BUILDING CONSTRUCTION VOLUME ONE METRIC EDITION wo ee had fromi= BP 291167 44 . Kartar Singh & Sen ¥ Bok Seller & Publishers NAL BARAK, DELHI-G~l | | \ PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION \ [Is this edition the various units have heen converted to metre term, Since the fist appearance of this volume in 1938, the materials of construction for simple two-storey { ~ ‘ruetures have hardy changed although techniques have been modified. As the earlier editions were puke \ lished obsolete methods wee given a secondary place and this hasbeen continued onee more, "They eect S \ ‘be omitted entirely whilst thiety per cent of building expenditure is still devoted to repair and alteration werk, ‘The chapter contents have been extended and amended. Several of the drawings have been revised or replaced to illustrate up-to-date applications. Eleven new Figures are included as follows: to oe feceda, \ Hons; 58 trussed rafter roofs; 36, showing a buill-up timber roof truss and interlocking ties ge sere ped vimber window and cavity walling; 62, metal windows; 65, sia; 68, portable pes tole: $0 and Fr . fing larger details of ating; 78, domestic water services and 81, vocabulary of structural veel conponense, the associated text hus been added and sections om plastering arc included 970 LK. McKay,PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION Dunise the past few years syllabuses in Building Construction have been extensively revised, and tovday ‘hore operating in Techaical Schools and Colleges approved for National Certificate purposes chow general agreement as to what parts of the subject shouldbe teated inthe easier stages. ‘This also applies to Building Construction as taught in Schools of Architecture, although ts treatment and presentation may not be the sume. Accordingly, one ofthe aims of the author has been to include inthis fist volume only such mater as ‘is now generally accepted as being suitable forthe fist stage of the abject. Each chapter is headed with ‘the appropriate section of the syllabus in detail, and ths is covered by the text and drawings. Most of the drawings have been prepared to larg size to enable associated details to be grouped con- veniently for reference In Schools of Architecture, where Building Construction is closely related to Design the illustrations ray prove helpful to the first-year student in preparing his constructional sheets, particularly during the arly months of the sion, when adequate design subject are not available and hi ability to design ie limited Attention is drain t0 the suggested“ Homework Programme.” It ie recognised that only relatively small proportion ofthe deals shonin the book ean be drawn to scale by the student during a session, and ‘teletion has therefore been made of those which may’ be regarded as typical; as far aa time will permit, ‘ditional alternative details should be sketched by students in their notehooks. “Teachers of apprentice-students attending Trade Courses, such as Brickwork and Masonry, Carpentry snd Joinery, et, will ind thatthe subject mater inthe chapters concerned more than coves the first-year Syllabuses. Whilst the Homework Programme does not app to such courses, where the subjects need to be developed more gradually and treated in greater det itis hoped thatthe arrangement of Fig. 98, refereed to in the programe, will serve asa useful gue to these students in preparing well-balanced sets of homework sheets, In preparing certsin sections ofthis book the author has had ssistance fom several sources, and he is ‘expecially indebted to Mr D. H. England and Mr W. I. Tarn who gave him many valuable and practical suggetons in connection withthe chapter on Plumbing. Thank are also extended to his colleague Mr E. ‘Spencer for reading the proofs of the chapters on Carpentry and Joinery, and for much useful criticism Dearing upon these sections WB McK, August 1938CONTENTS 1, Baaow Waits, FoonDartons ‘MintrsleBondine—Stopoed Ende—Juntiny sn Qusor—PirrJanbr-Caity Walle—Poundatiny Dany eee eee ea Cinta wt Corie che Window Siler "Coping Pita Tot,Consston, ining a Poiting—Phtered Wal Mazon Watts ‘Caiiction of Stier —QuoesngPreparation—DefecteWaling—Rubble Wot —la—Arces—Window Sie Pin»Cannes—Stng CounesCopingr Moone oims—Morur Joining—Liting Aplanee LE, Tomer, Fio08s aso Roors Site, Groh Feline, Seating, Preeraton, Conenion, Deets ad Clnietion of Tinbr—Faon— 1¥, Doors, Wisnows, Sra Lge Brice an Bed: Famed Lede Bcd an Baten, Pantie nd Fth Doos—Tiner Cavemen Cine Frome, Peed ne Yarsse Winkoen tl Windons “Horse hin, Stiri, Pte al V. Roor Coveuncs Formation, Ouarying, Conversion, Pepataton and Chri of Slater—Centemaiel i Hend-ad ‘Suing Beale Nuie-Riggr Hw” alee "Toe-Pln and Ieiig Te Vi Puan ee ne Chit Soda, Ries Hips td Valleau ant Copper Pie Jote—Eave Guar Dow: VIL Mn Stent. Seorions, Bouts avo Rivets HOMEWORK PROGRAMME INDEX 8 os % we 158 65CHAPTER ONE BRICK WALLS, ‘Slor—tpe dcrnan ofthe panccre f brihr, cares ‘ticng, Ep aod Pinas bums tb MATERIALS ikt.—Brichs are made chiefly frm cay and shale Clty, a patio earth consid largely of sand and sumina and may contain rious quanti of chalk, ion, manganee duis, ete. Shale i laminated depost of clay {ck which is expable of being reduced ton plastic condita whem broken tnd ground toa fie state of ivsion. Brice ae approximately 21 thm by tows mm by 65 mim (cep 3) Manufacture of Bricks.— The proces of manufacture vary consiertbly according to the variety of ly used machinery avaible, ete andthe flowing tea ie! general deserption. Bricks are moulded either by machinery ot by hand See ao Speer or erael anise ec eraet epee tres earemameae eee uh omutpeepponiinly 2g mn by fxg non afamacne mn onnnan espe Apr cries bpd ean tn oa af ee promt te angi werk ard eae anc by seth pone Pe mc ‘Sree el eth ae ows Smarane lays cy os ben eect ‘Sipe Sore; igen neal saeco pete won te ay eroomelate E.Puiien reve lungr ea face cries oy uriee Sl coming {aeons awth big hee ss ba n Sagi hemes Sea ye Sy ess wich Bad Se nda te te we FOUNDATIONS ie, Lie mort, cre tran eves. Sint wn pe of rica tem Sh kane eas Ts Yond peta py rebel nbn gen att mm etn rice a 2h a wa cso et couee Lint aed eae it ‘ernie curses Jona tad pong Haseena, We Pando bec ances ghee gun Founaatone or sr r4snd nck sn 2,23!R aed a Rina of hee opening ae cared ou in ern Ere et ree bk oe ee gated wth pe beens, ‘eh fs, ara ied tl ‘nmr ert ed (she ie ‘Eo ig cok a ep ng of oe nay np oo we, a ot agin, ee he ‘cite dee) Bees Sted ‘or hand-made sew ke dy et, Gur ho i in bd Eau t rei Greed nde pet the ay roman “scton {by titraaerno he mou The coy promed wh te anger Hl te fo preNeSUe eats woman nd al kes ow le ae waar Characteristics Good bricks should thoroughly burnt this makes them hard and. durable (he quality of lasting for 2 long periad without pershin) abd enables them to witstand pressure: A hued ringing sound emitted when to rics are struck together lndates that they have been burnt satisfactorily. ‘Generally the bricks should be true to size and shape, wit oraight edges 20d ‘even surfer, 5035 uit laying them in postion? They should be free from era, chips and lage partes of lime. Unless desired, uniformity of ‘alo not pow specified Trevor bricks tre generally underburnt and asa consequence are easly broken and are very pordun; the ae ether ard or durable snd are incapable chron hort ned end nie med “Sc fs vary clare too of rd, parl. te. brown ee, now seg pred tee Rone Sa ily old wa han ndof withstanding heavy leads Time, any water absorbed causes the Hae 1 expand, resulting in Sisincegeation of the bricks. They ae invariably of poor appearance. "The weight of brick varies