Option B: Conflict in Europe 1935 1945

Principal focus: Students investigate key features and issues in the history of the
conflict in Europe 1935 1945
Key features and issues:

Causes of the conflict

Aims and strategies of the Allied and Axis powers
Turning points of the war
Impact of war on civilians
Origins, nature and impact of the Holocaust
Reasons for the Allied victory

Students learn about:

1. Growth of European tensions
Dictatorships in Germany and Italy
The League of Nations and collapse of collective security: Abyssinia, the Spanish
Civil War
Britain, France and the policy of appeasement: an assessment
Significance of the Nazi Soviet Non Aggression Pact
2. Course of the European war
German advances: the fall of Poland, the Low Countries and France
The air war and its effects: The Battle of Britain and the Blitz, the bombing of
Germany
Operation Barbarossa, the Battle of Stalingrad and the significance of the
Russian campaign
Battle of El Alamein and the significance of the conflict in North Africa to the
European War
3. Civilians at war
Social and economic effects of the war on civilians in Britain and EITHER
Germany OR the Soviet Union
Nazi racial policies: the Holocaust and the persecution of minorities
4. End of the conflict
D Day and the liberation of France
Russian counter offensives 1944
Final defeat 1944 1945
Nuremberg War Crimes trials

1. Growth of European tensions

Dictatorships in Germany and Italy
Germany

German foreign policy leading up to the war in 1939 was motivated by lebensraum
(living space) and race (survival of the fittest)
Hitler had 4 stages of foreign policy which were:
1. Revisionism: tearing up the treaty of Versailles, ending reparations, restoring
military power, taking back stolen territories and re-establishing Germanys
place in Europe
2. Creation of Grossdeutschland: Uniting Germany and Austria (Anschluss) and
bring back the Germans forced to live with inferior races
3. Autarky: economic self sufficiency, important for future expansion
4. France: once France was dealt with, Hitler could turn eastwards
Hitler said what the other countries wanted to hear: I do not seek military
dominance, only equality, Germany seeks a peaceful Europe and the German
people demand only what was taken from them in 1919
Germanys foreign policy in action
October 1933: Germany leaves the League of Nations, gives Hitler and the
Germans freedom
January 1934: Germany and Poland sign a 10 year Non-Aggression pact,
highlights Germany peaceful intention, puts the Polish into a false sense of
security and stops any possible Polish-Soviet pact
March 1935: Reintroduction of Conscription and Britain and France take no action
March 1936: Remilitarisation of the Rhineland, Germanys strategic position is
improved
April 1937: Guernica, Bombed to nothing by German Aircraft
Italy

Benito Mussolini became the Prime Minister of Italy on the 31st October 1922, and
by 1929 he had set up a corporate state
During the 1920s they made significant economic and social gains such as:
expansion in primary and secondary education, hydro-electric schemes and the
Pontine Marshes near Rome were drained
Mussolini had several foreign policy aims which were:
1. Military power: sought to pursue rearmament, conscription and military
strength in a similar way to Hitler
2. Italian Empire: a revival of the glory of the Roman Empire, dreams of turning
the Mediterranean Sea into an Italian lake
3. Major European power: desire for national glory and strength and was
pursued for its own sake
Mussolini fell under the influence of Hitler and Italy became the junior partner in
the German Italian relationship
Italys foreign policy in action
October 1925: The Locarno Treaty, guarantees west European frontiers
1928: Abyssinian affairs, Mussolini signs a friendship treaty with Abyssinia
April 1935: the Stresa Front, Britain, France and Italy form a common front
against any future German aggression

 February 1937: Italy leaves the league of Nations

May 1939: Pact of Steel, Italy and Germany sign an alliance
The League of Nations and collapse of collective security: Abyssinia, the
Spanish Civil War

Successes of the League of Nations: Yugoslavia ended its invasion of Albania in

1921 when threatened with international sanctions, a clash between Greece and
Bulgaria in 1925 was ended with League intervention, dealing with the
administration of the Saar and Danzig, stateless refugees, health, transport and
finance
Failures of the League of Nations: Allied intervention in Russia in 1919 was
ignored by the League, Italy ignored the League in 1923, the League failed to deal
with issues outside of Europe and several issues were not allowed to be presented
to the league such as: Allied debts, relations between Britain and Egypt, and
between China and the great powers
Reasons for the failure of the League of Nations
1. The League operated on the idea of internationalism, where all countries were
focused on nationalism
2. The aim of disarmament was flawed as it called for disarmament level consistent
with national safety. That level was interpreted as more than their neighbour
3. Countries did not want to be involved with conflict that had nothing to do with
them
4. The League became seen as backing the interest of established powers
5. The League was only as strong as its members, this didnt reflect the true world
balance of power
Abyssinia

3rd October 1935, Italy launched a full scale attack on Abyssinia. The League of
Nations attempted to the persuade Abyssinia to accept border changes.
Both France and Britain chose not to take action against Italy as they were more
concerned with possible German behaviour
The League imposed a number of sanctions which were ineffective because: the
Soviet Union and Germany helped Italy and Austria, Albania, Switzerland and
Hungary refused to impose the sanction
The impact of Abyssinia: proved the concept of collective security was dead,
was the death of the Stresa front, encouraged Hitler that he could get away with
acts of aggression, transformed Italy into Germanys partner and the Hoare-Laval
plan made it clear Britain and France would rather do deals with dictators

