the most famous of the three, Palmer also had a lasting and
significant impact on wooden truss bridge design.
Contrary to common perceptions, builders did not originally cover wooden
truss bridges. Palmer was one of the first builders in the United States to promote
covering the wooden truss (the load bearing portion of the bridge) with a barn-like
structure. In some cases, the covering provided lateral bracing, making the entire
structure more resistant to wind shear. Yet, the covering primarily existed for the
trusss protection from the weatherization process. Noted engineer Henry Tyrrell
stated in 1909 that the normal life span of a covered wooden truss bridge was thirty to
forty years while an uncovered bridge might last one-third as long (Tyrrell 1911:121).
However, chemical preservatives such as creosote applied to the timber members
could also provide protection from the weatherization process. By the beginning of
the twentieth century, builders increasingly used creosote rather than covering
wooden truss bridges.
In 1840 William Howe patented the Howe truss, another truss that enjoyed
widespread popularity. Howe based his design on the limited stress analysis
information available at that time, the first designer to do so since previous trusses
were unadaptable to analysis (Edwards 1976:156-157). The Howe truss used metal
vertical tension rods and timber diagonal compression members. This joint use of
metal and wood materials for bridge components, called a "combination truss," was a
significant transitional feature in the eventual development of an all-metal truss. The
6

popularity of the Howe truss resulted, in part, from its comparatively simple erection.
The Howe truss design eliminated the need for skilled carpenters to notch and peg
wooden jointed bridges by using threaded iron rods for verticals and simple junction
boxes as connections (Kemp and Anderson 1987:19). As bridge historian Eric
DeLony wrote, "The Howe truss may be the closest that wooden-bridge design ever
came to perfection. For simplicity of construction, rapidity of erection, and ease of
replacing parts, it stands without rival" (DeLony 1994:11).
In 1844 Caleb Pratt, an architect, and his engineer son Thomas designed the
Pratt truss, another truss from this period that had widespread significance. While the
configuration appears to be the same as a Howe truss, the Pratt trusss verticals
functioned as compression members and diagonals functioned as tension members.
The Pratt truss required more iron than a Howe truss, and due to the increased cost
and less rigid construction, builders did not extensively use it for wooden trusses.
However, as the cost of iron declined, its popularity increased, and it greatly impacted
metal truss bridge design. By the early twentieth century the Pratt truss and its
derivations had become the most popular metal truss in the United States.
Wooden truss bridges provided a means to span large crossings efficiently.
These new bridges not only facilitated transportation but also increased awareness and
interest in bridge building. As a result, builders developed a variety of truss types and
built numerous wooden truss bridges throughout the nineteenth century, the heyday of
wooden truss design. At the same time, the construction of wooden truss bridges
heightened awareness of the potential of truss designs and resulted in new variations
in iron and later steel bridges. Even though builders erected a small number of
wooden truss bridges into the twentieth century, beginning in the mid-nineteenth
century, evolving designs in metal eventually eclipsed the use of wooden truss bridges
and rendered them virtually obsolete by the end of the nineteenth century.

CHAPTER 4
TERMINOLOGY OF TRUSS BRIDGES

4.1. COMPONENT PARTS OF TRUSS BRIDGE

The major components of a typical truss bridge are illustrated in the two
diagrams below. The elevation view shows the bridge from the side. The isometric
view is a three-dimensional representation of the structure. Note that certain members
are only visible in the isometric view.

Fig.4.1. Component parts of a typical truss bridge Elevation View

Fig 4.2. Component parts of a typical truss bridge - Isometric

View

The three-dimensional bridge structure has two main load-carrying trusses.

Each truss is composed of a top chord, a bottom chord, and several verticals and
diagonals. The two trusses are connected together by a series of transverse members
struts, lateral bracing, and floor beams. In early truss bridges, all of these members
would have been made of wood or iron. Today they are usually made of steel. Modern
steel truss members are manufactured in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. A few
common examples are shown on the following page. The model truss we will be
building uses both solid bars and hollow tubes. When we load-test our model, well
see why one truss often uses two different types of members.