considerably; approximately, wire-ots ae ‘between 2 and 3 kg and pressed bricks fom 3 t07 ky each ‘Lime-—Of the several varieties of lime, that used chiefly for brickwork and masoney is known a8 hydraulic lime. itis produced ftom limestone or ‘alk bit burnt na kl fr thee or four dys, hen tis eady to Be made Coment~"Tat generally used is known as Porcland cement because oft seseoblance tothe eolour of the ste ofthat name, Its manufactured from ‘hulk and ely. ‘The former i erashed and the clay lige bythe addition of water, when i called ep. "These two materiats are mined together in ‘correct proportions and sry finely ground; the mixture, known ae ry, i ‘onveyel to tanks and then to + kn where it gradually subject to high Temperature and converted into a hard darklooking clinker theater i pawed tot ll where Wis round to an eaceedngly fe powder to compete the ‘ote The cement fr automatically paced inte pape or jute sak ech full ck weighing gg oF may he delivered” in bulk (ons) Sand. Tut obtained from pics or quarries isthe hest for mortar ovate fie angulaty (ale sharp") tang this, that from riverbanks or beds ene‘ sand is unnutble for morte a contains salts which teat ad resin moisture in additon to producing « whitish powder or eMlorscence Uthich dnclour the brickwork masonry. Sand shouldbe well graded, lam, ‘harp and Ieee from loam, clay or other party. Dety sand should never he deed se sf may reduce the adhesive value of the mortar considerably, nd inorder to ensure a clan tand it frequently specified that shall Be veahed. Lime Mortar. This ina miatur of quickie (burnt limestone sce above) and sind in the proportion of ime 3 sand, im adtion t water He was once {he principal material wed for bedding nd jointing bricks stones ete; eased Tene frequently now asi develops strength very slowly mixed hy hand the lime ie placed ina esp, sprinkled with water and completely covered th the rssired proportion of sand: the lime expand and breaks to small parties ‘ving tothe eat which i generated; thu i Known t lain or slacking the Time snd the hesp should be let undiatrbed for at leart twenty-four hours as to entre thorough disitegraton ofthe Kime, As unlaked particle of Time in mortar may ease damage to walling, nesesary to pas through Aeecen to eliminate uslaked lamp after aking the materiale tened ver With » shovel om a Boarded platlorm, more matrix added and the ming operation continued unl the mortar ie of the right consistency, neither £00 ‘BHP nor too plastic. If mined in a pug mill the lime and sand are thoroughly 1 they contin couse grains of uncombined partial BRICK WALLS incorporated after abou twenty inate’ applisntion of the rotating and grinding rolls. ‘The mortar should be used Sah and jut sficent should be mined foreach day's use Cement Mortar This is « mixture of + cement: 5 sand, The sand is ploced on platform, the correct amount af cement is added toi both ae thoroughly mised dry Before water i ade and the mae gradually worked Up Into plastic condition, As cement morta sts comparatively quickly, shoul only be mised in small amounts and ot be used after it has sated to st ‘Cement mortat i used in the constuction of pies sce pp #2 and £3, walling ‘below damp course level (te p17), chimney stack, ete, 2 brickwork built ‘sement mortar is much sttonger than that ult in hme morta. A mix of canal be used for general walling; Buta thi is aes, then an ave, which lorms ai bubbles improve the plasticity, ean be included in the ring tester inthe proportion of abot 3% CComent Grant is cement which has been reduced to a thick liquid con- sistency by the aon of suiien water Cement-Lime Mortar (aso koonn as compo} "This i the mos usta general purpse mortar comprising" cxment "2 lime q sind, of 11:6 if hore it Fdanger of from thi quicker seteing, "The ation of ime i prover workatty making easier to pace CConerete consis of fie agrerte (or hoy), cores aggregate and a snatix binding material) ‘The fine aggepate wally und, common oar gereyates are broken brick or stone (of rae!) and the mati ix sully coment ‘The proportions vary, ut common asi composed oft part cement = pres sand and prt broken brick or stone the maximum size of the ater depend tipo the acto which the concrete isto be ut aed may be 38 rm (hat ped {rough 238 mm square mash seve) for foundations and 20mm for reinforced ‘onerete work. ‘The aggrgates mist be careflly graded fom + minim 12 | animur, ao that when te materilaremixed the space between the putes {a reduced toa minim and u dene concrete eased. "The ming is done ether by hand or by machinery. If mixed by band, ‘he materials core proportion ae placed ona boarded platform and mined twice (or dice) dry and then twice (or thrice) wet. ‘The amount of water sided after the maerns have Been turned over cy (by using shoves) mut be ‘etl opulte, at a exces of ater comiderably reducer the tenth of the crete, ‘The mixing should always be done on a platform otherwise dit ‘would be shoveled into the mature and its strength thereby reduced. Ta concretesmixng machine is used, the materials in proper proportion ae charged through a hopper into the mac, the correct smoume of water i then Sided, the miner rotated ats apecied speed for definite period, usally Sinute, ater mbich the conrete ss discharged frm the machine. The concrete should be eaeflly deposited where required onthe building sas to enn that the density ofthe material shal be unsform throughout.BONDING 3 BONDING, SOLID BRICK WALLS ‘The craft ofthe bricayer ie concerned with embedding bricks in mastar sd suitably arranging them so that the mas aed brickwork, confor with ‘tain requirements suchas strength and appearance. Strength depend fond ‘eal upon the bond. “The Bulding Repultions require external walls 10 e dequate to preven undue bea ls from the bulng, sme spa example of ‘hermally neulated wal for delings ae given on 34 ‘Bond ite ineracerentof hicks produced when they Ip (project beyond) ‘those immediately ove and below them. An uaboaded wal. with is om tinuous ceria oes, has ite strength and stability and such joints must be ‘voided. Fig, rillurates the comparative suength of 2 bonded wal A and ‘weakness of an unbonded wall » which are shown supporting aloud. The portion ofthe loa transite to the wall ae dstrbutel over a elatively are fea, st indiated within the broken lines © and by wheres that transite to the wall ais practically concentated on the portion between the continuous ‘esti joints rund F with the rel that this portion would tend to drop a8 Shown; in addition, the two vertical sections @ and it would tend to separate becaute of the abacnce of bond.”Vaious bonds ae described on pp. tnd. Size of Bricks. Uniformity in the size of bricks i essential H the mai tenance ofthe corzet ond ist be facitated during the contraction of wal time is wasted ifs consignee contune brick of varying snes st briclayer is requised to make a seleton a the work proceeds "The length of 2 brick should be tie it width plu the thicknes of one vertical joint in order that proper bond sma he maintained (se 4, Fi. 2). Brick in common use vary sine fom 21010230 nm long by Tot 110 ah wide By 38 to75 mam thick, “The following siz are svalable- (1) Clay bricks te mostly 215 by 12's by 6s ml sing to mam join this ies nomial Fiz or format of 225 by 112s by 75 me: this adopted in mow af he Figures in this Book. (2) Concrete bricks may be 8 (1) or tgo by go by 65 mums with 1 mm joint thie makes a format of 200 by 100 by 75 mes. “Terma.