AJP Taylor: this was the death blow to the League as well as to Abyssinia
The Spanish Civil War

Started July 1936, military officers revolted against the government. Tortures,
massacres and civilian killings were common and were seen clearly by the bombing
of Guernica in 1937
Significance of the Spanish Civil War

 Consolidated the divisions within Europe which would play out in World War
two, Germany and Italy backed the Nationalists. Britain and France were
sympathetic to the Republics
Italys junior status in the Axis partnership was highlighted, Germany provided
much military equipment and had the opportunity to test out their air force
Soviet assistance to the Republicans was distrusted
Highlighted the incapacity of the League of Nations, Spain was seen as the
rehearsal for a bigger conflict
AJP Taylor: the international failure surrounding the War was a symptom of the failure
of collective sec.
Britain, France and the policy of appeasement: an assessment

Appeasement had been in operation since 1919, Lloyd George sought the
moderate the Treaty of Versailles realising the British economy needed a stable and
prosperous Germany
Factors behind appeasement:
1. The League of Nations and idea of collective security was dead
2. Britain armed forces were run down, British believed appeasement gave them
the chance to rearm
3. Britains main partner was France who were faced with internal divisions and
relied on the Maginot
4. Britain was preoccupied with domestic matters, unemployment was high
5. Dread of another war, new technology would make future wars worse
6. Hitler was admired by some in Britain, as he brought discipline to his country
and provided defence against communism. His actions were viewed
sympathetically
Appeasement in action:
October 1933: German rearmament, Germany played up the fear of communism
March 1935: Germany introduces conscription, mild protest by Britain
March 1938: Austria, Britain accepted Anschluss as inevitable
September 1938: The Czechoslovak Crisis, the Munich Conference. Hitlers
demand for the Sudetenland was given, for war to be avoided
The Munich agreement was dissolved, once Germany took over the rest of
Czechoslovakia and Mussolini annexed Albania.
Invasion of Czech, March 1939: Policy of Appeasement came to an end in March
1939 Hitler proceeded to take over rest of Czech. Western democracies realised
Hitler could only be stopped by military force. Invasion of Poland 1939 Britain +
France declared war on Germany
Historical opinion: historians continue to try and justify the policy of appeasement
1935-1938, immediate aftermath of war appeasement regarded as surrender in
the face of Hitlers blackmail, view shared by number of wartime politicians
including Winston Churchill. 1967 New government documents available, view of
Chamberlain and appeasement began to change, analysed in his internal context
historians discovered appeasement in fact a valid policy given the circumstances. *

David Dilks: [Chamberlain believed that] Germany had a genuine case for revision of
the Treaty of Versailles and fully understood that the possession of military strength
was fundamental to a successful foreign policy.

John Wheeler-Bennet: [Chamberlain] failed to confront the moral issues inherent in

negotiating with an openly aggressive dictator.
Significance of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

Reasons why Hitler and Stalin signed a non-aggression pact

Britains guarantee to Poland made war inevitable, Stalin hoped Hitler would
exhaust himself against France and Britain
A deal would give Stalin a share of Poland and provide security between
Germany and Russia
With Hitler busy in the west, Russia could consolidate and strengthen its forces
The west could not be trusted: proven by Munich and Western vacillation in1939
Fear of a two front war, the deal allowed Poland to be defeated quickly
The Soviet Union could be dealt with once western nations were beaten
The deal would stop Germany getting into the mess it had in July/August 1914
Ribbentrop arrived in Moscow on the 23rd August 1939, Germany and the Soviet
Union sign a ten year non-aggression pact. This was the green light to invading
Poland
Article 2 stated that if Germany or Russia were involved in a war with a third
power, the other would not get involved
Article 7 stated the agreement would take effect immediately
Contained secret agreements which created Soviet and German influence such as
Germany would receive western Poland and Lithuania and the Soviet Union would
get Estonia, Latvia, Finland and Romania

Philip Bell: the reasons for the pact were Britains distrust of Stalin and that Hitler was
able to offer Stalin what he wanted immediately, where the British and French could
offer nothing
Richard Evans: neither Hitler nor Stalin expected the pact to last however at the time
it suited both Hitler and Stalin to drop their mutual distrust. Stalin avoided a war with
the Germans and it offered long term prospects

2. Course of the European war

German advances: the fall of Poland, the Low Countries and France
The fall of Poland: September/October 1939

Began at dawn on the 1st of September 1939. Britain and France honoured their
guarantee to Poland and declared war on Germany on the 3rd of September
Polish forces were no match for the Wehrmacht; they had 370,000 troops, 313
tanks and an air force of less than 400 planes. Compared to the Germans 1.25
million men, 2400 tanks, 1400 planes and almost 10,000 artillery field guns
German forces under the command of General von Brauchitsch, the Luftwaffe
destroyed most of the Polish air force in a few days
Polish armies were attacked and surrounded blitzkrieg style and on the 8th
September , Polish forces exhausted from a 6 day battle fell back on Warsaw which
the Germans besieged

