CH2 Liquid Crystal Lasers I

2 CHOLESTERIC LIQUID
CRYSTAL LASERS I
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types Of CLC Laser
1.3 Lowering Threshold
1.4 Tunability
1.5 3D CLC Lasers
1.6 Conclusions
By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee
Liquid crystal Photonics lab.
History
Background
First discovery of CLC laser: P. Ilchishin et al. (JETP, 32,

24(1980))
First demonstration of dye-doped CLC laser: based on 1D
photonic band-edge lasing theory for a distributed feedback
(DFB) resonator by Kopp et al. (Opt. Lett. 23, 1707(1998))
1998-2010: dye-doped CLC laser

Kopp, Taheri, Palffy-Muhoray, Finkelmann, Ozaki, Yoshida,
Furumi, Cipparrone, A. Y.-G. Fuh, Lukishova, Morris,
Coles, Shibaev, H. Yu, S.-T. Wu, Takezoe, Ozaki, Blinov, J.
W. Wu, T.-H. Lin, Park, C.-R. Lee, Strangi, Shibaev,
Lukishova, Furumi and Tamaoki, De Santo, Crawford,
Chilaya, Dolgaleva, Park, Furumi, Araoka, and so on
Advantages
(1) High external tunabilities of [pitch (spatial period)] photonic
band structure and lasing characteristics using electrical,
thermal and/or optical ways full color tunability
(2) Easy and flexible fabrication and cheap
Disadvantages
(1) Thermal instability, dye bleaching
(2) Unable to induce lasing emission using excitation of
electricity or CW optical wave.
Interest for CLC lasers regains because of two important
works published in very recent years
Coles et al. & Muoz et al.
Approaching to realization
ofsemicommercialproduct
ofCLClaser
(Colesetal.)
*Continuouslytunableoutput:450
850nm
*Extremelyhighefficiency:60%
*Upto20J/pulseoutput(Ppk~kW,
P~20mW)
*Pulsedoperation:100ps to10ns
*QuasiCWinput/outputinrepetition
rate:upto5kHz
*Linewidth:<0.05nm(controllable)
P.J.W.Hands,C.A.Dobson,S.M.Morris,M.M.Qasim,
D.J.Gardiner,T.D.Wilkinson,H.J.Coles,Proc.SPIE
811428,LiquidCrystalsXV,(2011).

Key benefits
*Ultracompact
*Simple,lowcostmanufacture
*Compatiblewithsilicon
processingtechnology
*Inkjetprintableontoarbitrary
(includingflexible)surfaces
*Semidisposablecartridgelasers
*Retrofittedtunablemodulefor
fixedwavelengthsystems
*Simultaneousmulticolour
outputs
*Bespokelaseremission
characteristics
P.J.W.Hands,C.A.Dobson,S.M.Morris,M.M.Qasim,
D.J.Gardiner,T.D.Wilkinson,H.J.Coles,Proc.SPIE
811428,LiquidCrystalsXV,(2011).
Applications
*Small&cheaptunablecommercial
&labbasedlasersourcesusedin
spectroscopy,microscopy,photo
chemistry,opticalcommunications,
displays,biologicalandmedical
researches.
*Lowspecklesolutionsforboth2D&
3Dfullcolorholographicprojection
*Others

RealizationofCWCLC
laserdevice(under
bothCW coherent
(laser)andincoherent
(LED)lightexcitation.
(Muoz etal.)
A. Muoz, M. E. McConney, T. Kosa, P. Luchette, L.

Sukhomlinova,T.J.White,T.J.Bunning,andB.Taheri,
Opt.Lett.37,2904(2012).

helical axis
Planar cholesteric
LC (CLC)
Multi-layer structure
Rubbing
n
n
n
P: pitch
n
n
n
1D Photonic Crystal
Rod-like LC molecules selfassemble

and
rotate
periodically along helical axis
by interaction with chiral
dopants
Rubbing
P=1/HTPc
Bragg Reflection of planar CLC
L-handed
Non-polarized
incident light
Pitch
(P)
Left circularlypolarized (LCP)

light reflected
Reflectance
Right circularly-polarized (RCP)

light transmits
Reflection band
(RB) for LCP light
0.5
SWE
LWE
Wavelength
c= navP
LWE=neP
SWE=noP
nav=(ne+no)/2
Blue-shift of CLCRB for oblique

incidence
Reflectance
CLCRB and its center and edge

wavelengths can continuously
blue-shift if increasing
0.5
SWE
LWE
Wavelength
Bragg
Reflection
cc== nnavavPcos
Pcos
Applications: tuning
of photonic structure
of CLC by changing
pitch
Dye-Doped CLC (DDCLC) lasers