Solid Rod
Solid Bar
Hollow Tube
-Shape
Fig. 4.3. Types of steel truss members
One major component of a truss bridge that is usually not made of steel is the
deck the flat surface between the two main trusses. (In the isometric drawing, only
part of the deck is shown, so the structural members below it can be seen.) Bridge
decks are usually made of concrete, but might also be built from wooden planks or
steel grating. When vehicles or pedestrians cross a bridge, their weight is directly
supported by the deck. The deck, in turn, is supported on the floor beams. The floor
beams transmit the weight of the vehicles and pedestrians (and the weight of the deck)
to the main trusses.
The truss drawings above do not show the connections that are used to join the
structural members together. Even though the connections are not shown, they are
important! They have a big influence on the ability of a structure to carry load.
Indeed, inadequately designed connections have been the cause of several
catastrophic structural failures in the U.S.
4.2. STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS
There are two common types of structural connections used in trusses.
a) Pinned connections
b) Gusset plate connections

10

Examples of each are shown in the photographs below. As the name suggests,
the pinned connection uses a single large metal pin to connect two or more members
together, much like the pin in a door hinge. In a gusset plate connection, members are
joined together by one or two heavy metal gusset plates, which are attached to the
individual members with rivets, bolts, or welds. Pinned connections were used
extensively throughout the 19th century. Most modern bridges including the model
bridge we will be building here use gusset plate connections.

Fig. 4.4. Typical pinned connection

Fig.

4.5.

Typical

gusset

plate

connection
Each of the bridge components described above has a specific purpose. All of
the components work together to ensure that the bridge carries load safely and
efficiently. In this learning activity, we will fabricate and assemble these various types
of structural members and components, and we will observe how each one works.

4.3. TYPES OF TRUSS BRIDGES

Truss bridges are grouped into three general categories, based on their deck
location. If the deck is located at the level of the bottom chord, the bridge is called a
through truss. A pony truss looks just like a through truss, except it is not as high and
has no lateral bracing between the top chords. If the deck is located at the level of the
top chord, the bridge is called a deck truss.

11

Fig. 4.6. Types of truss bridges

Trusses are also classified according to the geometric arrangement of their
chords, verticals, and diagonals. The diagrams on the following page show 15 of the
most common truss configurations, many of which were named for the 19th century
engineers who developed them. On each diagram, the solid lines represent the main
structural members in the truss. The dotted lines shown on some trusses represent
supplemental members that may or may not be present on a particular bridge of this
type. Designers sometimes use these lightweight diagonal members to more
efficiently carry the weight of moving vehicles. The classification of a bridge is not
affected by the presence or absence of these supplemental members.

Fig. 4.7. Common truss configurations

12

Note that all of these diagrams depict through trusses. Many of these
configurations are also used in deck trusses and pony trusses as well.

4.4. FOUNDATIONS OF TRUSS BRIDGE

Every structure must be supported on a firm foundation, which distributes the
weight of the structure to the soil or rock below it. Bridges use two different types of
foundations. The ends of a bridge usually rest on abutments, which serve two
functions simultaneously they support the bridge and also hold back the soil that is
filled in behind them. If the bridge requires additional support in the middle of the
gap, one or more piers are used, as shown below. Abutments and piers are normally
made of concrete. All structural foundations are designed by civil engineers with
special expertise in soils and foundations. These men and women are called
geotechnical engineers.

Fig 4.8. Type of Foundation

4.5. LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF TRUSS

One of the most important learning objectives of this project is to understand

how a truss bridge carries load. But what exactly is a load, and what does it mean
for a structure to carry a load? To answer these questions, we will need to introduce
(or perhaps review) some basic concepts from physics.