Polish resistance ended on the 17th September when Soviet troops invaded from
the east, on the 28th of September Warsaw fell with all Polish resistance ending by
the 5th of October
German losses were 10,500 killed and 30,000 wounded. Polish losses were 66,000
dead and over 200,000 wounded. 700,000 Polish became German prisoners with
217,000 becoming Soviet prisoners
28th September: Lithuania was given to the Soviet Union, Germany kept Western
Poland. In the two years the Soviet Union ruled a fifth of the population was
arrested by the 5th year a fifth of the population was killed

The fall of the Low Countries and France: May/June 1940

The 10th of May German forces attacked the Low Countries Belgium and the
Netherlands
Germans quickly cut through the Netherland and within days the Netherlands
surrendered. On the 10th of May the Luftwaffe bomber Belgian airfield. The Belgian
army surrendered in late May
British and French commanders thought any attack of France would be similar to
the Schlieffen Plan and that the Maginot Line would be sufficient protection. This
was incorrect and Hitlers blitzkrieg tactics and his generals tactics stumped the
allied opponents
General von Bock advanced with a massive force through Belgium as a diversion,
which tied up Anglo-French forces on the Maginot Line. General von Rundstedt was
preparing a massive force to cut through France
Allied forces to the north in Belgium and to the south around the Maginot Line were
completely separate. German advances were so rapid, that they were in danger of
being cut off and German tanks pushed deeper into France
On the 20th May German forces reached the coast at Abbeville, the port of
Boulogne was taken on the 27th May

The fall of France

German resumed attacks on the French on the 5th of June by targeting Paris and
areas to the east of the capital
On the 10th of June, Mussolini declared war on France; however Italian troops failed
to make any headway through France.
The 13th June, Paris was declared an open city, the Germans entered Paris on June
14 and encircled the remains of the French army behind the Maginot Line
An armistice with Germany was signed on the 22nd June and with Italy on the 24th
June, the French were forced to sign the armistice in the same railway carriage that
the Germans signed the armistice in November 1919, the carriage was then
destroyed
Terms of the armistice included: France was divided into two zones; the rest of
France was to be administered by the Vichy regime. This regime would collaborate
with the Germans throughout the war and was hated by most Frenchmen

AJP Taylor: Hitler was far from preparing for a great war; he operated on a narrow
margin and counted on quick victories achieved at little cost

The air war and its effects: the Battle of Britain and the Blitz, the bombing
of Germany
The Battle of Britain

After Dunkirk and the Fall of France, Hitler assumed that Britain would reach an
agreement with him, when Churchill and Britain refused Hitler attacked.
Operation Sea Lion was drawn up and Hitler realised invasion would not be possible
without control of the sea and air. Goering convinced Hitler that the Luftwaffe
could do the job
The first major raids on Southern England occurred on the 10th of July, between the
8th and 18th of August attacks were concentrated on airfields used by the RAF.
Goering nominated the 15th of August as Eagle Day and launched 1790 targets
along the east and south coasts of England. On the 25th and 26th of August, RAF
bombers launched a minor attack on Berlin.
Germany failed to gain air superiority and on the 17th of September Hitler called off
Operation Sea Lion
Victory in the Battle of Britain was due to
Radar made it possible to track German fighters before they reached Britain
The RAF could land and refuel easily, spending more time in the air. Fallen
aircrafts could be repaired and pilots could be rescued. Germans lacked this
advantage
RAF pilots displayed enormous skill, they were from Britain, Poland, France and
Czechoslovakia
The Luftwaffe lacked specific aims and operated independently of the German
military
The Dowding System provided the RAF with a sophisticated detection and
command system
German decisions to switch its attack from the airfields to blitz the cities
occurred just as Fighter command was near collapse
Effects of the Battle of Britain include:
Hitler would now have to face a two and later three front war
The invasion of Russia had less likelihood of success/the US was able to base
itself in Britain
Italian and German forces didnt take North Africa or gain control of the Middle
East oils supplies

The Blitz

The 15th of September, Germany launched a daylight bombing raid on London,

daylight attacks lasted until the 30th of September where they switched to
attacking at night
German attacks were aimed at London, industrial and communication centres
across Britain
Main attacks occurred between September 1940 and May 1941, the Luftwaffe
dropped about 55000 tons of bombs on Britain. Over 40,000 civilians dead, 86,000
seriously injured and 150,000 slightly injured

Despite the loss of life some positives occurred such as: industrial production was
not drastically hurt, British resolve hardened, St Pauls cathedral survived and the
Blitz created sympathy and admiration for Britain in the US