1D PC
Fluorescence/Reflectance
Planar CLC
Pumped
pulses
Mirrorless distributed
feedback resonator
Two lasing peaks appear at long-wavelength

edge (LWE) and short-wavelength edge (SWE)
of CLCRB in normal direction (along helical
axis) if E>Eth (Normal lasing)
Fluorescence
spectrum of laser
dye
Pumped
pulse
CLCRB
DDCLC
SWE
LWE
Wavelength
Normal lasing
Mechanism for generating the

DDCLC bandedge lasing
Pumped pulses
Normal Lasing
Broadband fluorescence via

spontaneous emission of the
laser dye
Emission suppressed inside RB,
but not beyond RB
At band edges of RB:

DDCLC
active
multilayer
Distributed
feedback via Normal
multiLasing
reflection
Propagate via multi-reflection:

vg 0 and DOS very large
Distributed feedback of the
active multilayer in the multireflection process: rates of
spontaneous & stimulated
emissions are enhanced
High Gain can be achieved for a
low-threshold lasing emission
Experimental setup for measuring

the lasing spectra of DDCLC
Mirror
Nd:YAG Pulse laser

(532nm, 8ns, 15Hz)
Incident
pumped
pulses
Mirror
PBS
ht I)
lig II
art
UV r p
(fo
Top view
Lens
er )
t
e er
m
ro put
t
ec o m
p
S oc
(T
)
N
(
l
a
m
nor
L
DDC
l
cel

Experimental setup for measuring the

reflection spectra of DDCLC
Non-polarized White
beam (pre-collimated)
DDCLC
cell
normal (N)
White light
source
Spectrometer
ht I)
lig II
art
UV r p
(fo
z-axis
can be changed by rotating

the cell about z-axis
Top view
Lasing pattern (Part I)

z
x
0o
DDCLC cell
Pumped pulses
Ein~10J/pulse
50o
A twined cone lasing pattern on the

screens located on both sides of the cell
1.1 Introduction
1D PBG CLC
The most well-known material with a helical structure
is cholesteric LCs (CLCs), in which the local
structure is nematic and the director rotates to form
a helical structure with helical axis director.
The media that have periodic structures in the
optical wavelength are called photonic crystals
(PhCs). CLC is a 1D PhC. Like an energy gap for
electrons propagating in periodic crystal structures, a
stop band emerges at the edges of the first Brillouin
zone in CLCs.
Within the stop band, light dampens and cannot
propagate. When the light propagation is limited
along any direction, we call it the photonic
bandgap (PBG).

Dispersion relation between angular

frequency () and wavenumber (k) in
vacuum is given by =ck (Figure 1.1a).
In CLCs, the refractive index changes
periodically, so the incoming light to the
helix undergoes reflection if the light
wavelength coincides with the optical
pitch (=navP), that is, Bragg reflection.
Helical periodic structure makes the
reflection very unique; that is, only a
circularly polarized light (CPL) with the
same handedness as the helix is reflected
and
another
CPL
with
opposite
handedness just passes through. This is
called selective reflection. (Figure 1.1b).
PBG
FIGURE1.1
Dispersion relation (a)
in vacuo (b) in CLC at
normalincidence
First reported CLC laser
Because of the selective reflection in visible wavelength

regions, it is a natural question how the emission from
dye molecules existing inside the helical structure is
affected by the Bragg condition. Actually, Kogelnik and
Shank studied possible distributed feedback (DFB)
lasers. Namely, lasing may occur if emitted light is
confined in a DFB cavity made of CLC.
The lifetime of the luminescence from dyes
embedded in CLCs was also examined. The first
observation of lasing from CLC was reported by
Ilchishin et al. in 1980. They even showed the lasing
wavelength tuning by temperature. However, it took
almost two decades to be paid much attention from
other groups until Kopp et al. reported a CLC microlaser.
Fermis golden
Let us consider efficient lasing conditions. In an

isotropic medium, the rate R of photon emitted from an
excited molecule is described by Fermis golden rule:
(1.1)
Miso: density of photonic state (DOS)