13

4.5.1. Forces
Much of structural engineering deals, in some way, with the concept of force.
A force is simply a push or a pull applied to an object. A force always has both
magnitude and direction. When a truck crosses a bridge, it exerts a force on the
bridge. The magnitude of the force is the weight of the truck, and the direction of the
force is downward. Mathematically, we represent a force as a vector. By definition, a
vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. To show a force on a
picture or diagram, we normally represent it as an arrow (which shows the direction)
and a magnitude (in units of force, such as pounds or newtons), like this:

In structural engineering, it is useful to distinguish between three different

kinds of forces loads, reactions, and internal member forces.
4.5.2. Loads
Actual bridges are subjected to many different kinds of loads, including the
following:
Weight of the vehicles and pedestrians crossing the bridge
Weight of the bridge itself
Weight of the asphalt or concrete road surface
Wind pushing sideways on the structure
Weight of snow, ice, or rainwater
Forces caused by earthquakes
In designing a bridge, the structural engineer must consider the effects of all
these loads, including cases where two or more different kinds of loads might occur at
the same time.

14

4.5.3. Reactions
Newtons First Law one of the basic principles of physicsstates that an
object at rest will remain at rest, provided it is not subjected to an unbalanced force. In
other words, if an object is not moving, then the total force acting on it must be zero.
When you apply a downward force to your nutcracker truss, it does not move; thus,
according to Newtons First Law, the total force on the truss must be zero. But how
can that be? Suppose you push down on the nutcracker with a force of 10 newton. The
nutcracker does not move, because the table pushes back upward with a force of 10
newton. In this particular example, because the structure touches the table at two
points, the table actually pushes upward with two forces, each with a magnitude of 5
newtons, as shown below. The structure is said to be in equilibrium, because the total
upward force equals the total downward force. A structure that is not moving must be
in equilibrium.
Mathematically, the vector sum of all forces acting on the structure is zero. If
we assume that the upward direction is positive, then
+ 5 + 5 10 = 0
In our example, the two upward forces are called reactions. Reactions are
forces developed at the supports of a structure, to keep the structure in equilibrium.
Supports are the points where the structure is physically in contact with its
surroundings. On our nutcracker truss, the supports are located at the ends of the
handles, where the nutcracker touches the table. On an actual bridge, the supports are
located at the abutments or piers. Geotechnical engineers are particularly interested in
the reactions of a structure, because the foundations must be designed to carry these
forces safely and efficiently.

15

Fig 4.9. The two 5-newton reactions keep the nutcracker truss in equilibrium with
10-newton load
4.5.4. Internal Member Forces
When you apply external loads to a structure, external reactions occur at the
supports. But internal forces are also developed within each structural member. In a
truss, these internal member forces will always be either tension or compression. A
member in tension is being stretched, like the rubber band in the picture below.
Tension force tends to make a member longer.

Fig 4.10 Tension is an internal force that tends to make a member longer

16

A member in compression is being squashed, like the block of foam in the

picture below. Compression force makes a member shorter.

Fig 4.11. Compression is an internal force that tends to make a member shorter
Tension and compression are among the most important concepts in structural
engineering. A renowned engineer and author named Mario Salvadori once wrote, in
our nutcracker truss example, the two handles are in compression, while the string is
in tension, as shown here. If you push down hard enough on the nutcracker, you can
actually see the string stretching in tension. Unfortunately, you cant see the
nutcracker handles shortening in compression steel is so stiff that the shortening of the
handles is too small to be seen with the naked eye. But the handles actually do get
shorter! Like loads and reactions, internal member forces must obey the laws of
physics. Internal forces must be in equilibrium with each other and with the loads and
reactions. By applying the concept of equilibrium and some relatively simple math,
we can actually calculate the internal force in every member of a truss.

17

Fig. 4.12. Tension and compression in the nutcracker truss.

4.5.5. Strength:Lets return once again to our nutcracker truss example. As we have already
seen, if you press down on the hinge at the top of the structure, a tension force is
developed in the string. If you press down harder (that is, if you increase the load), the
tension force in the string increases. If you are very strong, or if the string is very
weak, you should be able to apply a downward force that is large enough to break the
string.
What causes the string to break? The string breaks when its internal member
force becomes larger than its strength. This observation leads us to two closely related
definitions:
(1) The strength of a structural component is the largest internal force the
component can experience before it fails.
(2) Failure occurs when the internal force in a structural component becomes
larger than its strength.