The Bombing of Germany

Arthur Harris was appointed commander-in-chief of Bomber Command in February

1942, his tactics were to attack entire cities rather than specific targets
Early bombing tactics were mixed: on the 15th and 16th of May, two engine bombers
attacked the Ruhr but only a quarter found the target area and night flying and
poor navigation accounted for the loss of 800 bomber aircrafts
Throughout 1942 and 1943 developments occurred to assist bombing such as:
aircraft production was in full swing, improvements in navigation equipment and
technological improvements occurred
In January 1943, Churchill met US president Roosevelt where they decided to give
the bombing campaign priority and seek the destruction of the German military
and industrial system
Over a 5 day period in July 1943, Hamburg was destroyed by a massive
concentrated attack, the city turned into a fireball and 40,000 people died with one
million becoming homeless
Bomber Command had not gained control of the air over Germany
In early 1944, Germany suffered enormous fighter losses and front line aircrafts
had to be withdrawn to protect Germany. Towards the end of the war Germanys
only aerial response came from the development of v1 and v2 rockets, these had
no bearing on the war
Bombing destroyed Germanys economic base, oil supplies were reduced, chemical
production cut, the railway system was weakened and German industry relied on
stockpiles

Denis Richards: the Battle of Britain did not mean the end of the war was near,
however it was a major turning point as it stopped Hitlers path of conquest
Richard Overy: German forces lost half the weapons needed at the front, millions of
workers absented themselves from work, and the economy gradually creaked almost
to a halt
Operation Barbarossa, the Battle of Stalingrad and the significance of the
Russian campaign
Operation Barbarossa

On the 22nd June 1941, German forces invaded the Soviet Union under Directive 21
which was issued in December 1940. This invasion of Russia was called Operation
Barbarossa
The attack was enormous, it comprised 3.2 million German soldiers, 600,000 truck,
3550 tanks and 2000 combat aircraft
German forces were divided into three great armies which were Army Group North,
Army Group Centre and Army Group South
German forces made great progress: by noon on the first day 1200 Soviet aircraft
had been destroyed, within a month the Wehrmacht had taken an area twice the

size of Germany and by the end of September Soviet forces had lost over three
million men, most of its aircraft and thousands of tanks
Army Group Centre was stalled by Hitler when he ordered them to head south to
capture Kiev rather than to push onto Moscow
Kiev was captured on the 19th of September, South Odessa fell on the 16th of
October, Kharkov on the 24th of October and Rostov on the 20th of November
Even with Germanys victories, their momentum had slowed and by November the
Russian winter was beginning to play a part
During mid-October Moscow was in a state of panic, General Zhukov was in charge
of Moscows defence and was able to turn the tide on the Germans
Zhukov launched a counter attack on the 5th of December, German were forced
back up to 300km. Blitzkrieg had failed and Hitler faced a drawn out war against a
revived Red Army
Reasons for the failure of Operation Barbarossa:
The Russian winter with -40 degree temperatures was something Germany had
never experienced, whereas it was the Russians natural environment. Autumn
rains turns roads into quagmires
Hitler did not allow his generals to run things which prevented the capture of
Leningrad
Stalin staying in Moscow raised morale he also interfered less and his support of
Zhukov was important in the ability of the Soviet Union to survive
The Soviet Union followed a scorched earth policy and Russias size made it
difficult for the Germany to keeps its forces supplied
With no threat of a Japanese attack in the east, Stalin was able to move his
Siberian forces westwards and Zhukov was able to bring out the Soviet Unions
new equipment

David Christian: A longer, drawn out war allowed Russia to exploit its reserves of raw
materials and labour. In this sense, the battle of Moscow was a turning point
The Battle of Stalingrad

General Paulus began his attack on Stalingrad in August through a two day aerial
bombardment that destroyed more than of the city
Zhukov launched Operation Uranus on the 19th October and ordered his forces to
not give up any territory. His plan was to surround Paulus army in a pincer
movement
On the 23rd of November the two Soviet forces met at the Kalach Bridge which
trapped German forces inside the city. Paulus sought permission from Hitler to
surrender and Hitler refused.
The German 6th Army surrendered in late January 1943. Over 300,000 German men
were lost, over 200,000 Axis soldiers were dead and 91,000 were taken to Soviet
Imprisonment

Martin McCauley: Germanys greatest defeat was a turning point. From now on it was
not a matter of how the war would end, but when
The Significance of the Russian Campaign

Kharkov was captured by a Soviet offensive but by mid March, it was in German
hands again. As 1943 wore on, Soviet forces gained a real advantage in their
equipment: Soviet production was rationalised and American supplies were making
a massive difference
In mid 1943 Hitler committed his forced to Operation Citadel at Kursk, which was to
last from the 5th to the 12th of July. The Russians were superior in numbers and
equipment, defence lines made up of tanks and artillery stretch for 50miles. It
became the greatest tank battle in history; Hitler broke off the fight on the 12th to
deal with landings in Sicily. Losses on both sides were huge, the Soviets could make
up these losses but the Germans could not
The Battle of Kursk was a true turning point, Hitler would never launch offensives
on the Eastern Front again and all he could now do was to delay the advance of
Soviet forces, victory was no longer an option
Soviet victories: 5th August the Red Army captured Belgorod, 23rd August Kharkov
was retaken and on the 6th of November Kiev was captured
The German army was being worn down by attrition