: transition dipole moment of excited molecule
E: electric field vector
In isotropic media, M is independent
polarization and the radiation direction of E.
of
the
In anisotropic media, the emission depends on the

orientation of transition dipole moment with respect
to the polarization of light, that is, E.
When emission occurs from the excited dye molecules in

the CLC, light propagates as one of the two eigenmodes
E1 and E2. Then, emission rate for eigenmode Ei (Ri) is
described as
(1.2)
Mi: DOS associated with the eigenmode Ei

The fluorescent molecules embedded in the CLC have
a certain degree of the nematic order, resulting in an
anisotropic orientation distribution of the transition
dipole moment. Hence to have large R, it is profitable
that is parallel to the polarization of the eigenmode Ei,
Ei || .
The other factor to have large Ri
is DOS (M), which is defined as
The group velocity is defined as
(1.3)
vg = 1/M
(1.3)
DOS
shows
maxima at the
PBGedgeswhere
group velocity
approachesto0.

1.2 Types Of Lasers

There are several primary types of LC microlasers.
DFB (Bandedge) lasers, defect mode lasers,
and random lasers are the most popular ones.

1.2.1 DFB CLC Lasers

When light propagates in periodic media with the same
periodicity as the light wavelength, the light suffers
reflection due to the PBG.
Hence, if CLC is doped with dyes, emitted light within
the PBG is confined and amplified in bandedges of PBG
of the CLC, and finally lasing results. This type of cavity
without using mirrors is called DFB cavity. Lasers using
DFB cavities are called DFB lasers.
The DFB cavity is widely used in semiconductor lasers,
in which active materials are on substrates with periodic
refractive index changes.

Since CLCs themselves spontaneously form DFB cavity,

this is the simplest CLC microlaser structure. Namely,
instead of fabricating layer-by-layer structures consisting
of high and low refractive indices as in semiconductor
lasers, the refractive indices in CLC change due to the
helical structure of the dielectric ellipsoid.
This is a great advantage of CLC microlasers compared
with semiconductor lasers, in which the fabrication of
microstructure is necessary.

Farfield lasing pattern

fromanDDCLClaser
NearGaussianemissionprofiles

(1.3)
(1.2)
Dowling et al. predicted that DFB lasing occurs at the

edge of PBG for 1D Periodic structures with sufficiently
large refractive index modulation.
They demonstrated that the photon group velocity vg
approaches zero near the bandedges of a 1D PBG structure.
This effect implies an exceedingly long optical path
length in this structure, and the photon dwell time for
incident waves at the bandedges is significantly
increased.

(1.3)
(1.2)
M, the DOS (see Eq. (1.3)) is the absolute inverse slope

of the dispersion relation or reciprocal form of group
velocity.
Since the emission rate R (see Eq.
(1.2)) is proportional to DOS, the
emission rate reaches maximum
when group velocity falls to almost
zero, which is realized at the edges
of PBG (see Fig. 1.2b). Thus, lowthreshold and mirrorless CLC laser
is realized at the edges of PBG,
where DOS gives maxima.
FIGURE 1.2
Experimentally, two major structures are possible in CLC

microlasers: helical axis or || substrate plane.
Planar texture: The former is rather easy to be
fabricated by using substrate surfaces treated with
planar alignment agents.
Finger-print texture: Homeotropic alignment surfaces
give orientation with helical axis parallel to the surface.
However, the orientation of helical axis to a particular
direction is not easy and some conditions need to be
matched, e.g., >0, ratio of d/P and Vapp.
POM image
Planar
Finger-print
POM image
(1.2)
Optical eigenmodes at the

edges of PBG are linearly
polarized locally in CLCs; they
are locally perpendicular and
parallel to the local director at
the higher and lower energy
(shorter and longer ) edges,
respectively.
nonlocally standing circularly
polarized waves
According to Eq. (1.2), Ri is
larger at the lower energy
(longer ) edge, so lasing
preferably occurs at the lower
energy edge (longer ).
SWE
LWE
(a) Photonic band structure of a CLC with

pitch P=2a; (b) Arrows indicate the optical
eigenmodes electric fields (locally linearly
polarized) being aligned along or
perpendiculartothedirector.
(1.2)
A simple theoretical description of spontaneous

emission as a function of wavelength in terms of order
parameter (Sdye) for the transition dipole moment of
the dye in the CLCs is as follows:
(1.4)
i: ellipticity of polarization state.

