An Introduction to the Gospels

Written over the course of almost a century after Jesus' death, the four
gospels of the New Testament, though they tell the same story, reflect very
different ideas and concerns.
by Marilyn Mellowes

A period of forty years separates the death of Jesus from the writing of the
first gospel. History offers us little direct evidence about the events of this
period, but it does suggest that the early Christians were engaged in one of
the most basic of human activities: story-telling. In the words of Mike White,
"It appears that between the death of Jesus and the writing of the first
gospel, Mark, that they clearly are telling stories. They're passing on the
tradition of what happened to Jesus, what he stood for and what he did, orally,
by telling it and retelling it. And in the process they are defining Jesus for
themselves."
These shared memories, passed along by word of mouth, are known as "oral
tradition." They included stories of Jesus' miracles and healings, his parables
and teachings, and his death. Eventually some stories were written down. The
first written documents probably included an account of the death of Jesus and
a collection of sayings attributed to him.
Then, in about the year 70, the evangelist known as Mark wrote the first
"gospel" -- the words mean "good news" about Jesus. We will never know the
writer's real identity, or even if his name was Mark, since it was common
practice in the ancient world to attribute written works to famous people. But
we do know that it was Mark's genius to first to commit the story of Jesus to
writing, and thereby inaugurated the gospel tradition.
"The gospels are very peculiar types of literature. They're not biographies,"
says Prof. Paula Fredriksen, "they are a kind of religious advertisement. What
they do is proclaim their individual author's interpretation of the Christian
message through the device of using Jesus of Nazareth as a spokesperson for
the evangelists' position."
About 15 years after Mark, in about the year 85 CE, the author known
as Matthew composed his work, drawing on a variety of sources, including
Mark and from a collection of sayings that scholars later called "Q", for Quelle,
meaning source. The Gospel of Luke was written about fifteen years later,
between 85 and 95. Scholars refer to these three gospels as the "synoptic
gospels", because they "see" things in the same way. The Gospel of John,
sometimes called "the spiritual gospel," was probably composed between 90
and 100 CE. Its style and presentation clearly set it apart from the other three.
Each of the four gospels depicts Jesus in a different way. These
characterizations reflect the past experiences and the particular circumstances
of their authors' communities. The historical evidence suggests that Mark
wrote for a community deeply affected by the failure of the First Jewish Revolt
against Rome. Matthew wrote for a Jewish community in conflict with the
Pharisaic Judaism that dominated Jewish life in the postwar period. Luke wrote

for a predominately Gentile audience eager to demonstrate that Christian

beliefs in no way conflicted with their ability to serve as a good citizen of the
Empire.
Despite these differences, all four gospels contain the "passion narrative," the
central story of Jesus' suffering and death. That story is directly connected to
the Christian ritual of the Eucharist. As Helmut Koester has observed, the
ritual cannot "live" without the story.
While the gospels tell a story about Jesus, they also reflect the growing
tensions between Christians and Jews. By the time Luke composed his work,
tension was breaking into open hostility. By the time John was written, the
conflict had become an open rift, reflected in the vituperative invective of the
evangelist's language. In the words of Prof. Eric Meyers, "Most of the gospels
reflect a period of disagreement, of theological disagreement. And the New
Testament tells a story of a broken relationship, and that's part of the sad
story that evolves between Jews and Christians, because it is a story that has
such awful repercussions in later times."

The Gospel of Mark

The first attempt to tell the story of the life and the death of Jesus, this
narrative began the gospel tradition.
by Marilyn Mellowes