Richard Overy: the struggle for Kursk destroyed the German army...Soviet success at
Kursk with so much at stake, was the single most important victory of the war
B Liddel Hart: the Russian Campaign highlighted one of the major flaws of the
German command structure, it indicated how the war might have spun out, and the
Russians exhausted, if the defensive strategy had matched the tactics
The Battle of El Alamein and the significance of the conflict in North Africa
to the European War
The Battle of El Alamein

Rommel knew his position in North Africa was deteriorating and the longer he
delayed attack, the less chance he had of success
Reinforced by mean and equipment, Montgomerys position was getting stronger.
More than half of Rommels armour consisted of worn out Italian vehicles and
Rommel needed to hope for a short battle
The Battle of El Alamein opened with a massive artillery bombardment along a
10km front on the 23rd of October. 900 British guns hammered Rommels position
Rommel was in Germany when the attack began and returned to find his
Commander General Stumme had died from a heart attack
Battle raged for ten days, with long tank dues, mass infantry advances and hand to
hand fighting. By the 2nd of November, Rommel had lost of 350 tanks and 15000
men, British casualties had reached 24000 dead or wounded with 500 tanks lost
Rommel sought permission from Hitler to withdraw, Hitler refused and Rommel
withdrew anyway
Rommel faced the possibility of being trapped between allied forces moving east
and west across North Africa so he retreated towards Tunisia
Poor planning, slow movement and bad weather had slowed the movement of
Rommel and his troops as well as the Allied and Axis forces

Significance of the conflict in North Africa to the European War

Strategic Impact: The Suez Canal remained in allied hand and war was waging in
the Far East. Middle Eastern Oil supplies had been denied to the Axis powers,
Germanys shortage of resources would be crucial to its defeat. No possibility of
Axis forces in North Africa sweeping up through the Middle East to link with Hitlers
armies in Russia and the Allies now dominated the Mediterranean Sea
the battle of El Alamein was a turning point in the war, linked with Germanys
defeat at Stalingrad and allied control of the Atlantic, Germanys end was coming
closer
Control of North Africa now made a direct attack on Italy possible, by mid 1944
Hitler would face a three front war
The boost to British morale, Britain did not have much to cheer about during the
war, Churchill summed up the Battle of El Alamein by saying it is not the end; it is
not even the beginning of the end; but its perhaps he end of the beginning

David Thomson: the North Africa campaign was a complete testing and vindication in
action of the Atlantic Alliance
William Shirer: the Nazi success had passed and was never to be returned, the days
of the blitzkrieg offensives were over and with the North African conflict a Nazi dream
was destroyed

3. Civilians at War
Social and economic effects of the war on civilians in Britain
Bombing raids: The Anderson shelter and Morrison shelter were provided cheaply
by the government to provide protection for families from air and bombing raids.
Wealthy stayed in funk hotels. In London city tube stations were used as public air raid
shelters with thousands sleeping in them. German V1 and V2 rockets caused large
scale fear among civilians. Over 2 million civilians made homelessmajority working
class housing. Britains economic production was never seriously threatened. The
Dunkirk Spirit continued throughout Blitz.

During the course of the war civilians were unable to leave home without a gas
mask due to the fear of gas being used.
Evacuations: First priority was the safety of the children, evacuation plans for
children and teachers, the disabled, mothers with small children, put into place
before outbreak of war. Within the first days of war over 1.5 million children were
evacuated from Britains cities to spare them from the possible bombing raids. 2nd
May 1945 London Return Plan, judgment made for each childs situationsome
orphaned, some didnt want to go home and others not wanted at home
Blackout: introduced to make it difficult for German bombers, air raid was
soundedstreet lights turned off, car headlights dimmed and windows covered to
conceal lighting. Air raid wardens enforced heavy fines for disobeying the
blackout procedures
Government controls: All men aged between 18 and 51 were able to be
conscripted, the Essential Works Order (1941) - essential workers such as railway
employees were placed under government control. National Registration Act
people had to carry identity papers at all times. Treacheries Act imprison, ban or
watch people in organisations considered a threat. Many people of German or
Italian descent were interned or sent overseas.
Propaganda, censorship and the media: Ministry of Information set up under
John Reith control the amount and nature of information the British people could
have. Censorship of soldiers letters home, creation of anti-German messages and
warning of what was being said in the case of spies. BBCs television service closed
down 1st September 1939; radio became the main provider of government
information and propaganda. 1940s music shows and cinema heightened morale
and provided an escape from the troubles of daily life. (Gone in the Wind, Walt
Disney classics)
Rationing: Petrol rationing (1939), Food rationing butter, bacon, sugar, meat,
tea, fats and jam (Jan 1940 - March 1941). Point system 16 points for any items.
Substitute products carrot tart and whale meat. Victory Gardens- emphasis
placed on home grown foods not rationed. Clothes were rationed encouraged to
make their own clothes from blankets and curtains, recycle old clothes and make
do and mend campaign repair of weak and damaged clothes. Improved health of
many poorer people
Women: over 2 million worked in industry jobs (transport, munitions industry),
nursing overseas, WLA freed up agricultural workers to fight, service jobs (clerical
work, repairs and communications). Civil defence jobs (WRAF, WRNS). National
service act (Dec 1941) conscripted all single women and childless widows aged
from 20-30 for war work

