Chapter 1

Causes of transformers failure

1 BACKGROUND
Power Transformer is a vital link in a power system which has made possible the power
generated at low voltages (6kv to 22kv ) to be stepped up to extra high voltages for transmission
over long distances and then transformed to low voltages for utilization at proper load centers.
Power transformer is very huge and costly static machine, during its operation problem arises
such as inrush current, problems associated with insulation, dimensions and weights because of
demands for ever rising voltages and capacities.
Major losses involving large oil-cooled transformers continue to occur on a frequent basis. The
magnitude of the losses has increased significantly since the last study. Increased equipment
utilization, deferred capital expenditures and reduced maintenance expenses are all part of
todays strategies for transformer owners. To make matters worse, world power consumption is
increasing, and the load on each aging transformer continues to grow.

1.1 Causes of Failure of power transformers :

Insulation Failures :
Insulation failures were the leading cause of failure. This category excludes those failures
where there was evidence of a lightning or a line surge. There are actually four
factors that are responsible for insulation deterioration: heat, oxidation, acidity, and
moisture. The average age of the transformers that failed due to insulation was 18 years
Table-1 causes of failure

Design /Manufacturing Errors :

This category includes conditions such as: loose or unsupported leads, loose blocking, poor
brazing, inadequate core insulation, inferior short circuit strength, and foreign objects left in the
tank. This is the second leading cause of transformer failures.

Oil Contamination:
This category pertains to those cases where oil contamination can be established as the cause of
the failure. This includes slugging and carbon tracking.

Overloading :
This category pertains to those cases where actual overloading could be established as the cause
of the failure. It includes only those transformers that experienced a sustained load that exceeded
the nameplate capacity

Fire /Explosion:
This category pertains to those cases where a fire or explosion outside the transformer can be
established as the cause of the failure. This does not include internal failures that resulted in a
fire or explosion

Maintenance /Operation:
Inadequate or improper maintenance and operation was a major cause of transformer failures,
when you include overloading, loose connections and moisture. This category includes
disconnected or improperly set controls, loss of coolant, accumulation of dirt & oil, and

corrosion. Inadequate maintenance has to bear the blame for not discovering initial troubles
when there was ample time to correct it.

Figure-1 frequency- severity of transformer failures

Flood:
The flood category includes failures caused by inundation of the transformer due to man-made
or natural caused floods. It also includes mudslides.

Loose Connections:
This category includes workmanship and maintenance in making electrical connections. One
problem is the improper mating of dissimilar metals, although this has decreased somewhat in
recent years. Another problem is improper torquing of bolted connections.

Lightning:

Lightning surges are considerably fewer in number than previous studies. Unless there is
confirmation of a lightning strike, a surge type failure is categorized as Line Surge.

Moisture:
The moisture category includes failures caused by leaky pipes, leaking roofs, water entering the
tanks through leaking bushings or fittings, and confirmed presence of moisture in the insulating
oil.

1.2 Power Transformer Reliability

Power transformers are essential components of transmission systems and often the most
valuable asset in a substation. Winding construction is based on the time-proven technology of
copper conductor, wrapped in cellulose insulation, and fully impregnated with insulating oil.
With a Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) above 100 years, transformers are regarded as
highly dependable equipment. However, the general transformer population is now aging. This
by itself would increase the risk of failure but it is compounded by the trend to load transformers
to higher levels to meet economic constraints of deregulated power systems environment.
Unexpected failure is always a major disturbance in the system operation, resulting in
unscheduled outages with power delivery problems. If the failure mode involves a major internal
arc the tank may rupture with resulting fire and collateral damages. Replacement by a spare unit
can usually be completed within a week but replacement with a new unit can take more than a
year.
To reduce the risk of unexpected failure and the ensuing unscheduled outage, on-line monitoring
has become the common practice to assess continuously the condition of the transformer with.
Ideally, transformer monitoring should provide a continuous condition assessment against any
incipient fault developing in the transformer. To meet that goal, several diagnostic methods have

been developed such as: dissolved gas analysis (DGA), partial discharge (PD) detection with
acoustic localization of arcing source, frequency response analysis (FRA), acoustic monitoring
of tap changer etc.
Theoretically, on-line application of these methods could provide detection of anomaly,
identification of the problem and assessment of the severity of the condition. In practice,
selection has to be made among the various methods available. Experience has shown that most
transformers will spend their life without developing any problems and it would be unproductive
to maintain a host of monitoring devices whose data would only show a flat line. Economic
optimization therefore requires that a simple, broadband detection method be applied as a first
line of defense or early warning and that diagnostic methods be applied only on those units that
have shown to be developing a problem.
Economic pressure also calls for an extension of transformer service life in addition to a
reduction of maintenance costs. Fortunately, it appears that these contradictory concerns can be
met to a large extent by applying state-of-the-art monitoring to these aged equipments.