—The fllowing defines thoe which have a general application brickwork =— “Arrs-—n edge ofa brick (ee A, Fi. 2). Bede lower 245 tm by 102s hi surface of a brik when placed in position (een, Fig. 2) Header The end or 1025 mm by 65 mim surface of brick (se, Pig 2). Shrichr-—The side (usually refered 10 a8 the edge") or 218 mm by {65 mm nrtae of brik sees, Fig. 3), FaceAsuface os brick such a the header face (1225 mm by 6 men) ad stacker face (25 ts by 65 rm) (See A Fig 2); alo aplied toa exposed ‘nace ota wal Frog or Kick~A shallow sinking or indent (cither rectangular, triangular ‘COMPARATIVE STRENGTH ‘OF A BONDED WALL & WEAKNESS ‘OF AN UNBONDED WALL Ficuee t ‘rapezidal nection) formed on Sher one or bath af the 215 mam By oj mame faces of «brick eee and, Fi. 2) a witecut brick has no Irogs,» presed brick has wo frogs rule gd a hand-made rick ually he ly one Frogs flogaffrde a good key forthe mortar (se, Fig 2) and therefore wale which are edited to show than bed joints should be constructed of bricks with froges Ericka having only one frog should be lad withthe frog uppermort 20 ae to true it being completely filed with mort, ed Joints—Mortr joss, parallel to the bed of the rick, and therefore totizonal in general walling; thickness varie ftom 30 ¥3:m~—the mot usual thickness 10 mm shown atv, Fit 2 Coarse complet aero brick plus its mortar bedding joint a vading course consists of headers tnd 4 srteing courte comprnes steers (see Fig. 2); a brich-on-edge come consist of bricks paced on thei 215 mm by 85m) faces (ace 7 and fy Fig. 17) and Brickonend or salir core ir corposed af Tricks nd om their som mm by 6 mm face (ace N and, Fg +7) Brick Gauge ‘Th height of a numberof brik courses, our courses 12 seommif Gsm brcksand omm jitsareused, See Gaugerad,pp-aBand 30| + + i 1 ys ang ts ee BRICKS ‘Most FT akiens Im TSE BOOKS Ant Ona )=90 (0.65); om i BF SO CE ee Faas omrs-r6° S| SI", a. f < ay ts why S..0 Be Ee sre SO a, Kod SS RK J oS rg ws ee - Ore Len took fnew enone rack LY Ce Ne ae VIEW OF aRickS “Bec aoa eS ie OK OE L tie ston) sven aatsnate autem cLosen wat cuttn oserounrn kine cLosek é ec nats f— a — Jere ose — Coe ate BEVELED CLOSER MITRED CLOseRS Douce euLinose 4525 faasasuae |[ronnscuonrs eeraine Lt” \ ELEVATION OF PORTION OF WALLIN ENCLGH BOND | __7LAY STRETCHER SP UAY-MEAER Docies | save eae wm | TaareENGLISH BOND SQUARE eee ee ee tee ENDSBONDING 7 Stretching Bond.—Fack course consints of stretchers with exception of a If bat which must be placed st the stopped end of + wall at each aerate ‘oure 2 that the work will break pint. Note that Fig 3, the Bes nt ‘is formed bythe fist or quoin stretcher appearing as a header onthe return ace? ‘This bond fs suitable for 102s am thick wall, suchas ae requited for cavity walls, chimney stack, sleeper walls and division walls” English Bond.— This consists ofalurnae cows of headers and stretchers (ee Fag 3). Observe (tin each ead cure a quon clr i placed next fo the quotn header and the remaining bricks are Header, (2) evry alternate Feder in # course comes centaly over the joint between two stretchers the ‘ouree below, giving» lap of g6 mm, and (3) there are no continuous verge Janes, excepting at ert stopped ene and particulary where queen closer of the form x (Fig. 2) and not jae used. Tes this comparative lack of seaight joins which gives to English bond its characteristic strength ‘Square Stopped Ends Fig. 3 shows deals of stopped ends to a r-brick wall )-a1f-bick wal (), a -bvck wall (0), a2}-beick wall) and a bye Sall(s). A dey plan of portion of «buildings shown at and the tentment ofthe stopped end of the doorway opening atc (which is clled 2 suave jomb “see p13} would be in aecordance with one or ater ofthese details, depending ‘upon the thickness ofthe wall inte thicker wall ut ae altendy explained, wala exceeding + Wrck nticnes wre Bw cy equ Hire gel pace oc ra a Special attention should Be taken inthe constriction of stopped end of| wall ae thee are often required to take concentrated loads from Titel ee (ote ig 2), "The felowing shoul be noted 1. At eat every aerate tranaverae joint continuous fom facet fee; 4 afsbrick wal const of units comping stetcher backed with to betes, fr vice ver (oe broken lines at x Fig); stretcher course ofa 2-rick wall 1s formed of nits having stretcher on tah face wih tw headers the middle Geet Fit 3) te acuity mie ese shine cnn 2 Wall of an even suasber of lf bricks in thickness present the same appearance on both fas ey 4 course consisting of suetchers on the font ‘evation wil show stretcher onthe back elevation (se Jt and N, Fi. 3). "Walle ofan odd numberof half trick in thicknes wil show ack course contning of henderson one fice and retcers onthe othe (sek and, Fig 3) wa Taatng cate nid never sommes wih a quem Sane fone a Paton 4 The middle portion of cach of the thicker wall consis ently of benders (aoe, wand s, Fig 3)! "Flemish Bonds—This comprises alirmete headers and stretches in cach course. "There are two Kinds af Pemish bood, Ze, (1) Doble Flemish and (2) Single Flemish (Q) Double Flemish Bond (cv, and 0, Fig, 4 shows the characteristic appearance of Flemish on Bot exter and internal faces As shown at D, fh hesder comer centrally over stecher and, unltke Engl bord, mo header somes over a vertical fae joint Ite not to strong ar Engh bond Decne of the Tage numberof short continuous versal jonte(idiated by {hick lines) which occr in the longtedina joint. Some consider tht double Flemish bond has a more plessing appenrane and ix more economial than glish bond an teat tn cara ars ae Sie tein espe Su aor vedi ope ‘aiFinch fiber has Eapih bod hase Sepig a haere ere he eine tof wo Yess loos xh mae ic se Sc Eap nde vil i wae Square Stepped Bndi--On eeference to the cleration and the plans ¥ and Gy Fig 4 wil he acon that in overy alternative course queen clove i Paced ext to the quon header so at fo provides lap of approximately 6 mm "This agrees withthe rule for English bond. Attention st drawn to the unit ‘of ehich ery coure in cath wall is conprised and which are fndiouted within the broken diagonal ines, “The notes on Fig. shoul be caeflly atic, (2) Single Flemish Bond consist of + fing of Flock bond with + Backing of Englih Yond in each course (ne 1 and), Fig). Its adopted bere eX pensive facing bricks are required to pve the characteristic appearance of Flesh ‘ond and: where comparatively cheaper bricks ae used as a backing. This ‘bond cannot be applied to walls which ae les than ri-brck ticks Iti relatively weak, a cin be scenon reference to and, which show 235 man long ontnuovs vertical joints appearing in the longituinal joins. Note that half ‘bats are ed which are known as ap headers or false eades, Aw aerate rangement of bricks in the ari wall t) be shown at (where the snap= Ieader and fultheader barking ave vubettted by two three-quarter bat)FLEMISH BOND | SQUARE STOPPED ENDS DOUBLE FLEMISH 7 SINGLE FLEMISH 4 J; a3 Tre: il u > é 2 9 J 3 i i 14 FEOWT ELPYATION PUAN OF COURSE ® rg Li | ree | 1 > ES BEPEIP A u or a | teoise rceminn 8 LT 3 Lg i LT] § yPeaw oF eouRse wg cCouRSE ® gz | ss eS | PUAN oF CouRsE ® « SEER OR Shore’ sen eras e T : Lee PLAN OF COURSE @ PLAN OF COURSE & Frown ya ceeeee = | course RET TEE JUNCTION serweew Jp €18 WALLS ee MP 8 ‘TEE JUNCTION serween 18 £ sn RIGHT ANGLED JUNCTIONS ENGLISH BONDED EXTERNAL & INTERNAL WALLS counse-o BeaniEy course se Sees CROSS JUNCTION pereny \8 & Hb WALLS STE DOUBLE FLEMISH BONDED EXTERNAL WALLS € ENGLISH BONDED INTERNAL WALLS a 7 CT TEE JUNCTION WALLS ayes -{couase NOLS r 1 “EE JUNCTION sereage ie Ete WALLS ‘cnoss JUNCTION arrraty Heb € 26 WALLS Tee te He RRM) EEE Seen Foor10 BRICK WALLS {his results in reduction in he length ofthe cotinanus verti joint with « corresponding increase in strength, But an increase sn coet due to te labour fd wastage of Erick involved inthe cutting ofthe three-quarter bats This Altenative bond may also be substituted forthe corresponding cours of the brick wall) ‘The comparative wesknes of single Flemish bond is lutte a Fig. 4 which shows sperectiy bonded 449 tim wal but in Engl bond snd i ‘Mequatly bonded wal of the same thickness builtin single Flemish bond the continuous vert! joint shown by 2 thick lie inthe sceion through the Tater wall 235 mm wide, a shown i the plana). Figs JUNCTIONS AND QUOINS The key plan at, Fg. 3, shows several sonncetons beeen wall. One ‘ype of connection is termed a junction (0, x, W ard x) and anther farm is Known as agi (a0) ‘Junctions.