Long term effects: Beveridge Report (1942) measure to improve the welfare of
British civilians and ensure no repeat of their suffering occurred. General Theory of
Employment, Money and Interest (1936, John Maynard) ways the government
could manipulate the economy to avoid another depression. Education Act
(Richard Butler, 1944) school leaving age rose to 15, free milk, school meals and
medical services were introduced and an 11 plus exam could be sat by working
class children to get into grammar school. (Ken Webb, 2007)

Arthur Marwick: the war brought upon significant social and economic changes due to
the realization of inadequate services such as the hospital system. A new emphasis
was placed upon social equality
Social and economic effects of the war on civilians in Germany

Evacuations: Specially established camps were set up by the Hitler youth to look
after the children and educate them in Nazi Indoctrination. Class differences
emerged as working class families could not afford to move away together, rather
their children were sent far away
Rationing: Nazi leadership plans in place to ensure starvation did not occur-ration
cards for food were issued in August 1939, points system for clothing. Fruit and
veg. not rationed, meat ration reduced as war continued. Black market allowed the
wealthy to eat well. Towards the end of the wardifficulties in finding food
although never critical
Total war: propaganda became more extreme links between communism and
Jews were emphasized and war atrocities by the Russians were spread through
German media. Albert Speer effect on the economy introduced mass production
and rationalization which made production more efficient
Allied bombing of Germany: Attack on Hamburg between 30000-40000 dead,
over 500000 homeless and over 20 hospitals and churches and 50% of the city had
been destroyed. Similar attacks occurred in Dresden (Feb 1945) and Berlin
(April/May 1945). Economic activity had to be dispersed from major cities or placed
under ground oil supplies became critically low, chemical production decreased
significantly and the railway system was disrupted. By the end of the war almost
12 million people were homeless and 4 million homes had been destroyed by allied
bombing attacks. Ruined houses patched up/homeless camped among the rubble.
305 000 Germans killed and 800 000 injured
Repression and opposition: Nazi Germany was a police terror state; opposition
resulted in visits from the Gestapo or time in the concentration camps. The Reich
Central Security Office (September 1939) coordination of all police forces to
improve efficiency. The Night and Fog Decree (September 1941) regime given
the power to arrest and detain people without trial and deny doing so.
By 1945 714000 Germans were in concentration camps for political crimes,
between 1933 and 1945 an estimated 3 million Germans spent some time in the
camps
Judicial procedure disappeared the Gestapo and SS were free to act
Women: 14.8 million women in workforce by 1939, women transferred from
consumer sectors to war industries. Army called for compulsory labour service for
women which was denied by Nazi leadership. 194252% German labour force was
female, need for female labour increased. 13th Jan 1943Hitler signed a decree

requiring women aged 17-45 to register for war work (not strictly enforced). Hitler
against women working as it could inflict harm upon their psychic and emotional
life. Wehrmacht employed 160 000 women as secretaries, cooks, cleaners. 1943
onwards air raid warning personnel, search light operators and anti aircraft
auxiliaries. (Reich Labour Service)
Richard Overy: women in Germany had a major role in keeping the war effort going
Martin Broszat: legal process within Germany disappeared during the war with the
death of Franz Gurtner in 1941
Michael Burleigh: the war led to the complete breakdown of family structures, with
men at war, children located in rural areas and women relocated elsewhere

Nazi racial policies: the Holocaust and the persecution of minorities

The Holocaust

1940 Ghettos set up in Polish cities such as Warsaw, to separate the Jewish
population from the non Jewish. The conditions in the Ghettos were atrocious with
thousands of people crammed into small areas.
November 1939 a new law made it compulsory for Jews to wear the yellow Star of
David
The Wannsee Conference summer of 1941, Nazi policy of removing Jews had
failed. 31st July 1941 Heydrich met with Goering and discussed plans to develop a
solution to the Jewish problem. Eichmann observed that it was the planned
biological destruction of the Jewish race in the eastern territories. January 1942
Heydrich held a secret meeting with 15 government and SS leaders at Wannsee to
discus the final solution and find more efficient ways for killing.
Jews from all over Europe were sent to death camps throughout 1933 and 1944.
Jews believed they were being resettled
Jews were placed on overcrowded cattle trucks and taken to concentration camps
such as Auschwitz. On arrival they would be examined by an SS doctor who would
determine whether they were fit for work or unfit for work. The unfit (old, pregnant,
lame) were gassed immediately.
Jews were forced to undress and sent into the delousing shower, where the door
was sealed. Through a metal grill Zyklon B gas (prussic acid) was dropped, which
gassed the people in the showers. Bodies were then incinerated at the crematoria.
SS stepped up the killings once it became obvious the war had been lost, resources
made available to ships Jews to death camps.
The Nazis murdered over 6 million Jews by the end of the war, gold filling and
jewellery were taken from bodies, human hair was shaved off and kept and all
possessions were kept for reuse.