The gospel of Mark is the second to appear in the New Testament, but most
scholars now agree that it was composed first. While the work is attributed to
"Mark," we will probably never know the author's true identity, for it was
common practice in the ancient world to enhance the importance of written
works by attributing them to famous people. Whoever he was, Mark's gospel
was the first to attempt to tell the story of the life and the death of Jesus. He
probably drew on written collections of miracle stories, on parables, and
perhaps on a written account of Jesus' death. Mark combined these disparate
elements with other traditions passed on by word-of-mouth to create a new
narrative that began the gospel tradition.
Whether Mark himself was a gentile or a Jew remains a subject of
scholarly debate. So, too, does the place of his composition;
some scholars think that he wrote his work in Rome, others that
he wrote in Alexandria, still others suggest Syria. The way Mark
tells the story suggests that his audience lived outside the
homeland, spoke Greek rather than Aramaic, and was not familiar
with Jewish customs. While there is disagreement about where
Mark wrote, there is a consensus about when he wrote: he
probably composed his work in or about the year 70 CE, after the
failure of the First Jewish Revolt and the destruction of the
Jerusalem Temple at the hands of the Romans. That destruction
shapes how Mark tells his story.
Many Christians thought that the Revolt would inaugurate the eschatological
event that would establish the new Kingdom on earth and herald the
triumphant return of the Messiah. Jesus himself was remembered for
proclaiming that the Kingdom would come, maybe within their lifetimes:
"Some of you standing here will not taste death until you see the Kingdom
come with power." (MK 9:1.20). But these expectations were not fulfilled. And
the author of Mark seems to want to recast traditional images of Jesus to
make sense of the events that occurred, or did not occur, after he died
Those images include Jesus as a miracle worker. In keeping with the tradition
that he inherited, Mark depicts Jesus as performing an impressive array of
healing miracles: the man with the unclean spirit, the leper, the paralytic, the
man with a withered hand, the woman with an issue of blood, and the
daughter of Jairus. He seems to rush from one miracle to another; in Mark, the
word "immediately" occurs 39 times.
Although the author of Mark seems to be saying that Jesus is more than a just
a miracle worker, his real identity remains something of a mystery. Only
demons, women and other socially marginal characters seem to understand
who he really is, and Jesus warns them to remains silent.

Jesus himself reveals and conceals his identity. Mark depicts Jesus as speaking
in parables, yet his insights are offered only to a select few. Addressing his
disciples, Jesus says: "To you has been given the secret of the kingdom of
God, but for those outside, everything comes in parables, in order that 'they
may indeed look, but not perceive, and may indeed listen, but not
understand . . . " (MK 4:11-12)
The disciples appear as Jesus' inner circle, but even they do not fully
understand who he is. On the road to Caesarea Philippi, Jesus asks his
disciples "Who do people say that I am?" And they answer, "John the Baptist"
or "Elijah." Turning to Peter, he repeats the question. To which Peter responds,
'You are the Messiah." But when Jesus predicts his own passion, Peter rebukes
him, prompting Jesus to call him "Satan." When Jesus is arrested, Peter denies
knowing him, and all the apostles desert him.
The clue to Jesus' identity is what scholars call the "Messianic secret." Jesus is
the Messiah, and he alone fully understands what he must do: he must suffer
and he must die. Indeed, the gospel of Mark is really about thedeath of
Jesus and the hope of his return when God brings an end to the present evil
age.
As Jesus moves toward his final fate, he is questioned by the High Priest, who
asks: "are you the Christ, the son of the Blessed?" Jesus answers: "I am and
you will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of power and coming with
the clouds of heaven." In Mark's story, the High Priest dispatches Jesus to
Pilate, who sentences him to death. And it is only his death that reveals his
true identity. With deliberate irony, the figure who recognizes that identity is a
Roman soldier, who exclaims: "Truly, this man was God's son." (MK 15:39)
In Mark's story, Jesus is buried in a tomb. Mark's original ending of the gospel
does not contain an account of the resurrection; that ending, now contained in
the gospel of the New Testament, was added by a later author. Mark ended his
work on a stark note. Two women enter the tomb, and they see a young man
dressed in white. He explains that Jesus has been raised, and he instructs the
women to tell Peter and the other disciples. The women flee in terror.
What message did Mark intend to send to his audience? Scholars do not agree.
Some argue that Mark deliberately constructs a bleak and frightening picture
because that was the experience of the people for whom Mark composed his
work. Elaine Pagels offers a different interpretation: "And the last words of the
original gospel are 'and they were terrified.' It would be very bad news if it
weren't that underneath this rather dark story is an enormous hope . . . that
this very promising story and its terrible anguished ending is nevertheless not
the ending. That there's a mystery in it, a divine mystery of God's revelation
that will happen yet. And I think it's that sense of hope that is deeply
appealing."