—‘These are classed into righ-angled junctions and squint §unetions2 "There are wo forma of right-angld uations esa) te junetons nd (2) eos junctions or itersctons, (@) Terjumetion-A teejanction isa connettion betmeen two walls which fon plan isin the form of the eter T (ee wad x the hey pla. Plans of ter-junations between was tilt in English bond are shown at sand c,Fig-s. AU Aone af the courses ofthe 102 mm interna vision wall tere the etching course af the 215 mm external wall giving 112 mm ap, and the aerate course ofthe division wal butt une the heading eursc of {he main wall.” Note the flowing in connection wih details wand = (x) the heading course ofthe itera wali bonded into the steeching course the ‘tai Wal the fst heer or ti brick (shown shaded) giving $6 te lap and bsing adjacent to a queen closer; (2) the aetching court ofthe ron wall hms against the heading eoure ofthe ester wall, ‘The te byiehs are ho "Shown in the section at Fig. § Plans of junctions between external walls tilt in double Flemish bond and English bonded division was ae shown at F and. Fig Avi the akove examples, the hey header has ap of s6 rh, (6) Cros unctinsor Intersection. Retos-junction ie anintersction between two continanus wall (oc fn the key plan ata. Fig 3). Detain are gee at Dad, Fig. g: the walls are show in Engsh bony it boing asuned tht they ate to be plastered. Note: (1) one of the curses continuous and the course at right anges buts agaist i (2) these continuous ours alerate, vel (3)3 Rey header forms a'38-mm lap at each side ofthe how-contnus Quoin or External Angles.—There ae two forms of quoins, iy vight- angled or uace quoins and squint quoins# As ie implied, rightangled ‘goin i formed by two walls which mect st go". Examples of rghtangled {toine ave shown at rand Fig ‘Square Quo in Bnglih Bard” Plans of aerate courses of rightangled ‘quoins formed by walls bul n English ond ace shown detailed at bat, Fig «The following should be poted 1 At the same lvl, the heading course on one fae ofthe angles returned by sstretching course; thus at the heading course ris returned by a atething 2 Theee are no continu vert joints, 5. When the wal san coor numberof half-bricks in thickness the brick figured ia header projecting 6 mms ace xan Fig. 8) 4 When the walls an odd umber of kalfbrick thick, the brick figured 3 ica tiateher projecting so mm (ee 8, Fig 8). S$. At the sé mm projection (or quarter hond) of number 3 brisk the twansterse joist i continuous (ece At, Fig 6) 6, Inthe rand sbrick quons the heading coure of one wall i continuous to the font ofthe rerurn face and thats the 14 -brck quoin continuous 9 the back af the stretching faces the teurnstetching cutee in each eae butts seus the heading course, Square Quvins in Double Blick Bund —Desis of these ste shown at, andy Fig 6. Note 1 Inthe vand tl -brck quine the continous couse that which cntane ‘he queen closer also the but cquaes are similar o rand Fig 4, commencing with units which at sinilr to howe shown within che oe lines in Fig. 2, Numbers brick inthe sands [-bickquoine is steecher which progets 168 mm, and inthe bck gunn i ie honder which projects $6 mt asin the English bonded 2 brick qin 43 The half bata the internal angle ofthe 2-brick quoin is necessary to id Jong continuous ert jont and to form the continuous teaver Joint which bounds the caracereb-brick anit eheined within the brokenSEE eee a feeb See ee eee eee RIGHT. sii QUOINS ENGLISWSBOND DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND Led = mass A ° HH : wer a ean sun 5 iB EE | Sa et jam Smt iL i | el = - "bose 4 SE eee mal ‘ . aerate 3 3. Pt eer 1 i Hi amr —- | Eee rEq| c BES as iiaro cat * cans ‘Lace tems, | aie | Laka | x Te auoin PLANS OF & TWO BRICK QUOINBR BRICK WALLS ! Piers (ls known as pillars oF colin) of brickwork are adopted ithe to support concentrated lea sch a re tranamited hy arches, oor Beams and Pol ERS : ‘of oro arengtien val, Sach per may beled or each} ortey | ALTERNATE DETAILS OF DETACHED PIER “<> | ‘Detached PieskSuch may be ster agua, seangula, cicabr or fF My SGty ty 3 DOUBLE. FLEMIsH | polygonal on pln. A plan of «portion of a uildingin which pct are employed bs shown xa, Fig anda detached pier is shown atc. Such a builing may be an arcade of loga, or it may be considered a6 4 portion of a factory, although modern burkings ofthe ater type usually have pillars of mild steel |p fr reinforced concrete. Maximum strength is obtained i pillars sre constructed With sound dens bricks ull in English bond and in cement mores. Enh Bonded Detached Pers (plans, and 1 andthe corresponding Ej Fi IH “ia ny shat cn en ah ut SIM pms : gece ceearenkeccee: | JF ‘The only continuous vertical joints are those shown by thick lines at x. A. eban nS ' stone pad ot template as shown in each elevation is aly provided ste top ‘fa pee to ensure firm bed fora beam or roo wuss and wo distribute the load ‘fectvly, Detached pills to which gates are hung ae often fished wih ATE ee 2 coping tilostated in Fig. 1. t BGT "Boke Flih Bonded Bechet Pr (oe 0,1, and, Fig. 3)—tn the | | waa ‘ing to the small sie of ths pcr the tue face appearance of Flemish bond | | ror presented in the elevation at (athe eaders are nt centrally over the fetchers), but the pier is nevertheless considered tobe in Flemish bond in ‘ch cours there it» header adjpcent toa stetcher. ‘The short continue ‘etic joins shown in the plana ofthe 2-brick pier can heaved if evel losers (broken line) are used as an altenative Piers may be formed with rounded arises by vsing bullnose brick; thus ouble bulnce bricks (se 0, ig. 2) may be sed in the constuction of pier) Sand single bullnoze bricks forthe remaining pers ‘Attached Piers or Pilasters— Such ae shows atm in the Rey plan ats, | f igs 7, and some sternative details are piven a 010 inclsive. ‘Phe stability of wisi inereased hy the eof these pes at interval and like those ofthe ‘eta tye they my Be ured ax supports for conentate lads WLU TEamples in Engh bod ae show ao, and g. Rounded arses may | p be obtained by using ulloowe rics (ace @) "The width of perf wally Oi Cr oodCAVITY WALLS 4% multiple of 112 mm and the projection may be either #13 mm (at © and), 225 nm (a 0) oF up The piers and adjacent walling shown at and sare in double Flemish bond the 213 mm projection may be inremed a eure, Agate ptr of the attached type i shown 8, Fig 17 Duttresses ate piers which ate provided to eit thrusts from roof eranses ‘oc to strenghen boundary walls st” Examples of buttress cappngs ate trated in Fig The brick and conerete foundations for per ate referred 9 on p 7. Jams are the vertical sides of openings which are formed in wall to receive doors windows, replaces et. "There are tre form of jamb, (a share tor phi, () rebated or reese and c) ebated and spayed" (a) Sure Jam. Examples of sare jms are above i Fis 42 44, 4, 0, $2 5,56 and 7 in connection sith dor and window openings The opped end deals sm ign 3 nd 4 show the constuction of the brcknork (0) Rebated Jambo Fg. 8). ‘Thx det are shown in both English