The Persecution of Minorities

Gypsies viewed negatively, not racially German making them a danger of racial
pollution. Behaviour was regarded as unproductive and unsocial, did not fit into the

Nazi ideal of Volksgemeinschaft. Over 30,000 German Gypsies + gypsies from

other conquered areas were sent to camps in Poland, with over 200,000 Gypsies
murdered by 1945
Homosexuals faced severe penalties, 15000+ homosexuals sent to camps.
Targeted by inmates and guards as they were forced to wear pink triangles.
Allegations of homosexuality used to discredit opponents such as Rohm in 1934.
Mentally ill and handicapped targeted from 1939 by the euthanasia program.
Did not fit the Nazi image of a racially pure and perfect society. Known as
Operation T4 people were gassed using pure carbon monoxide in one of six
facilities. Up to 275,000 handicapped and mentally ill killed by the end of the war.

William Shirer: the Jews and Slavic people were subhuman. To Hitler they had no right
to live, except as the slaves of the German people.
Ian Kershaw: Hitler had encouraged radical action and an environment of fate for the
Jews. Nazis were keen to bring about the Final Solution as was Hitlers wish

Structuralist Argument: holocaust not a long-term plan/general order, rather

result increasing radicalisation of war; invasion Soviet Union 1941 turning point in
fate of European Jews because Nazis began realise sheer number people to
exterminate; final solution evolved out of other unsuccessful plans to eliminate the
Jews; final solution not so much willed and decreed by Hitler, rather improvised by
bureaucrats competing favour Hitlers eyes; Martin Broszat Historian.
Intentionalists Argument: mass extermination Jews always intended Hitler
meant everything he said about the Jews; Hitler ordered process extermination
begin under the cover of war; Hitler only waiting opportunity bring about final
solution; Hitler took state of eliminationist anti-Semitism; Karl Dietrich and
Eberhand Jackel Historians.
4. End of the Conflict

D Day and the Liberation of France

Background to D-Day

Mid 1943 Axis powers were facing defeat. Rommel driven out of North Africa, Allies
had upper hand in the Battle of the Atlantic.
Washington Conference in May 1943 decision to invade France is made. US General
Eisenhower appointed Supreme Allied Commander of Operation Overlord.
Russians unsatisfied: their losses ran into the millions, Stalin questioned Western
courage on numerous occasions and suspected Western powers wanted to see the
Nazis and Communists destroy each other.

Preparations for D-Day

Atlantic Wall provided protection for Germany, late 1943 the Germans expected an
Allied attack but were unaware of where it would come from.

The attack had to be kept a secret or the Germans would strengthen their defence
resulting in enormous allied casualties, by keeping it a secret the Germans spread
their defence.
Norway, Calais and Normandy were considered possibilities for an Allied attack.
The Allies leaked false intelligence information that the Germans could pick up;
Allied commanders were given look a likes that appeared far from where the real
commander was and phoney armies and squadrons were gathered in places away
from the real embarkation points.
Allies made giant harbours for carrying troops, tanks and supplies called
mulberries and gooseberries which were sunken ships that created break waters.
Flexible pipelines were laid which provided allied forces with 1.5m litres of oil a day.

D-Day: 6th June 1944

Landing areas Sword (British), Juno (Canadian and British), Gold (British), Omaha
(US) and Utah (US)
Assault involved two million men, 12000 aircraft, 139 warships, 221 combat
vessels, 4000 landing craft, 805 merchant ships and smaller naval craft
British airborne divisions seize River Orne, US airborne divisions land in the South
East corner of Cotentin Peninsula. Aerial bombardment followed by massive
warship barrage against Germans
Landings at Sword, Juno, Gold and Utah achieved well with light casualties and
German counter attacks being beaten
Americans pinned down at landing at Omaha, 3000 casualties on first day.
12th June, 326000 troops had landed in Normandy and by 2nd July a million men had
landed in France. Allies had lost 9000 men with 61000 wounded
26th June British forces attacked west of Caen (Operation Epson), heavy losses
meant Montgomery was severely criticised.
End of June Americans captured the port of Cherbourg and 30000+ German
prisoners, British forces captured Caen on the 9th of July.

The Liberation of France

Operation Cobra move out of Normandy began on the 25th July, Americans
captured Avranches by August 1st
Battle of Falaise (August) 50,000 captured, 10,000 killed. American forces encircle
German forces
Mid August US and French troops invade southern France (Operation Anvil)
Von Choltitz surrenders Paris to the French on the 25th August, Paris was liberated.
10,000 French executed due to collaboration with the Germans
Late August US forces close to River Meuse, British forces controlled bridges over
the River Somme. 1st September Canadian forces liberated Dieppe. Antwerpe
liberated on the 4th September
Campaign to retake France took 7 weeks, 400,000 Germans dead and 200,000
Allied soldiers dead

R Thompson first 24 hours were decisive, poor reconnaissance, bad communication,

blocked radar and Hitlers interference hindered the Germans
Russian counter offensives 1944