PBG
Near the edges of PBG, the

variation in |E|2 occurs
sharply,
because
the
polarization states of the
optical eigenmode with the
same handedness as the
CLCs structure is linearly
polarized along the local
director of the CLC.
FIGURE 1.3 (a) Calculated |E|2

againstwavelengthforseveralSvalues.
(b) Emission rate as a function of
wavelengthforS =0.5.
At the low-energy (long-) edge

of PBG, the value of |E|2 is
high because the polarization
direction is parallel to the local
director of the CLC.
At the high-energy (short-)
edge of PBG, the |E|2 value
is low because the polarization
direction is perpendicular to the
local director of the CLC.
The emission rate Ri (Eq.
(1.2)) takes the highest value
at the low-energy (long-)
edge.
PBG
FIGURE 1.3 (a) Calculated |E|2

againstwavelengthforseveralSvalues.
(b) Emission rate as a function of
wavelengthforS =0.5.
1.2.2 Defect Mode Lasing

By doping semiconductors with donor/acceptor,
donor/acceptor level is introduced within energy gaps.
Similarly, addition or removal of extra dielectric
material locally inside the PhC produces donor/acceptor
level. The DOS at such defect levels is much higher than
that at PBG edges, so defect mode lasing is very
important to realize low-threshold lasing.
Many types of defect mode have been studied in
1D~3D PhC structures.
These can be produced by removing or adding material
or by altering the refractive index of one or a number of
elements in 1D~3D PhCs.
Introducing a space in the middle of a layered 1D
PhC produces a defect in the middle of PBG. Such a
defect is widely used to produce high-Q laser cavities.
Five kinds of configurations generating defect modes in CLC:

(1) creation of a phase jump with no any spacing layer in CLC
(2) introduction of an isotropic spacing layer in CLC
(3) introduction of an anisotropic spacing layer in CLC
(4) combination of (1) and (2)
(5) local deformation of helix in CLC
FIGURE5
Fivekindsofconfigurations
generatingdefectmodesin
CLC

Defect mode 1
The defect mode 1 (a chiral twist defect) can be created
by rotating one part of the CLC.
Changing the twist angle from originally 0 to 180
tunes the defect wavelength from long- to shortwavelength-edges (LWE to SWE) of PBG due to the phase
shift of EM wave inside the PBG.
By twisting one part of the CLC by 90,
a defect mode can be generated at the
center of PBG due to the phase shift /2
of EM wave inside the PBG.
Defectmode1
Defect mode 2
The defect mode 2 can be produced in a CLC structure
by introducing isotropic layer between two CLC layers in
order to destroy the helical periodicity of CLC.
For the thickness of the isotropic defect layer that
generates the phase shift /2, a defect mode can be
generated at the center of PBG.
This condition is expressed as

(1.5)
d:
i:
:
n:
thickness of a defect layer

an integer
wavelength of the defect mode
refractive index of the defect layer
Defectmode2
Example of lasing
(defect mode 2)
A sharp defect mode is observed,

where highest DOS is obtained.
Lasing was observed at the defect
wavelength. Since the device is
composed of polymer CLC and PVA
defect layer, one can peal out the film
from the substrate as a freestanding
film of 5.5 m thickness.
sharpdefect
mode
FIGURE 1.5 (a) Simulated transmittance spectrum

and (b) DOS spectrum for CLC with an inserted
isotropicdefectlayer(0.54mthickPVA)
defectmode
lasing

1.3 Lowering Threshold

One of the ultimate goals of CLC microlasers is
continuous wave (cw) lasing. For this purpose, the
lasing threshold must be essentially zero.
Many efforts have been made from various points
of view. These efforts are classified into three groups:
(1) improved cavity structures
(1a) utilizing a single output window, (1b) utilizing defect mode
were examined.
(2) improved excitation conditions

(2a) excitation at the PBG edge by CPL, (2b) excitation at a
higher energy (shorter wavelength) side of an absorption band
were used.
(3) improved materials

(3a) utilizing highly ordered dyes, (3b) utilizing CLC with higher
anisotropy of refractive indices, (3c) utilizing Forster energy
transfer, (3d) developing new dyes were examined.
1.3.1 Lowering Threshold by Improved

Cavity Structures
Amemiya introduced polymeric CLC
(PCLC)
layers
for
reflecting
excitation light (pump substrate)
and
for
reflecting
emitted
fluorescence light (laser substrate)
reducing the threshold by a factor
of 2.