1.3

Insulation Degradation Process

Selection of the most efficient monitoring system requires a review of the insulation deteriorating
process and the best methods for early detection. The active parts of a transformer comprise
several subsystems that are designed and tested to sustain the electric and thermal stresses
occurring in normal operation. This is why most transformers will provide years of faithful
service without developing any problem. However, some units submitted to unusual service
conditions or suffering from manufacturing defect, excessive aging or moisture ingress may
develop problems, and those problems should be detected at an early stage to allow for orderly
removal from service and repair.

Transformer insulation is universally made of the time proven combination of cellulose paper or
pressboard, fully impregnated with insulating oil. When the insulation is overstressed by high
temperature or electric discharges, the chemical bounds within oil and cellulose molecules can be
broken and new molecules will be created. Such reaction generates a variety of gasses that
dissolve in the surrounding oil. Fig 1 provides an outlook of the chemical structure of insulating
material and degradation by-products.

Fig. 2 Chemistry of Insulation Degradation

Any problems developing in the winding insulation, in the connections, in the core or in the
shields will generate a localized high temperature or electric discharges, resulting in
decomposition of oil and/or paper. The minute amount of gas dissolved in the oil can alert the
operator about a problem in development and the relative proportion of each gasses can also
provides indication on the type of fault.
The main objective of transformer on-line monitoring is to detect these problems at an early
stage to allow for orderly removal from service and repair at a minimal cost

1.4 Transformer Aging

Notice that we did not categorize age as a cause of failure. Aging of the insulation system
reduces both the mechanical and dielectric-withstand strength of the transformer. As the
transformer ages, it is subjected to faults that result in high radial and compressive forces. As the
load increases, with system growth, the operating stresses increase. In an aging transformer
failure, typically the conductor insulation is weakened to the point where it can no longer sustain
mechanical stresses of a fault. Turn to turn insulation then suffers a dielectric failure, or a fault
causes a loosening of winding clamping pressure, which reduces the transformers ability to
withstand future short circuit forces. Table 2 is the distribution of transformer failures by age in a
recent internal analysis
Table-2 Distribution of failures by age of transformers

1.5 Transformer failure modes

The failure of a Transformer can be a devastating and costly experience. However, it is an
unfortunate fact that despite even the most rigorous preventive maintenance program, failures
can and will occur. The foregoing classification of failures is admittedly general in nature, but
usually sufficient for our claims process. However, in order to prepare an accurate failure
scenario, and develop proper recommendations to prevent a recurrence, a more in-depth analysis

of the failure is necessary. To accomplish this, it is necessary to first understand the different
modes of failure for transformers.
A transformer can fail from any combination of electrical, mechanical or thermal factors. While
it is difficult to define a typical failure mode for a transformer for its complexity, most actual
failures involve and eventually result from the breakdown of insulation system. Therefore,
although the actual cause of the failure of a transformer may be electrical, the insulation
breakdown precipitating the failure may have resulted from electrical, mechanical or thermal
factors. A transformer failure may have more than one causal factor.

1.5.1 Electrically induced factors:

An electrically induced factor typically results in damage to a transformers insulation system.
Some of the more common electrically induced factors are:

1.5.1.1

Exposure to lighting surges and switching surges

The electrical and mechanical design considerations for a transformer include lightning impulse
and switching surge voltages. Both of these conditions can cause serious damage to the electrical
and mechanical integrity of a transformer. Both lightning and switching surge impulses are large
magnitude travelling waves, which travels at the speed of light. A transformer is designed and
built with a user-specified BIL (Basic Impulse Level) rating. The BIL rating determines the level
of lightning and switching surge voltages that it can tolerate without damage. Surge arresters
must be carefully selected in order to ensure that they will work as intended and when and only
when intended. A transformer that has failed due to a lightning or switching surge generally
displays damage that is localized near the line-end terminals.