Siege of Leningrad broken on the 27th January 1944, by the end of February
German Army Group north was in retreat. Soviet forces capture 200 tanks and
1800 artillery guns
Crimean port taken from Axis forces by 9th of May, German losses 100,000+
The Finns make peace on the 2nd of September after holding off Soviet forces
Operation Bagration: launched by General Zhukov on the 22nd June 1944 with the
aim to move across Belorussia towards Poland. Attack consists of over one million
men, 6000 tanks and 2000 aircraft. Germans lose 300,000 men.
Soviet forces start a campaign in early July to drive the Germans out of the Baltic
States, threats to German food supplies.
11th of July, Red Army captured Minsk. 17th of July, Soviet forces enter Poland and
Lvov is liberated within a fortnight.
In September the Soviet Union declares war on Bulgaria; Bulgarian regime declares
war on Germany.
The Baltic States come under Soviet Control and by early October the Russians are
in East Prussia. By the end of 1944, Hitlers empire in central and Eastern Europe
was greatly decreased.
The Warsaw Rising (August-October 1944): Polish groups begin an uprising against
German forces in Warsaw, Polish hoped to gain a stronger negotiation position with
the Red Army. German air power and artillery was too much for the Polish, Stalin
ordered his forces to stop at the River Vistula to allow the Germans to destroy the
Polish resistance where the Red Army could then move in and destroy German
forces. Germany evacuated the city after Polish fighter surrendered with Polish
fatalities equalling 55,000+ and 200,000+ sent to concentration camps.

J Jordan: Operation Bagration was Hitlers worst military setback, dramatically turning
the tide of war against the Third Reich
Final Defeat 1944 1945
The war in the west: September December 1944
Operation Market Garden

By mid September, allied forces were taking control of Belgium and the
Netherlands Brussels and Antwerp had fallen. Montgomery launched Operation
Market Garden with the aim to outflank German defences in the Netherlands by
seizing bridgeheads over the River Rhine.
Campaign began well with paratroopers dropped with the aim of capturing
bridgeheads on the rivers Meuse, Rhine and lower Rhine.
Things began to go wrong: the British airborne division and a Polish brigade were
dropped at Arnhem but many landed kms from their target, ground forces could
not make their way to Arnhem to meet other British forces, forces at Arnhem faced
heavy German resistance, force at Arnhem was there for 10 days against strong
German forces and Germans found allied plans in a downed plane.
Operation was a disaster with 18000 men killed, captured and wounded. Germans
took revenge on hundreds of Dutch people who they thought were behind the
planned attack.

The Battle of the Bulge

The allied advance was stopped by the Germans by a counter offensive through
the Ardennes forest on the 16th of December. Hitler thought that by capturing
Antwerp (the main allied supply base) he could defeat them and seek an AngloAmerican peace. He would then be able to focus on the Russian front. Battle was
known as Operation Watch the Rhine, with the result being known as the Battle of
the Bulge
The British and Americans were taken by surprise. The Germans pushed through
the Ardennes region of Belgium and Luxembourg but failed to make it to the Meuse
River. They succeeded in creating a bulge in the American line. Allied forces dealt
with the attack and by late December allied air power became decisive due to
improved weather conditions, Germany had lost the battle. Huge casualties.
Retaking the bulge didnt occur until early February, but the battle weakened
Germanys fighting ability.

The war in the east: January-May 1945

On January 12th 1945, the Red Army crossed the River Vistula, which would take
them through Western Poland into Germany. From the start of the offensive to mid
February, 8.5 million Germans fled from the Reichs eastern provinces. German
morale was low with only 4800 tanks compared to the Red Armys 14000.
Zhukov, the Russian commander, launched the assault across the Oder, the last
river separating the Russians and Berlin. The crossing was a shambles, initial
bombardment was made on an area that had previously been evacuated by the
Germans, tanks arrive late, and Russians ran into German artillery fire.
The attack consisted of 2.5 million men, 6000 tanks, 7500 aircraft and 42000
artillery guns. Germans = 12000 dead, Russians = 30000 dead
On the 1st of May the red flag was flying over the Reichstag building, by the 7th of
May the Germans accepted surrender.

Antony Beevor: German women are thought to have been raped, and a majority
appear to have suffered multiple rapes
The war in the west: January-May 1945

There were no more allied disasters although the Germans fought to the best of
their ability.
Montgomerys forces marched into Germany in the north and defeated a final
German stand on March 28th
General Bradleys forces moved into central Germany and captured Leipzig.
On the 27th March, Montgomery informed Eisenhower that he intended to drive for
the Elbe; Eisenhower believed this should be taken by Bradleys forces in the
centre. Eisenhower told Stalin that his armies had no intention of marching to
Berlin. For the Americans and the British, this policy ensured an anticlimactic end
to the campaign.
British forces moved across northern Germany. They reached the River Elbe on the
24th of April; Hamburg fell on the 3rd of May without a fight.

Nuremberg War Crime Trials

Reason for trials: seen as important to make the Germans realise the scale of
destruction that had occurred, the atrocities committed by the Germans were part
of official government policy, the idea that if it was shown that this behaviour
would not go unpunished then such evil would not be repeated and the hope that
International Justice would be a good sign for the future of the United Nations
21 leading Nazis were put on trial
Charged on four counts: conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, crimes
against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity
Run by legal representatives from the four main allied powers: the US, the Soviet
Union, Britain and France
Trial opened on 20th November 1945 and verdicts were given October 1946