and double Flemish bond. The pln and sketch © show that a rebated jab eon Ste of (2) an outer eee or face (2) secs ad (3) 29 ner reveal” Window fi external doo openings ae best provided with Febated jambs for the reasons ‘Hated below, and applications of thee are llastried in Fige 43 48,55 td 6. "Asi implied, the outer reveal i tht portion of the jamb wih i sen fourm the outide; it my he 402 mm (ce 9, M, 6, ee, Fig 8) oH may be isin wide ee @ snd 9). The rece varie in depth from 36 mm oF le ble for external door (sce Fig 48) and casement windows (ee Fig 5) tox mm—suitible for windows ofthe boned frame type ilustated in Fig. $8 1X shim rece ie shown at band that ti 13 mm deep. "The object of the rece will be appreciated on reference F, Fig. 8, which inicater by broke ies the relative positon of window ame; the protection tMorded bythe enter “ih” of brickwork aut effectively in preventing the laccem of rain into a building between the fame and adjoining brickwork the ‘edding an psating of the fame (cep. 84) afords adiional protection, ‘Rebaed jt having toa mm outer reveais and 56 min recat ny and a-brick walle Bilin Engh bond are detailed a wand, Fig 83 these ae plan of the alternate coures + and v shown at A.”'Thecoresponding coareet, fn double Flemish bond are shown 2c, 1 and jambs with 113 mm recesses ste shown in English bond att, and x, and in double Flemish bond at, © Snr. Examples of rebated jambs in both English and Flemioh bonds having 1 Rebate analy ube ae dete in Ch. Vo I 2 SStine eames ae din er tested bse. Fi. 2). 215 mm outer reveals and 56 mim reces are detailed at, and with 142 mi fectucr att These details nay be stsocated with the window z shown ath Fig 3. and which sshown inthe alterativ levatione hand a, Fig. the former indicts 65 mm thick bricks bul English ond and shows go mm thick rick it in Flemish bond tas arena eee etree ue. tas mm Sho mye comin shickmess of the ert ns: EERE thn Si tent e ttm mm A careful study of the details shows that ether king, queen or bevelled ours or hal three-quarter or bevelled bats are employed in ord to prevent Continuous vertical jms and to obtain the correct fae appearance; note that ‘ny half bats and header queen closers ae placed onthe fone ace leat os ‘nem fom the sides ofthe openings in oer to prevent tei isplacement and to provide strong support forthe ende of he ln (tied in Fi. 13). BRICK CAVITY WALLS! The hollow or caity wale now the most unalone for domestic bung. he simplest form e295 mm thick having two 402 mm thick ences of brik: ‘work separated by 2 7a mm cavity but connected at interaleby wal tek Ia ‘Comparton wth 214mm thick wall which wes the sme amount of brisk a 4 pga evity wall the late alors beter proteton ein poneration othe inside of the building and greater seitance to het losses from the room, Tn frder 1 exclude dampness the minimum thickbess ofa solid wal 938 mm. Rene the 275 mim cavity walls more economies, ‘The prevention af dampness, improved inelation ond economy’ ofthe cavity wall are substantial advantages, Te ierot ual to ventlate the cavity ae thi seriously affects the insulation Sie pe Sek sk cena meenoot | Lr tL peck sue eee PEGE REBATI fo? OUTER REVEALS FRONT ELEVATION showncus THeKancks — | BSE bene tt be REBATED JAMBS [em aaa ED JAMBS wits sem RECESSES: 5 DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND EBATED USMS] FRONT ELEVATION SHOWING SO THC. BRICKS EHP ens & CT] oh 192 OUTER. REVEALS T 1 RET: L Tf | | I : TAH ROSS EISSN SA = REBATED JAMBS wire iim RECESSES see we ATED AW 7 is Bono Some reansuee| 1 | T LTE | ; LLAG y TA E ™ al 8 i Lt ‘course conse TomesFOUNDATIONS 5 of the wal, slight ventilation is provided atthe drainage gape Ife in certain tar dee ccutng in wal ‘veri joints a described below The tes used to strengthen and aid the sabiity of the wall are of several BRE kinds, the simplest being made of glvained wire shaped at figure of eight, ‘They ate put inthe bed joint to span the caity 430 mim apare vertically, eeeiri en cam Sen ‘900 mim apart oriontll and staggered (Fig 3, Val I.” At the jamb of ‘pening the vertical spacing ofthe uss reduced to Joo mm. Its smportan to keep the cavity fee of mover droppings which would ellc onthe Hes and rnake bridge fr dampness tothe inner les "The bottom of the exity cn be cleaned ou if temporary gaps are left atthe bse ofthe wal ‘Where the cuit is beige sat ntl, ills and atthe jambs of open a dpe, must be provided. "These are shown in Fig. 5. The hatel det 1 shows the felt o lead dpe tucked into the inner leat and extening down trarde to the outside; itt desirable to leave afew of the vera ots open {athe Bist outer course on the intl so that water ean drain fromm the ea. (Gira ape should alo be provided atthe base of the wal below the p<). ay "The detall te shows the dpc railed 04 groove i he tber il and paring My eee tothe outside of the wall ‘The rebated jamb plan deal ato abo has 1dpe ‘ t i Dawe ROOF Sthich item up the fll height of he indo "The tp of «cavity walls preferably bridged with one oF mote courses of 21g min briks to inerease stability and to enable the root load to be shared between both lave fee, Fig. 39 and cy Pg. 78). The bave of the wall ‘oval constructed a Fig; tis has one weakness on damp iter where {timber joined ground Boor used, water may penetrte the two later and peat over thesiteconcrete ‘Ths acon is eminatd ifthe cavity a the base of the wal led with ne concrete toa dtnce 10 mm below the & pe (862, Big i ‘O0TINGS vow | fh stioon use| i ' Yn FOUNDATIONS Im ite widest sense the term foundations may be defined as an expanded thse of wal or per in sdtion tthe ground or subst which supports ‘The ground sich receives the bulding known a3 natural foundation, and the extended buses which are construed of concrete ot snttonry ar called seal foundations ‘An artical foundation may consist of: (1) a concrete bed only sce a.» | SKETCH SHOWING 280 oom arm cen of stonework ee ction DD #3, | FOUNDATION FORA ig. 20) which ae wider than the wall or ier they suppor and which are al fodings or (3) s concrete be together ith footings (ee Fig 12). Type | ONE © AMALF BRICK WALL (G) nthe most common, Being known a ari feandation ‘The object of = foundation isto dibbute the weight to be cried over salient aten of bearing surface 5038 to prevent the subsel frm spreading tnd to avoid wnegelsetement ofthe stuctre narlase ig cat ae ay nck sadeace al Be ardor, Crea6 FOUNDATIONS “The design of foundations to support heavy lds is beyond the spe of this volume andthe folowing ae pial details onl. ‘The requirements of Fung local authors in resect to foundations (especialy fr smal buildings tthich tans slatively light Ina) have been toifed considerably within Tecent jens, Briey, the following are the requirements of the Building Regulations — "The fowration sal be (2) Constructed to ssa the dead and imposed ous ad to transmit these tothe ground nc a way thal the resuce nt wll noceause stement which ‘rouldmpai the stability ofthe uilng or adjoining suctre. {2} Tavensuifientlydoop to guard the building guna damage by swelling cor hrnking of the eas "For domestic buildings where stip foundations ae sed the eanette shal compose of go hy of cet to 1m of Bie aggregate and om of conrce Segteate andthe roplations ar satis f {e) There is no wide variation in the yp of subsoil Beneath the building and there iso weaker 8ype of sil Below that which dhe fundatins rest which tou ae abisy,() The foundation wid is ot ese than that summarized Below and given filly in Table TT, Vol. TV for deren cubes and loadings, td in any eave tls than the with ofthe wall. (€)"Te thickness of the Sonette hotles than its projection