18

If you have ever bought fishing line, you might have noticed the words 100
pound test or something similar on the label. 100 pound test means that the line is
guaranteed not to fail, as long as the internal force in the line is less than 100 pounds.
To put this in structural engineering terms, the strength of the line is
100 pounds.

4.6. ADVANTAGES OF TRUSS BRIDGES

a) Economical To Build:The materials to build a truss bridge are minimum, and every single bit is used
very efficiently. It also utilizes cheaper and lighter materials. The strength comes
when these materials are formed to the triangles.
b) Very Strong:The unique triangular design provides support for the entire bridge. This gives
it great strength making it ideal for very high traffic and heavy load areas.
c) Road Placement:Truss bridges are one of the only types of bridges where the actual road way
can be placed directly on top. This helps to make it easily integrated into the
construction process.
d) Built in Difficult Places:These types of bridges can be built across small or long spans while
maintaining their strength. Virtually anywhere that a bridge is needed, a truss bridge
can do the job.

4.7. DISADVANTAGES OF TRUSS BRIDGES

19

a) Complicated Design:The design of truss bridges can become very complicated depending on the
situation. The triangles have to be the perfect size and there has to be the perfect
amount in order for the truss bridge to be safe.
b) Maintenance:Due to the amount of materials and different parts, the upkeep on truss bridges
can be difficult. It is hard to pinpoint exactly what is wrong if the bridge has issues.
c) Waste of Materials:If even just one small part of construction goes wrong, a very large amount of
materials are wasted.
d) Very Heavy:Truss bridges are massive and weight quite a bit. In for the surrounding land to
be able to support these bridges additional support is often needed. This may include
making adjustments to existing structures around the bridge.

CHAPTER 5
20

CONCLUSION

Bridge components are having substantial fatigue life even after considering
the Joint Flexibility. Joint flexibility tends to alter the vibration characteristics of each
component to loading environment in presence of realistic damping of 2%, thus the
damage potential of each member which depends upon the stress range and cycle
counts is also got affected, however the change was only 40%(max). In most of
members fatigue life got increased, however life of some component got decreased,
the maximum decrease observed is about 40% in one of Bottom Chords and Verticals.
The variation in passage to failure exhibited by each component with the different
speeds makes it difficult to find a particular trend, however the trend is similar at
different flexibilities with change only in magnitudes. It can be concluded that the
reduction of joint rotational stiffness up to 50% has less effect on structural stability
of Truss Bridge.
In conclusion, my hypothesis was correct, the Truss Bridge can hold up more
weight than the regular bridge. The Truss Bridge could hold almost twice as much
weight (90kg) than the regular bridge (55kg). The much more solid construction of
the Truss Bridge supported the beams which had to carry the load of the weights. The
force was therefore distributed to the additional vertical, horizontal and radial beams
in the bridge and this resulted in a bridge with a much higher load bearing then the
simple beam bridge. The weights which we had available to test the weight bearing of
the Pratt Truss bridge had not been sufficient to destroy the bridge. Therefore this
explains, why most bridges which have to carry a lot of weight, are constructions with
some supporting structures like the Truss Bridge.

21

REFERENCES
[1] Based on Truss Identification Nomenclature, Historic American Engineering
Record HAER T1-1, National Park Service, 1976.
[2] Quality in the Constructed Product: A Guide for Owners, Designers, and
Constructors, American Society of Civil Engineers Manual No. 73, ASCE,
New York, 1990.
[3] "Timber Truss Bridges" (PDF). McMillan Britton & Kell Pty Limited. Roads
and Traffic Authority. December 1998. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
[4] "Tharwa Bridge Conservation Management Plan" (PDF). Philip Leeson
Architects.

Roads ACT. 5

March

2009.

pp. 42,

45.

Retrieved 23

November 2010.
[5] "Tharwa Bridge". Engineers Australia. Canberra's Engineering Heritage.
Retrieved 23 November 2010.
[6] "Hampden

Bridge,

Wagga,

NSW".

Retrieved 2008-06-05.

22

Timber

Building

in

Australia.