DualPCLCcell
Normalcell

It is known that the defect mode has an advantage to

have higher DOS. Actually, Schmidtke et al. and Ozaki
et al. demonstrated low-threshold defect mode lasing
by using a phase jump in CLCs. The threshold in defect
mode lasing is more than one order of magnitude
smaller than that in the PBG edge lasing.
threshold
threshold
FIGURE1.9 Thresholdbehaviorfor(a)defectand(b)DFBmodes
1.3.2 Lowering Threshold by improved

Excitation Conditions
If the dwell time at the excitation wavelength is long,
efficient use of excitation energy can be achieved. This
condition can be realized by the excitation using CPL of
the same handedness as the CLC helix at LWE of the
reflection band.
At 532nm, RCP excitation gives
lower
threshold
than
LCP
excitation.
Surprisingly,
the
threshold also depends on the
excitation wavelength. Although
the reason is not clear, it was
confirmed using three different
dyes that excitation at higher
energy side of absorption bands
gives lower threshold.
RCPexcitation
LCPexcitation
532nm
FIGURE1.10Lasingthresholdasafunction
of wavelength for RCP and LCP pumped
incidencetorighthandedDDCLCcell.
(1.2)
1.3.3 Lowering Threshold by

lmproved Materials
The efforts for lowering threshold have been made also
from materials sides: types of CLC host, laser dye, etc.
(1) As host materials, CLCs with higher anisotropy of the
refractive index (n) are more profitable.
This is because PBG width is proportional to the
anisotropy (=nP=(n/n)c), and wider PBG gives
higher DOS at the edges. This result can be
experimentally confirmed by using three CLC hosts with
different anisotropies of the refractive index. (Chee et
al.)

The simulated DOS spectrum for

sample L, which has the broadest
PBG width, shows more pronounced
and closely spaced multiple internal
reflections occurring near the PBG
edgethanthoseoftheothersamples,
leadingtoahigherphotondwelltime
for incident waves at the band
edge. lower group velocity
higher DOS higher R by (1.2)
lowerenergythreshold
Use 44 matrix method

basedonMaxwellsequation

Morris et al: correlation between the performance of a

DDCLC laser and the macroscopic properties of the
nematogen host.
It was found that the threshold (slope efficiency) is
inversely (directly) proportional to functions of the
order parameters, S2 and ST as well as the
birefringence at zero Kelvin, which is an indication of
the molecular polarizability.
Measurements of the input-output characteristics
showed that, on average, LCs which combine higher order
parameters with larger birefringences do tend to exhibit lower
threshold energies and higher slope efficiencies, in accord
with a larger DOS at the band edge.

W: stimulated emission rate

ST: order parameter of transition dipole moment
S2: orientational order parameter of local
nematics
d: thickness of DDCLC cell
n0: birefringence extrapolated to 0 K
: excited state lifetime (radiative +nonradiative)
P: time duration of pumpd pulses
a: absorption cross section
N0: population in the ground state

(1.2)
(2) The development of dyes is also important:

X Highly ordered dyes are preferable (Eq. (1.2)). The
higher the order parameter Sdye, the higher the |E|2 and
thus the higher the emission rate at the LWE of PBG (Eq. (4)
& Fig. 1.3).
In this sense, A polymer (fluorescent) dye,

poly(phenylene vinylene)(), with triptycene
( ) groups is interesting, since this dyes Sdye
increases with increasing concentration (instead, a famous
commercial laser dye DCM SDCM decreases with
increasing concentration).

A|| and A are the absorptions of

each dye polarized parallel and
perpendicular to the NLC director.
This gives the order parameter of
the transition moment for ground
stateopticalabsorption.
F|| and F are the fluorescence
intensities polarized parallel and
perpendicular to the NLC director.
This represents the order
parameter of the emission
transitiondipole. By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee
Y It is also known that the use of appropriate energy

transfer between dye molecules (Frster couples) is
possible to reduce the energy threshold.
Reabsorption of the emitted light is a serious
problem because it is one of the losses for lasing. In
this sense, the use of energy transfer is one of the
solutions to avoid reabsorption.
When the DDCLC includes two types of three laser
dyes (C153, DCM, and PM580), the energy threshold
becomes lower when the indirect excitation through energy
transfer is used compared with that by direct excitation.