fom the Base ofthe wall o footing a inno ease less shan 130 m0 or a wo-storey house the wall od ie anally not more than 33 &N/m: the foundation with for sferentsubsrils would then be: Rock, equal t0 the fra widths compact grael and sand ors ela, 300 mm; lose snd, 00 mm (eras Fig. vo soft cy, 60 mm very sft day, 859m. ‘Eames fowndations are piven in Fig. 10; they ahould be ta minimum pthc in thie country, of 4go mm so ast be unaeted by fos, "The one at 4 shows 4 typical stip foundacon on loose sand where the minimum wide is 600 rn fr a 275 tm wall this necrosis 2 162'5 om ‘hick snp to comply with above {so mim i about the minimorn wid of shallow trench that can be exca- sary hand, but where machine exaraion (eee Chap, Vol 1¥) is used, the go um ide ype a ai satsactor in compact sand o slay he whole ‘ofthe tench is filed with concrete "The tpe a 9 has toe used on 28 clay which sible vo expansion and contraction de to the varation im water content. Ata depth of ors mm this tion orally absent nthe UX. "The on at strates the we a course of bic footings which were often sued in earcrdaye (when sean Win not the reliable produc es today) to (Ge a geadal spread ofthe load, "The rleiusteted se 2 useful one and "om «Janay 1974 omentum 50. age ea cneet [EE : 4 pee seoute ser PT Sonora erates | A Sm ee | A ee : HES FA an fle alle alt TH arDAMP PROOF COURSES 4 consisted of making the concrete foundation tice the wall width and of thick= ‘ess equal to ane and one-third ita projecsion for the footing. "The depth ofthe foundations varies withthe characte ofthe subsoil and the rdative importance ofthe werk. Clay xis at lable to expand and contac, fndsuch movement may cause damage tthe foundations Uns they ae placed ta sficient depth; if such sits ate waterlogged i may be diab to adopt ‘90 mm deep foundations. Tie not necestary to exceed 450 mm depth in many fltatons; thi tthe minimum to prevent damage by fos. All brickwork below the ground level shoud be bul in cement mortar in order to incense its stability, and engineering brisk ae prefered "The eonstuction of the flor shown by broken lines atc is described on pp. 381064. ‘rer Poandatons —An example of foundation suitable for a detached pier (qillusteated in Fg. 7) 8 shown a,x, and m, Fig. 10. Whilst footings may be dispensed with and the foundation designed in accordance with the building Regulations, shouldbe noted that brick footing serve aust pute ose in gradually tanstng the concenttated load fromthe pier tothecovetete "Timbering to foundation trenches ia described on pp 79. DAMP PROOF COURSES (One ofthe chit eens in building is that the erucute shall be dey. A. damp building is unhealthy to thot who occupy i tenses damage 10 the contents of the building, and it gradly impairs the parte of the structre sifeced. "There are various causes of dampness in wal, the chit of which fre: () oie xing up the wale fom the adjacent ground (3) sin passing ‘oven fom the top of wall, (3) rn beating again the walls which my aor ‘the water to such an extent a5 show dampness onthe internal faces and (4) ‘the absorption of water from defective rainwater pipes, ‘Woh retro tthe ft cme, he ten of Bung Sine bet which Bias Fens ate nade beces Be may etal ot ae ‘Scermine te poromty ihe percentage af te pore spe), reve permeate ‘elfatnrb: Be ml pprciae tne ewer blow the round eel wi doe "To prevent water absorbed from the sil rising ad ausing dampen in the ‘walland any adacent woodwork and plaster, continuous layer ofan impervious Iter is provided. "This Iyer knowns 2 horizontal damp prof course (Gipe) ‘The postion of such s course varies fom 130 to joo ram above the (rund level (ee sections in Fig), “The level should not be les than gona ‘therise sll (Frning ower bed andthe lke) stay be deponited asia the fuera face fs wala pester ight thas the impervious yer and thus water ‘ay be transite from Ita the wall sbove the dap proof cours, ‘Some ofthe materials used to form horiaontal damp proof courses are -— Aiphll—'The raw material is 2 chocoat-cloured limestone which is limpregoated with bitumen or natal pitch Te qurted and imported fom the West Indies (Lake Tvnided), France (Seysel), Switecland (Val de Teasers) tnd Germany. Fine grit in varying proportions is added snd completly ‘ncorporsted ith the asphalt a vey high temperstare, after which i east into blocks (weighing about 25 ky each), ‘These are ecsived onthe site, when they are reheated and applied tn the fllowing manner Wood battens are fixed horizontally along both faces of the wal with their top edges usu {pimm shove the top ofthe course of the wall which po ree the sepa ‘Thetested material place on the wall betran the battens ad Snished of by rmeansof hand flats othe tp of the batens. The asphalt s kept slightly back {fom the external face of the wall chat may be porned with coment morte ster the wall hes been completed this covers the tack line ofthe asphalt and ‘sce in preventing the asphalt from being sqiceed out and discolnring the brickwork especialy ifitissubjected totense action of the sun, Asphal forms ‘mcxcllent damp proof cour, it being impervious and indestructible, in ‘Mion it des no fneture, if, on acount of unequal settlement, cracks are ‘assed in the brickwork ‘ibrus Asphalt Fet—There are many varieties ofthis damp prof course, lone of which consists ofa base of tough hessian (woven jute clot) or fle which Ieinopegnated with and covered by ayer of ho atu btomen, and ended ‘on the surface or eavered with tale prevent the ines frm adhering to each ‘other. Teisobained in rls, 221m ong and in varius widths From 125mm {915 mm, In laying tin poston, thin ayer of mortar is sprexd on the Brick ‘worl and the damp proof course is bedded on iH shouldbe lapped 75 1a ‘whet joint occur and lapped fall width al eosings and angles Teabould be pointed in ement morte “This type of damp prof course extensively ured, i being ex handled snd, provided i adequately impregnated with bitumen and obtained from a ‘epitable manufacturer it forme 2 thoroughly reliable damp-resting material Some of she chespervarieter are pracllyworthlen, they are comparatively thin and both the aes and the hitumen are of inferior quality; auch should headed Tes ot wutable fr certain claen of sone walling 2c, Lake District Mason (decribed om. 4s), the weigh of the ragged udemed stones cut and produces defects through which misure su po to cae Aacnpres ‘Sate —Such a damp poof course consists of two Layers of sound sates fmibedded in coment mortar compo af 1:3 cement and sand. A lager of ‘mortar is spread ovr the brickwork, upon which the Brst ayer of slates ia bedded With but joins; more mora is peead over these slates and the second layer of Slates at in position so aso foren a hal lap bond withthe first course of ates (when tester re sai to" break joint") the nex cours of Brickwork i then Bede in erent mortar on the top layer of lates, “The slates most extend the8 BRICK WALLS fal thicknes ofthe wal, beat east 15 mm long, and be neatly pointed in cement ‘mortar. Ieisa very ecient damp proof couse and has been used on important buildings Ie used in connection with Lake District walling and similar ‘onatuction ae it snot damaged by the sharp cages ofthe rough etones. ‘Thi ‘damp proof course is liable to be broken i unequal settlement occurs, casing ‘water tobe abuorbed through the cracks ‘ead—This ia a costly ut very effective damp prof course. It consists of ayer of sheet lead (oc Chapter VI) which weigh from 3108 Ib er wg. fe fenbedded in lime mertar® Tes either lapped as described for Shrous sepalt {elt orth ointa may be mele (ae p. 44), The mortar does not adhere tot readily unles the lead is well