1.5.1.2

Partial discharge

Sometimes referred to as corona, partial discharge can be caused by poor insulation system
design, by manufacturing defects, and/or by contamination of the insulation system (both the

solid insulation and oil). Partial discharge can be likened to a low intensity arcing and will cause
localized damage to the insulation and conductors. Evidence of corona can be seen in pitting of
the cellulose insulation and conductor and, in more advanced cases, widespread black tracking
which resembles crows- feet. This tracking is electrically conductive and can be visible on
insulating barrier boards in the vicinity of the partial discharge activity. The black color of the
tracks is formed by carbonization of the insulating oil by the partial discharge.

1.5.1.3

Static electrification

this phenomenon is limited to very high voltage transformers (over 345 kV). When the
temperature of a transformers insulating oil is fairly low and the thickened oil is circulated
rapidly, a static charge is developed between the oil and metal components of the transformer.
When the magnitude of this charge exceeds the insulating oils dielectric capability, it will flash
over and the transformer can be destroyed or severely damaged in the process. Evidence of static
electrification can be seen by partial discharge tracking on insulating barrier boards.
These failure modes may be discovered in combination with one another or in combination with
other mechanical or thermal evidence. It is important for all evidence to be evaluated together in
order to develop an accurate failure scenario.

Figure-3 conceptual failure model of power transformer

1.5.2 Mechanically induced factors:

A mechanically induced factors typically results in the deformation of a transformers windings,
resulting in the abrasion or rupturing of its cellulose insulation. If the damage is severe enough,
the transformer can fail electrically. It is difficult to predict how long a transformer can survive
with this kind of damage and is entirely dependent upon its severity. Winding deformation
typically occurs in one of two ways: shipping damage or electromechanical forces.

1.5.2.1

Shipping or movement of the transformer

Although a transformer should be internally braced by the manufacturer to withstand the forces
associated with this type of movement, the bracing may not be adequate enough; the shipper may
not have followed the manufacturers rigging instructions; or an accident may have occurred
during the transportation.

1.5.2.2

Magnetically induced electromechanical forces:

Advances in materials and winding design have resulted in much stronger windings, but many
older transformers are still in service that have not benefited from these advances. When a
transformer experiences an internal fault the winding can be adjusted to magnetic forces that are
significantly beyond their design capability.
In either of these cases, winding deformation can occur. The most common mechanically
induced factors are summarized as follows:

1.5.2.3

Hoop or buckling (collapse) of the innermost winding

In this case, the conductor will collapse inward toward the core between the axial spacers and
will transmit the buckling to the core insulating cylinder at the axial spacer locations. A severe
case of buckling will result in damage to the paper insulation. The degree of damage will
determine whether or not a failure will occur immediately.

Figure-4

1.5.2.4

Conductor tipping (angle)

This is a problem typically associated with helical windings which utilize paper insulated
Continuously Transposed Cable (CTC). In this case, axial forces that exceed the CTC bundles
compressive capability will cause the bundle to tip. When the bundle tips, the paper insulation
will tear open and expose the energized conductor. Because of the amount of insulation damage
typically resulting from conductor tipping, an electrical failure will usually occur, almost
immediately.

Figure-5

1.5.2.5

Conductor telescoping (get smaller)

This involves layer windings made up of thin flat conductors which are supported end-to-end.
When exposed to excessive axial forces, the individual conductors will get smaller over one
another. This causes the entire layer to become mechanically unstable, as well as damaging the
paper insulation. The degree of damage to the insulation will determine whether or not the failure
will occur immediately.

1.5.2.6

Spiral tightening

This again involves layer windings and is caused by radial forces that tighten the winding. This
can be evidenced by a spiral movement or shifting of the key spacers over the entire height of the
winding. The tightening of the winding can damage the paper insulation and cause it to become
mechanically unstable. The degree of damage to the insulation will determine whether or not a
failure will occur immediately.