For the measurements, these dyes are

dissolved in the host NLC (ZLI2293) and
linearly polarized light parallel to the
rubbingdirectionwasused.
The value of absorbance of donor

(C153) and acceptors (DCM and PM580)
are almost the same, indicating that the
number of excited photons is almost
the same between the direct excitation
and energy transfer processes. Figure1
alsoshowsefficientFrster processdueto
sufficient overlaps between the emission
band of donor (C153) and the absorption
bandsofacceptors(DCMandPM580).


Z Most of researchers have used commercially available

dyes (e.g., DCM).
Uchimura et al. systematically synthesized pyrene
and anthracene derivatives and evaluated the lasing
characteristics. They found that one of the pyrene
derivatives shows a threshold as low as 1/20 of that in
a commercial dye DCM.
It was found that the threshold becomes lower with
increasing luminous efficiency and radiative decay rate.
We also need to systematically study the stability of
dyes against light excitation. In this respect, it is
important to have dyes showing low lasing threshold
to minimize damage as well.


Absorption coefficients
quantum yields
optical density
Quantum yield : emission efficiency of a given fluorophore

# photons emitted/# photons absorbed
Molar absorption coefficient (molar attenuation coefficient) :

By BeerLambert law I = I010 = I010c
(: absorption coefficient of the substance, : path length the light travels through the
substance, c: molar concentration of the substance, I0 and I: intensities (or powers) of
the incident light and the transmitted light, respectively)
Optical density OD: OD log10(I/I0)

Absorption coefficients
P6 -doped CLC cell.
quantum yields
quantumyield
molarabsorption
coefficient
optical density
EinsteinsB
coefficient
kf
(radiative
decayrate)
DDCLC cells with
same OD = 0.16.

[ Wei et al: used oligofluorene as a red-emitting dye

and showed the superiority compared with a
commercial DCM. Moreover, glassy CLC containing this
dye is temporally stable compared with fluid CLC,
lasing emission from which decays with time.
Glassy state is important to realize robust sustainable
lasing devices.



CH2 Liquid Crystal Lasers I

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CH2 Liquid Crystal Lasers I

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2 CHOLESTERIC LIQUID

First discovery of CLC laser: P. Ilchishin et al. (JETP, 32,

1998-2010: dye-doped CLC laser

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

A. Muoz, M. E. McConney, T. Kosa, P. Luchette, L.

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

Rod-like LC molecules selfassemble

Bragg Reflection of planar CLC

Left circularlypolarized (LCP)

Right circularly-polarized (RCP)

Blue-shift of CLCRB for oblique

CLCRB and its center and edge

Dye-Doped CLC (DDCLC) lasers

Two lasing peaks appear at long-wavelength

Mechanism for generating the

Broadband fluorescence via

At band edges of RB:

Propagate via multi-reflection:

Experimental setup for measuring

Nd:YAG Pulse laser

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

Experimental setup for measuring the

can be changed by rotating

Lasing pattern (Part I)

A twined cone lasing pattern on the

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

Dispersion relation between angular

First reported CLC laser

Because of the selective reflection in visible wavelength

Let us consider efficient lasing conditions. In an

Miso: density of photonic state (DOS)

In anisotropic media, the emission depends on the

When emission occurs from the excited dye molecules in

Mi: DOS associated with the eigenmode Ei

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

1.2 Types Of Lasers

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

1.2.1 DFB CLC Lasers

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

Since CLCs themselves spontaneously form DFB cavity,

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

Farfield lasing pattern

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

Dowling et al. predicted that DFB lasing occurs at the

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

M, the DOS (see Eq. (1.3)) is the absolute inverse slope

Experimentally, two major structures are possible in CLC

Optical eigenmodes at the

(a) Photonic band structure of a CLC with

A simple theoretical description of spontaneous

i: ellipticity of polarization state.

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

Near the edges of PBG, the

FIGURE 1.3 (a) Calculated |E|2

At the low-energy (long-) edge

FIGURE 1.3 (a) Calculated |E|2

1.2.2 Defect Mode Lasing

Five kinds of configurations generating defect modes in CLC:

By Prof. Chia-Rong Lee

This condition is expressed as

thickness of a defect layer

A sharp defect mode is observed,

FIGURE 1.5 (a) Simulated transmittance spectrum