scored (scratched) “Another varity ofthis clas of damp prof course const of x continuous core of ight lead (weighing only 122 kg) covered both sider with bituminese elt which i aufaced with ale to prevent sticking ofthe ol, Tri nade fn for thre grades of varying width and in rolls which ace in 8m lengths. Tes fh exellent damp proof course, especially for damp ste, and whi tx more ‘expensive than the above te mare durable ‘CopperThis ie anather exellent damp proof cours ‘The copper should ‘beat east -022 mm tick, lapped or ited a described for lead and embeded in lime or cement mortar. ‘Blue Staffordshire Bricks ~"These provide effecivedamp proof courses, ‘They sare uiltn tro to four coures in cement mortar; the colour ofthe Bricks may ender them naeceptale for general apliston. ‘Pt. —"This ia relatively ew ype of dpe material, Iti polythene, or 1 mm thik i the tal walling width and rol eng of 301, "The vecond case of dampness tte on p17 (rin psig down from ‘the tops of wala) may be prevented by the provison of a hortontal amp proot ‘course either immediately below the top course of brickwork of some Title ‘lstanes below it. Thus in the ease of boundary walls the damp proat core ‘may be paced immediatly under the coping (ce Fig 17 and 27), and paraget rll may be protected by continuing the cover fathing sce p43) the fll Sicknemtof he wall. Silay, 2 horizontal dpc, shouldbe pisced ins ‘hinney stack at junction with seo. ‘Vercal damp proof courses which are necemary to exlede dampness in basement, ete, wal are described in Chap. I, Val HL caplet te dame pot cr, lin te de Aun and Haman “PES, pecs cent muta ac pone ty dey i SURFACE OR SITE CONCRETE ‘The ate of building below wood Hoo must be covered with an impervious smatra in order to exclude dampres.‘The material wed may be concrete oF auphalt. The Buldiog Regulation require a 109 mm layer of const consisting ‘of 50g of cement ro ot more than om of fin aggregte sand) aces maf oarae aggregate (broken brik stone et) dona bedo Broken brick clinker, te. ‘The conetete sould be well surfaced with the back ofthe shovel (known a5 ‘spade fished"); its top surface must not be blow the level of the grad cutie the wal ofthe bling. Surface concrete shown in Fig. to" Besides fcluding dampness, surface concrete prevents the growth of vegetable matter td the adnision of ground air Doasf tors tam wal, known a rand fender walls see Fig. 32), ate somtimes constructed on the surface concrete (oc Fig to, and Fig. 38) oF ‘hey may have the usual concrete foundation (oe, Fig.52)" The te concrete djing the wala may be Baise as shown 2c, Fig 10(thieis the best method ifs separate sleeper wall shown i to be supported), or stand, Fi. 10. (Offets.‘These are sarrom hoiaotal surfaces which have Bee formed by reducing the thickness of wall. Fig. 10 show s635 mm ofc, Wider fies than these may be raulred to support for jot, ro! timbers, andthe Hike Walls fal buildings ae formed wath overs; thus s 15 high wall may te M2 mm thick atthe hase, 2t5 mm thick atthe top, with an intermediate thichnea of 338 mm, and the 112 mm wie ledges or shelves wo formed are termed ofsets. A broken vertical section through a portion of such a malls shown at, Fig. 11. The 2 mm effects support horizontal wood members falled wall plats which rectve the ends ofthe Boor outs (cP 6). ‘The plan atm, Fig. 11, shows am alternative and cheaper method of sp porting wall plates thin at's. the Inter the increase tickres of the wall [the bate o frm the ost is continuous forthe fll length of he wal, whereas {tthe veal plat ets upon smal piers which are usually not more thal go tm {part Two methods of lorming these pire are shows at ¢ and D, the frmner Ing the stronger 2 is Donde ito the main wall nd the later not. “The Toundation for pier vis strengthened iF Whe site concrete formed to ocupy the space at W. Corbels.‘These are similar to offets except thatthe ledges ae formed by covering or projecting courses (sce Fig. 11)- They ae conatracted to support oor beams, lintel, et. As a lad eared by a cobel tends to overturn the all, certaia precautions are taken to ensure a sable structure; these are: (1) the maximum projection ofthe corbel must not exceed the thickness ofthe ‘all, 2) each corel course must not projet more then s6-a§ mam, (3) headers operat the eae sol ay Ne rd ver ha parson aesae pee cpamragl yam be waded (ote rt 2 alee man) ie sph ‘uvac, "Phe onfeion of the conciee hus been a feguent ease of ry rt (ep $3)LINTELS 19 eee PLAYED CAPPING srg CORBELS eh ome RL | BUTTRESS CAPPINGS Q R GEIS Lt “TUMBLED IN" CAPPING most be used as they are more adequately tailed ito the wal than srtches and (@) only sound bricks and workmanship should be employed. The corbele shown at, and 8 are continuous and tat (with the sketch at») i an ‘example of n alate or non-continvous corbe. "The late is wed to support ‘concentrated lols (8 atsmited from lage Boor beams) andthe stone pad it ‘provided to distribute the load more eet Oversalling Courtes.Thase are lrequenty employed at decorative {eatures, a for example in the contraction of cornice (a crowning member of wal), rig cure (provided between the bane and top of sal), (0p (fs wal adjacent to a Yo!) and ehinney sack (the upper portion of ikon ‘which encloses chimney fues-sce Figy 38 nd 75) Simple examples of bce ‘overmiling courses ae shown att, Fig 7,0, Fig. 38 andj, Fig 70. Stone ‘omices ete are deed in Fig. 24 and 3, rest Cappings—Iutrsses have been refered on 9. 13, "These are usually completed with simple cappings (ee Fig 1). ‘The seetion at @ ‘hows the eapping to consist of two coures of sly rik ofthe type acted fat eand s, ig. 35 a sketch of this capping Is shown atm. The sketch at hows another weathered eapping formed of ordinary bricks which are ted fr tumbled into the wall; the section at & shows dhe cutting of the bricks sthich sine, ‘As mentioned on p. 13, the verti sides of doorways nd window openings are known ax janbs, ‘The tp or head of euch an opening consists of fel or ‘march, or both and the bottom ofa window opening i alle sill whilst the bottom of door opening is usualy povided with one or morestepsor resol LINTELS A linet is a member of wood, brick or conrete which i xed horizontally and used to roppor the structure above the opening,” Most intels ow are of Feinforced cone. In he cn in Bulg Sccce the te wl tty he beara of Ine GEER or ecttate cca meena meee Wood Litels "These ae usualy of redwood (oe. 59)- ‘The sve depends upon the thickness of the wall, the san (tance between oppose jamb) od the weight to be supported. "The depth i= approximately anestwafth of the an with x sinus of 95 tn; the width may ual the fall thickness oftheswall~ab i necessary fr internal dooe openings (en, Fig. 52} the wide ‘the inner reveal ts shown at Bltated in Fit 44 ‘Boiteup lintel ay be ued for larger panes the section a, Fig. 1, shows sucha lintel which comprises tree 175mm by 73 mm pieces bolted together Seth 13 mm diameter bolts near the ends and at evry 0 men af te length 3 pat levatiog i shown at Cand indicates he bolts eich are provided withthe rovesiy nus and washers (es, Figo). Analtenative otis built intel Isshown atm this consis of ewo 175 mm by so mm piece which bridge the opening and havea 10 mm Dearing o wal: teach end) and so mm thick picking or distance piesa the ens and at 380 om centres, hoes ae Bored through the coatinuous pics and packing pices through which bles ae passed to secure thom and ens thatthe pieces will act ah ope units the elevation of| [ntl Wie smut that at © except thatthe packing pieces Would be adieated hy broken ines at each bola shown 3). ‘The end of the lintels have a 175mm wallhold