1.5.2.7

End-ring crushing

This condition occurs when the mechanical strength of the radial end ring at the bottom of the
winding is exceeded by the windings axial forces, resulting in mechanical instability of the
entire winding

1.5.2.8

Failure of the coil clamping system

This system is intended to maintain a constant clamping force on the coils at all times. When a
transformer is subjected to large sudden increases in current flow (e.g. when a large block of load
is suddenly added, or when a fault occurs in the system), the resulting magnetically induced

electromechanical forces try to spread the winding coils apart axially. The coil clamping system
restrains the coils from this movement. If a failure of the clamping system occurs and the
restraining force is absent, the transformer may operate normally for a period of time. However,
when the transformer is subjected to a sudden large increase in current flow, its coil will spread
apart. This movement is very sudden and violent, resulting in severe deformation of the coils and
damage to the cellulose insulation. The damage can cause an immediate electrical failure.

1.5.2.9

Displacement of a transformers leads

Sometimes the connection of the transformer leads can break in the area where they leave the
windings, or the lead supports can break. The degree of damage to the insulation will determine
whether or not a failure will occur immediately.
A thorough failure investigation must consider that evidence indicating the presence of any of
these mechanical problems does not necessarily mean that the cause of the failure has been
found. In some cases, damage such as outlined above may simply have been the result of
collateral damage due to a fault.

Figure-6 Transformer functional failure model

1.5.3 Thermally induced factors:

The degradation of a cellulose insulation system is to be expected over time. Normal heating
generated by the loading of a transformer will thermally degrade the insulation. Thermal
degradation results in the loss of physical strength of the insulation that, over time, will weaken
the paper to the point where it can no longer withstand the mechanical duty imposed on it by the
vibrations and mechanical movement inside of a transformer. However, a transformer designer is
cognizant (aware) of these implications and allows for them in the design. A well-designed (and
properly operated and maintained) transformers insulation system should be able to provide
reliable service for 20 to 30 years or more. The reasons for the premature failure of a transformer
are generally either poor operating and maintenance practices, or defective workmanship and/or
materials. The most common thermally induced factors are summarized as follows:

1.5.3.1

Overloading

Overloading of the transformer beyond its for design capability extended periods of time.
1.5.3.2

Failure of transformers cooling system

This can include blocking or fouling of the radiators or coolers, the failure of the oil pumps, and
the failure of a directed flow oil distribution system.

1.5.3.3

Blockage of axial oil duct spaces

Limiting the amount of cooling oil to the windings in the immediate area.

1.5.3.4

Operating a transformer in an overexcited condition

This can cause excessive stray magnetic flux to severely overheat insulation in close proximity to
the core or other structural members.

1.5.3.5
Operation of transformer under excessive ambient
conditions
If evidence of thermally induced problem is found it must be considered and combined with
other evidence discovered of mechanical or electrical problems to develop a complete failure
scenario.

1.5.4 Chemical Failures:

Failure due to

The ingress of water or oxygen

Loss of insulating oil
Paper degradation due to thermal issues or aging Less obvious, Most overlooked
Increases potential of the other three failure modes
Paper insulation deteriorates from the effects of moisture, oxygen, and temperature and time.
Moisture and oxygen are controlled by the maintenance practices while the rate of thermal

degradation is controlled by loading practices.

Failure of the oil preservation system

Chapter 2

Failure investigation process

2.1

Statement
The project will be based on the transformer failure causes and to how to do investigation

of cause along with its possible solution. Various methods have been developed recently for life
extension of power transformers. We will discuss each in detail.

2.2

Conducting the failure investigation

As an aid to the investigation IEEE standard C57.125 guide for failure investigation
,Documentation and analysis of power transformer and shunt reactors is used. This guide can
be used to ensure that all important factors are considered and examined in a failure
investigation. IEEE Document is an excellent source of information for an investigator to help
develop a battle plan prior to arriving at the site, and various checklists are very useful. The

guide also contains comprehensive appendices on transformer construction, diagnostic testing

and sample failure investigation histories.
A failure investigation typically begins after a transformer has been tripped off-line by a
protective device, or when someone suspects that the transformer is no longer suitable for
service. The decision of what to do next (after a transformer is tripped by a protective device)
will vary depending on the circumstances and the operating procedures of the owner-user. But,
when a transformer fails , time is of the essence and a prompt investigation is paramount. Work
crews are almost always on site before the investigator arrives. Valuable information can be
innocently destroyed by work crews attempting to restore service. Therefore, upon notification of
failure, instruction should be given to the work crew to minimize any disruptive impact on the
investigation. Cooperation at all levels of the owner-user can speed up the investigation at the
site and improve the accuracy of the diagnosis.
The investigation is comprise of four major components:

Preparation/information gathering
Testing
Inspection
Conclusions
The preparation begins as soon as the investigator is notified. The testing and on-site inspection
may occur simultaneously. In some situations, the investigator may be able to prescribe a series
of tests, before arriving on site. The inspection may involve three steps an external
examination, an internal examination, and a teardown inspection. Once sufficient data has been

gathered from the inspection and tests, the engineering analysis can hopefully lead to
contributing causal factors.