The Gospel of Matthew

Writing for a Jewish Christian audience, Matthew's main concern is to present

Jesus as a teacher even greater than Moses.
by Marilyn Mellowes

The evangelist who composed the gospel of Matthew was probably a Jewish
Christian, possibly a scribe. The historical evidence suggests that he wrote
between 80 and 90 CE and addressed his work to a community in conflict:
Jewish Christians who were being pushed out of the larger communities,
located in northern Galilee or Syria. These communities were led by Pharisees,
rabbis who assumed leadership of the Jewish people in the aftermath of the
destruction of Jerusalem.
Matthew is at pains to place his community squarely within its
Jewish heritage, and to portray a Jesus whose Jewish identity is
beyond doubt. He begins by tracing Jesus' genealogy. To do this,
Matthew only needed to show that Jesus was a descendent of
King David. But Matthew takes no chances. He traces Jesus'
lineage all the way back to Abraham. In the words of Helmut
Koester, "It is very important for Matthew that Jesus is the son of
Abraham." In short, Jesus is a Jew.
Matthew grounds his entire work in the traditions of Judaism.
Matthew's narrative includes most of Mark's gospel but is supplemented with
sayings material, another written source known as "M," and possibly other
material as well. But even through the evangelist includes miracle stories, his
main concern is to present Jesus as a teacher even greater than Moses.
Accordingly, Matthew uses his sources to create a somewhat different
narrative in which Jesus repeated instructs the people.
In Matthew's gospel, Jesus delivers five major speeches, which parallel the five
great books of Moses known as the Pentateuch. The first and most important
of Jesus' speeches is the Sermon on the Mount. One of the intriguing
characteristics of this address is Jesus' repetition of the words, "you have
heard it said . . . But I say to you." Matthew is giving a new interpretation to
the Law; he is establishing the church as the new Israel. Matthew's concern
about the state of the church is reflected in the way he tells the story of Jesus
stilling the storm. In Greek, the word "storm" actually means earthquake.
According to one interpretation, this story is really a metaphor: the disciples
represent the Christian community, the boat is the church. In the face of
upheaval and uncertainty that challenges faith and threatens to undo the
church, Jesus gives assurance to the faithful: "Behold, I am with you until the
end of days."
Matthew's community subscribed to the Law, but they saw Jesus -- not
the Pharisees -- as the rightful interpreter of the Law. This conviction tended
to undermine the legitimacy and authority of the Pharisees who criticized the
followers of Jesus. Now Matthew makes the Pharisees the "hypocrites": "Woe
to you scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites. For you are like white washed tombs
which on the outside look beautiful but inside they are full of the bones of the
dead and all kinds of filth." (MATT 23:27)

Matthew's attitude toward the Pharisees is reflected in the way he tells the
story of the death of Jesus. Pontius Pilate is portrayed as a sympathetic figure,
and the blame is squarely placed on the Jewish leaders. But the fact that Jesus
is pronounced dead leaves the Pharisees still worried. Jesus had predicted that
"After three days I will rise again." (MATT 27:63). They imagine a scenario in
which the followers of Jesus steal his body from the tomb in order to vindicate
his claims. Pilate suggests that they seal the tomb with a large stone.
Now Matthew refashions the final scene of Mark's story. The women come to
the tomb and discover that Jesus is gone. But this time the angel instructs
them to tell the disciples that he has risen. Then Jesus himself appears before
the women and directs them to tell the disciples to meet him in Galilee. The
disciples go the mountain -- just as Jesus himself had once ascended the
mountain to deliver the Sermon on the Mount -- and they encounter Jesus.
But some of them have doubts. Is it really him? Jesus reassures them: "All
power is given unto me in heaven and in earth." And he also instructs them:
"Go therefore and teach all Nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father,
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost."
Notice that Jesus does not tell the disciples to only go only to "Israel" or to the
"lost sheep of the house of Israel." He tells them to go to "the Nations" -- to all
peoples. For the Kingdom which Jesus has promised will embrace both Jew and
gentile alike

The Gospel of Luke

This gospel tries to answer the question, "Can Christians who believe in the
Kingdom of God also be loyal subjects of the Roman Empire?"
by Marilyn Mellowes