and ave bedded on mertar so arto ensure» level and frm bearing.” Wood lintel afford» ready mane of Securing the bends of door apd window fames (op. 98). rik Lintal—Aais plied a rick ne irs horizontal member consitng ‘of brick which are generally uid om end and oceaonally on edge. Jt is 2 relively weak form of constriction and ir quite unsuited to support heay Toads. ‘Phey should therefore be sed Yo span smal opening ony (anles hey sate to receive additional suppor a explained later) and the apan should nat ‘exceed goo mn. ‘A scton and part elevation of brick lintel ae shown st «and, ig. #2 ‘Cement mortar should be sed, and presed bricks having a fog on cach bed ave beter than wie-cuts. The term jgglad brick intl sometimes applied to this type when bricks having fogs are wed, the jogle or notch being formed by the widened joint at each frog the jogle sass in revieing the sing scaring ation to which the intel suerte. “The ln contd temporary wl appt kun urine (eg. tn monn ipa oer the pve aat g rame een tc bk ESV poled rough fn he ave pea hey ford heap ‘The depth ofthe fine depends upon the sc ofthe opening and the appsr= ance required it varies from 1035 mm to 345 mn. For the sake of appetance itis enn shat the top of he itl sal coined with horizontal ont ofthe general walling (se » ahd 6, Fig. 12), otherwise partial couse of bickiork Soul be required between the top ofthe lintel an the bed joint ofthe wll Shove ity tach ipl care ie mort angi. cominon depth that hich {equal a two course the adjoining brickwork ae); one end ofeach Bick BRICK WALLS is carefully removed (ually with «hammer and bolstr—see 35, Fig, 9) and Fig. 12. A further example of wood lintel | the Bick are placed in potion withthe et ends uppermoe, the growing ‘operation ie facitated asthe Fog are expowe at the top “ha alternative method of forming the ends of brick ntl, which has & somembat stronger appearance, shown st inthe elevation 8, Fis 13. Lol EEE s t a Beside, SE i pa Hy Woo obptt NTEL LUNTEL = KLM Schon poll if ee | BRICK SULT UP“ WOOD LINTEL mae SSS Sahoo CONCRETE Bee OeSte Sent UNTEL r Brick tics ae sometimes hrown a soldier arches" presumably beease ‘ofthe upright appearance ofthe bricks” "This ea misnomer, for auch docs nt ‘comply withthe requitementrof true arch av defined Kelow Tnedentally [reat cne should he raken to ensure that each brick i placed absolutely vera {tthe appearance is spot if one or two of them show a depart from the ‘erica, however slight. Examples of such an "atch" ae abown 8, Fig. 46, ind Fig se Support for Brick Lint Additional support must be provided if a brickARC (Gis equired for 3 greater span then goo mm, Alkeratve methods of soch Yen ae shown in secton at tt cand S, Fig. AUR 75 mm by Feta bare Fig fo), having 50m bearing teach end is aed ‘exceeding ¥ os minis recommete tht ona the following should (Gated angle ce Figo) ving som beatings 8 shown stand ‘Fg 40) purporerade ck supported by 2 reinforeedcon- ta! ndtned at 8 oF (2) reinforced brick nel which lata Helter consatsofs 20mm dsmetcr steel od which threaded hough 1s before they Have been routed cachend ofthe rod is bedded 50 mn vals the bricks used fortis purpor are fold during the moulding | “tore being bart, the cent ofeach hale being spprosimaty 98 mh [cage fe iT xpd ito te ae ha 1. maybe rendered inconspicuous by panting ther 0 confor with the tthe brick akeroatvely they maybe completely covered by the Jor dow famesy the sit or underside ofthe concrete Hotel aX between Klint andthe dor fame maybe covered by bedding mm tk tes 2 common practice for small spans to bed brick tines diely pon ‘es of the dor and window frames; such frames sould be set back for ‘more han 35 tm from the external fice ofthe wal (ey Fig 44. ‘Stone Litt or Heads These are rectangslar blocs of stone of varying hikes and depth; the ler shouldbe t less 215mm Tesoul couse with the adjacent richvor a abown 40, Fig. ar Addiional example ae shown in Fige 22 24,58 and 61 Concrete Lintelio=A mutable mix of concrete consists of part Portnd een, 2 parts sand and parts gravel or broken rik or tne a 29 mm gig ‘The lintel may be eas it tu (Psion) or precast (Forted and allowed to set before beng fed) the forme rest na wood mould (with 32 to 38 ram {hick Bott abd sides) which i removed when the conrete has 48. The Deas method is more fen emplayed ath intel can be formed nthe wood ‘ould well in advance tallow therm being wfc rated fr Big when required and the cnsration ofthe wang above ther may be contin immediately after Ging, As concrete comparatively weak tension, the wae ‘plain cnet lnelssboul be Limited to spun not exceeding goo mand ot sd to cary pont load, otherwise ures ay cur which ae usually de to Shear and which may produce fracture suchas that inated by he broke fine ‘ato, Figriz. Ifthisspan into be exceed, the itl mun be strengthened by ‘ing id sel bars or some other form of sel enforcement. A simple PE of rnoreed concrete intel is shown a and 9 the mumber and sz ofthe Te fnforementSepend upon the spn, width and loa tobe wapporte he tel placed inthe moulds and at about 2g mm from the btm; the concrete i Poured in, care eig taken in packing round the reinforcement. ‘The ends of EiSStstichoked a shown rdw crest bord pp betwen tn tna the conerete. If pecs, the tp of he intel shouldbe marked mo that he s 2 fixer will bet wththersinforcerent lowermost, Otherexamples of atiaforced onerte intel are shown a and ¢ Fig. 2, and 8 and 0, Fig. $8 ‘Am example of bot shaped itl shown at Fig 55. ARCHES An arch isa structure comprising a number af waive small nits! such brick or masoney blocks which are wedge shaped, joined together with mortar, zu spanning a2 opening to support the weight above, Because of thee tredgerlike fren the unite support each ater, te Tond tends to make them ‘Smpact and enables ehem to erat the presse downwards to thee supports “Terms.—The techni ters applied to an arch ard adjacent structure a sh i the iometi shat (Fig. 13); the flowing ia bee dseipion *— Vausairs The wedge-shaped brks or blocks of tone which comprise an ach; the last yousoi be paced in positon is usualy the ental one ab i> Known asthe hey brick or hey sone it sometines emphasaed by making it larger and projecting tabive and below the outlines ofthe arch, "The key shown inthe sketch consis of several 12 or 30 mm tes ‘ing, Rim o” Ring Cowes‘ cicilar course or courses comprising the acc "The arch in Fig. 13 conse of three halfsrick rings, the one Pg 15, fas two ha-brick ings, and those at Fad ¥, Fig. .and and Fi. 40 ase cach 3 one-brick ing [Brad or Back, —‘The externa eave ofthe ach Irtradon “The nner curve of he arch Soff The inner or under surface ofthe arch; in some lets the terms soft" and" intrador "are acxpted 32 meaning the same ‘Abuments—The portions ofthe wall which suppor the are. ‘Skeabacks—The incined or splayed surfaces of the abutments prepared 12 eccive the arch and from which the arch springs (oe 8, Fi 13). ‘Springing Ponte—The points a the intersection betwen the shewbacks and the invade (ee 8, Fig. 18). Springing Line The horizout line joing the two springing pins ‘Springert.—‘The lowest roosts immediately adjacent to the skewhacs (Crean The highest point of the extados Heunch ~The lower al ofthe arch between the crown and sskewhack. ‘Spon.‘The horizontal ditance berween the reveals ofthe *pport [se The vertal distance between the springing line andthe highest tof the intade (Cone or Soiing Paint) and Radi (se Fg) Depth or Height~'The distance betneen the exeados and intra. Thctnert—‘The boriaontal distance between anda ight angst the front and back faces; is sometimes refered t 25 the width o Dreadth ofthe sat