2.2.1 Preparation/information gathering

Some preparation, prior to arrival at the site may prove to be valuable, and save considerable
time and effort. Information that should be requested or gathered prior to the investigators
arrival would include:

All historical DGA test results

All historical oil screen test result ( e.g. dielectric breakdown, acidity, interfacial tension)

All historical diagnostic field test reports ( e.g. Double Power factor, frequency response
analysis)

A copy of transformer nameplate

All maintenance and other work records

A copy of the factory test data sheets

A record of local weather conditions at the time of failure

A record of the approximate loading at the time of failure

A system on-line diagram showing the locations and types of protective devices

A record of all relay operations (flags or targets) at the time of failure

Any system dispatchers logbook pages which pertain to the failure

A list if any faults or switching events in the system just prior to the failure

If the transformer is equipped with surge arrestors that have operation counters, did any
of the arrestor operate just prior to the failure?

A list of any recent ancillary equipment problems, such as CT or PT failures, or blown

fuses on capacitor banks.

This information will provide a history of the condition of the transformer and may give some
indications of system conditions tat may have contributed to or caused the failure.

2.2.2 On-site inspection

The on-site inspection is the logical next step in the process. Upon arrival at the site the
investigator should interview any employees who may have been in the vicinity at the time of the
failure. Try to get as much information about what they saw and heard. When all interviews are
concluded, a visual inspection should be performed.

2.2.1.1 External inspection

Photographs are an essential part of an external inspection and help to record or document
valuable information for later analysis. The experienced investigator will look for the following
visible abnormalities in the transformer:

Bulging or rupture of external tank

Damage to the conservator

Evidence of an oil spill or a fire

Low oil level in main tank

Evidence of the operation of a pressure relief device

Evidence of overheating (blistered paint, etc.)

Damage to the bushings or surge arrestors

Damage to the radiators, fans or pumps

Evidence of a foreign object or animal contact (burn marks or debris on top of the tank or
nearby bus)

Evidence of vandalism or sabotage

Oil level in the LTC compartment

Position of the LTC as found

Damage to the control cabinet

Position of the DETC as found

Careful notes should be taken to supplement photographs. Any item in the preparatory list ( such
as historical test data, or relays flags) that were not available in advance should be gathered at
this time. If no visible damage is found externally, the next step in the investigation is usually a
prescribed set of diagnostic tests, which are outlined in the next section.

2.2.1.2 Internal inspection

Depending on the nature of the failure, there may be very little to see externally. In some
situations, an internal inspection may be performed on-site to assess the extent of damage.

Sometimes the tank is completely drained of oil, while in some cases the oil is just lowered
enough to expose the top of the core and oil assembly.
Before entering the tank, all safety rules must be observed. In many cases, safety officials may
consider the transformer tank a confined space and a confined space entry program must be
followed. Do not attempt this alone. The tank must be vented to the atmosphere for a reasonable
amount of time to expel the combustible gases. Combustible gases in the tank are heavier than
air, and present an asphyxiation hazard. After the tanks atmosphere has been tested and
determined to be safe, we recommend personnel wear a calibrated confined space monitor for the
duration of the internal inspection. If the gas monitors indicate a low oxygen level at any time
during the inspection, all personnel inside the tank should be evacuated.
Prior to entering the tank, all personnel should remove loose personal items, such as jewelry,
wallets, combs, paper clips, pocket change, and the like. The only items that should be carried
inside the tank are a camera, pen and paper, and a flashlight. These items should be recorded
before entry, and then verified after leaving the tank. Leaving a flashlight inside a high voltage
transformer could later be catastrophic. (its possible to find almost anything inside of the failed
transformer, including screwdrivers, pliers, welding rods, and safety glasses from a previous
work crews carelessness. In one true story, a wooden ladder was found inside a large power
transformer that had been in service for over twenty years before it suffered a failure.)
Internal abnormalities to look for inside the transformer include:

The odor of burnt insulation

The appearance of burnt oil or insulating fluid (good oil has a clear amber colour; burnt
oil is dark and opaque, similar to burnt coffee, with an unmistakable acrimonious odor.)