The author of Matthew wrote of a Kingdom that would embrace Jews and
gentiles alike. The author of Luke wrote for a community which also awaited
the arrival of God's Kingdom, but which was concerned about its life in another
Kingdom, the Kingdom of Caesar. The question they faced was this: can
Christians who believe in the Kingdom of God also be loyal subjects of the
Roman Empire? Luke's unequivocal answer was "Yes."
Tradition holds that the author of the gospel of Luke was a
physician and a traveling companion of the apostle Paul. History
offers no evidence to substantiate these claims, but the work
itself suggests that it was composed by someone who lived in one
of the cities where Paul had established his early churches. The
composition and language of the work suggests that its author
was well-educated, fluent in Greek, and possessed a keen sense
of literary style.
Whoever wrote Luke wrote more than a gospel; he also wrote the
Book of Acts, an account of the growth and expansion of
Christianity after the death of Jesus through the end of the ministry of the
apostle Paul. In fact, many scholars insist that Luke's gospel is just the first
half of a two-part story that begins with Jesus in Nazareth and ends with Paul
in Rome. In the words of Mike White, "He is telling a bigger story, a grander
story." And that story has decisively shaped how Christians have viewed the
origins of their church.
It has also deeply influenced how the later church came to imagine the birth of
Jesus. For it is Luke who presents the familiar tale of his birth: "And in those
days, a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be
taxed." (LK 2:1) Luke describes how Joseph and Mary journeyed from
Nazareth, in the region of Galilee into Judea, to Bethlehem. Why does Luke tell
the story this way? Scholars speculate that he is placing the birth of Jesus in
Bethlehem because Bethlehem is the city of King David; Luke is drawing a
direct parallel between the first king of Israel and the new King, Jesus Christ.
According to some interpreters, Luke's Jesus is not only a king, he also
resembles a Greek philosopher. Others suggest that Luke's Jesus more closely
resembles a semi-divine hero, such as those portrayed in popular stories and
celebrated in Greek song.
The Jesus of Luke is a powerful figure. In the words of Holland Hendrix, "He
comes on the scene as a prophet straight out of the Hebrew Bible. At his first
appearance in his hometown, he quotes the prophet Isaiah. He comes across
as a liberator, a great miracle worker. But also as the quintessential benefactor
figure." Unlike Matthew's Jesus, who blesses the poor in spirit, Luke's Jesus
simply blesses the poor.

After a series of blessings addressing the peoples' physical needs, Jesus offers
advice on how to live a good life: "But I say to you that listen, Love your
enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for
those who abuse you. If anyone strikes you on the cheek, offer the other also;
and from anyone who takes away your coat do not withhold even your shirt.
Give to everyone who begs from you; and if anyone takes away your goods,
do not ask for them again. Do unto others as you would have them do to you."
(LK 6:27-31).
One of the most notable differences between Luke's gospel and those of
Matthew or Mark is, in Francois Bovon's words, "its sense of joy." The gospel
begins with the joyous account of Jesus' birth and ends on the victorious note
of Jesus' resurrection and ascension into heaven. The sense of abandonment
that characterizes Mark's ending is reduced to a brief interlude in Luke's story.
As Luke's gospel ends, Jesus has departed in body. But at the beginning of
Acts, his Spirit returns, guiding the disciples to the successful completion of
their mission.
Compared to the other gospels, the Jesus of Luke is less of a rabble-rouser;
so, too, is the apostle Paul. This tells us something about Luke's audience: it is
learning to live and to flourish in the Roman world, becoming absorbed into its
surrounding society and culture. Luke wants to assure his Christian community
-- and their neighbors -- that there is no conflict between faith in Jesus and
loyalty to the Emperor. The kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Caesar can
peacefully co-exist side by side; Christians can be good citizens of both the
earthly and heavenly realms.
Luke's hopes for acceptance are reflected in the way he portrays the death of
Jesus. His last words are "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they
do." (LK23:34) The Jesus of Luke dies with calm resolution: he knows that his
death will be followed by the birth of the church.