Evidence of metal deposits (splatter or BBs)

Evidence of broken insulating material (paper, wood, barrier board)

Obvious physical damage (broken porcelain, burnt or charred leads)

Displacement of the coil

Damage to the coil clamping system

Evidence of arcing between turns, or between windings

Evidence of partial discharge activity (carbonized tracking marks)

Evidence of any free water in the bottom of the tank (since water is heavier than oil, the
presence of water in the tank, will cause rust at the bottom)

Molten droplets of metal from tiny spheres.

These deposits can be found almost

anywhere in the transformer, including the top of the yoke, the tops of the coils, on
internal ledges of the tank, and on the bottom of the tank.
If the internal inspection does not provide sufficient information as to the cause of failure, it may
be necessary to de-tank the transformer and perform a diagnostic teardown to search for the
damage and clues. A diagnostic teardown is a painstaking, meticulous process that is usually
accomplished in the shop of a repair firm or manufacturer. If the transformer is large enough, it is
quite common for a teardown to involve personnel from the owner, the insurer, the manufacturer,
and one or more consultants to represent their various interests

2.2.3 Diagnostic testing:

In many of our investigations, when a transformer failure has been reported, there is no obvious
external damage to be seen. We must then depend upon diagnostic testing to help identify
existing weaknesses or faults and to give some indication of the possibilities for repair. No one
electrical test can assure continued operation or expected service reliability, and no combination
of electrical tests can substitute for a careful visual

internal inspection. Only the careful

recording and plotting of the test results makes it possible to get the needed information out of a
test and to compare the values with those of previously conducted tests. It should be noted that
several tests may be interpreted together to diagnose a problem. The manufacturers acceptance
criteria should also be consulted, because it may take precedence over the criteria in this
document.
Before performing any tests, precautions should be taken to ensure that the transformer is
disconnected from all power and auxiliary sources and has been properly grounded. Electrical
tests should not be conducted until the unit has been tested for combustible gas and has been
found to be safe. Special Note: In order to perform a power factor test, or any other test that
requires high voltage, the transformer must be filled with insulating oil. Samples of insulating
fluid should be taken for screen tests and dissolved gas analysis. (The samples must be taken
prior to opening the transformer for inspection.) Table is a suggested checklist of electrical tests.
Table-3 Diagnostic tests

1. Frequency Response Analysis

2. Radio Influence Voltage

2.2.3.1 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

DGA was the first most effective diagnostic test, which was applied to transformers in service
for condition monitoring. Lot of significant data and expertise has been accumulated over the
past 25 years and considerable standardization in methods of analysis and interpretation has been
achieved. Gases dissolved in oil are analyzed by gas Chromatography. The technique helps in
detecting incipient faults developing in transformers. DGA is supplemented by other tests to
confirm diagnosis.

2.2.3.2 Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

During its life transformer is subjected to several short circuits with high fault currents, which
consequently, may cause deformations / displacements of windings as well as changes to
winding inductance or capacitances in transformers. Such small movements may not be detected
through the conventional condition monitoring techniques, such as DGA, winding resistance

measurements capacitance and tan delta measurements et. However, Frequency Response
measurement ha proved to be an effective off-line tool to detect these changes and is widely
being used world over The test is repeatable and immune to electro magnetic interference and is
not influenced by weather
Following inferences can be drawn from the test results.
Transformer is healthy and there is no movement of windings.
Transformer is damaged and requires immediate repairs.
Minor winding movement has occurred but the transformer can be run under close monitoring.
Internal inspection of transformer can be avoided after it had met heavy short/circuit inter turn
faults.

2.2.3.3 Recovery Voltage Measurement (RVM)

Moisture in transformer has an adverse effect on the dielectric strength of oil and paper. It
reduces mechanical strength of paper and accelerates the aging process.

In addition to

conventional tests viz. capacitance, tan delta and insulation resistance measurement for
assessing the moisture in transformer. DC recovery voltage measurement is another off-line
diagnostic tool for the condition monitoring of the oil, paper insulation of transformer. It detects
the content of water (in percentage) present in insulation system.

2.2.3.4 Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR):

This test energizes the selected winding at a specified voltage and measures the induced voltage
on other winding The Transformer Turn ratio (TTR) helps determine if the windings are short
circuited. In the power transformer with tap changer you will take advantage to make the register
of each position from it giving extra information on its status and that of the On Line Tap

Changer (OLTC). This measurement will directly inform of the existence of shorts between
turns.

2.2.3.5 Core Excitation Current

This test measures the required current to excite the Transformer core. High values of excitation
current are generally indicative of short turn or core damage in the transformer
Its the current

flowing into the high voltage winding with the low voltage side open. This

current should be proportional to the No-load acceptance test but with the difference resultant
from the use of test voltages different from nominal values.
It shouldnt exist excessive deflection from values measured between phases and its normal a
slight difference (geometric) between extreme and central windings. It will exist great changes
when appear heat points, degradation in the magnetic package, loose core or detached magnetic
shunt.

2.2.3.6 Insulation Resistance

The insulation resistance test is also known as a Meggar test. Its objective is to measure the
leakage current resistance between any two points separated by insulation. The test, therefore
determines how effective the insulation is in resisting the flow of electrical current. The voltage
is typically around 5005000 V dc; hence, this test is useful for checking the quality of the
insulation over time as the product is used.

2.2.3.7 Winding Power Factor

This test measures power loss through the insulating system caused by the insulation
deterioration, contamination and mechanical deformation. Abnormally high or low voltages of
power factor, dielectric loss, capacitance or leakage current indicate a failure of insulation
system..

2.3

Thermal Stresses in Power Transformers

2.3.1 Maximum Loading is Limited by Thermal Limits

Loading is primarily limited by highest permissible temperatures in the transformer, especially
within the windings
Permissible temperatures are generally expressed as temperature rises above ambient
Ambient temperature is defined by current standards, but local conditions can vary significantly
In accordance to Standards:

Winding temperature rise 65 K

Top oil temperature rise 65 K

Winding Temperature Rise and HS Calculation

Figure-7

2.3.2 Thermal Risk: Intensive Aging

Figure-8

2.3.3 Insulation Life Evaluation Results

Figure-9

Figure-10

2.4

Intelligence Based Maintenance Practices

2.4.1 The best designed and manufactured transformer . . .

Must withstand severe mechanical strain

Is subjected to extended high temperatures or load conditions and limited by the current
condition of its cooling system

May experience unusually high or frequent over voltages.

A condition based periodic maintenance plan and diagnostic tools are available from
ABB to identify when the transformer is at an unusually high failure risk if operation is
continued

2.4.2 Transformer Condition Must Drive Maintenance Practice

Actual Curves are Determined by Maintenance Actions or Inactions

Diagnostic Techniques for Power Transformers Highly Effective On-line Actions are
Figure-11

2.4.3 Advanced Life Assessment Transformer Monitoring

TEC Monitoring the Entire Transformer
TEC Provides the Following Capabilities:

Monitoring & diagnostic

Thermal ageing of insulation

Overload forecasts can be made, where estimated thermal ageing is taken into account.

Calculates to what extent the transformer can be overloaded

Gives a base to calculate the economical aspect of the overloading due to the accelerated
ageing of the insulation

The enhanced cooling control can start coolers earlier

Figure-12

2.4.4 Goal Few sensors, but used for many purposes

Thermal ageing

Hot-spot forecast

Overload capacity

Contact wear in tap-changer

Transformer temperature balance

Tap-changer temperature balance

Hydrogen in transformer oil

Moisture in transformer oil

Moisture in tap-changer oil

Condition in TEC cabinet

Voltage measurement

2.5

Risk of Failure Assessment

Risk of short-circuit failure based on assessment of the short-circuit strength of the
windings and clamping structure and the incidence and magnitude of short-circuit
through fault events.

Winding thermal condition based on the condition of the paper insulation since aged,
brittle insulation

is more likely to fail under the mechanical and electrical stress

conditions

Risk of dielectric failure based on the assessment of the dielectric withstand capability
of the transformer insulation system (oil, paper, etc.) and the electrical stress imposed by
the power system and naturally occurring events

Accessory failures failure of a transformer accessory such as a bushing, pump, or tap

changer, may cause a failure, or loss of service of the transformer.

Miscellaneous or Random Failure risk due to other causes of Failure or Loss of service

2.5.1 Risk Of Failure Determination

Figure-13