The Gospel of Luke

This gospel tries to answer the question, "Can Christians who believe in the
Kingdom of God also be loyal subjects of the Roman Empire?"
by Marilyn Mellowes

The author of Matthew wrote of a Kingdom that would embrace Jews and
gentiles alike. The author of Luke wrote for a community which also awaited
the arrival of God's Kingdom, but which was concerned about its life in another
Kingdom, the Kingdom of Caesar. The question they faced was this: can
Christians who believe in the Kingdom of God also be loyal subjects of the
Roman Empire? Luke's unequivocal answer was "Yes."
Tradition holds that the author of the gospel of Luke was a
physician and a traveling companion of the apostle Paul. History
offers no evidence to substantiate these claims, but the work
itself suggests that it was composed by someone who lived in one
of the cities where Paul had established his early churches. The
composition and language of the work suggests that its author
was well-educated, fluent in Greek, and possessed a keen sense
of literary style.
Whoever wrote Luke wrote more than a gospel; he also wrote the
Book of Acts, an account of the growth and expansion of
Christianity after the death of Jesus through the end of the ministry of the
apostle Paul. In fact, many scholars insist that Luke's gospel is just the first
half of a two-part story that begins with Jesus in Nazareth and ends with Paul
in Rome. In the words of Mike White, "He is telling a bigger story, a grander
story." And that story has decisively shaped how Christians have viewed the
origins of their church.
It has also deeply influenced how the later church came to imagine the birth of
Jesus. For it is Luke who presents the familiar tale of his birth: "And in those
days, a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be
taxed." (LK 2:1) Luke describes how Joseph and Mary journeyed from
Nazareth, in the region of Galilee into Judea, to Bethlehem. Why does Luke tell
the story this way? Scholars speculate that he is placing the birth of Jesus in
Bethlehem because Bethlehem is the city of King David; Luke is drawing a
direct parallel between the first king of Israel and the new King, Jesus Christ.
According to some interpreters, Luke's Jesus is not only a king, he also
resembles a Greek philosopher. Others suggest that Luke's Jesus more closely
resembles a semi-divine hero, such as those portrayed in popular stories and
celebrated in Greek song.
The Jesus of Luke is a powerful figure. In the words of Holland Hendrix, "He
comes on the scene as a prophet straight out of the Hebrew Bible. At his first
appearance in his hometown, he quotes the prophet Isaiah. He comes across
as a liberator, a great miracle worker. But also as the quintessential benefactor
figure." Unlike Matthew's Jesus, who blesses the poor in spirit, Luke's Jesus
simply blesses the poor.

After a series of blessings addressing the peoples' physical needs, Jesus offers
advice on how to live a good life: "But I say to you that listen, Love your
enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for
those who abuse you. If anyone strikes you on the cheek, offer the other also;
and from anyone who takes away your coat do not withhold even your shirt.
Give to everyone who begs from you; and if anyone takes away your goods,
do not ask for them again. Do unto others as you would have them do to you."
(LK 6:27-31).
One of the most notable differences between Luke's gospel and those of
Matthew or Mark is, in Francois Bovon's words, "its sense of joy." The gospel
begins with the joyous account of Jesus' birth and ends on the victorious note
of Jesus' resurrection and ascension into heaven. The sense of abandonment
that characterizes Mark's ending is reduced to a brief interlude in Luke's story.
As Luke's gospel ends, Jesus has departed in body. But at the beginning of
Acts, his Spirit returns, guiding the disciples to the successful completion of
their mission.
Compared to the other gospels, the Jesus of Luke is less of a rabble-rouser;
so, too, is the apostle Paul. This tells us something about Luke's audience: it is
learning to live and to flourish in the Roman world, becoming absorbed into its
surrounding society and culture. Luke wants to assure his Christian community
-- and their neighbors -- that there is no conflict between faith in Jesus and
loyalty to the Emperor. The kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Caesar can
peacefully co-exist side by side; Christians can be good citizens of both the
earthly and heavenly realms.
Luke's hopes for acceptance are reflected in the way he portrays the death of
Jesus. His last words are "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they
do." (LK23:34) The Jesus of Luke dies with calm resolution: he knows that his
death will be followed by the birth of the church.