Et ZC344 Et ZC341 L4

Instrumentation and
control
ET ZC 341
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Swapna Kulkarni
Lecturer,
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Analog Signal Processing
Introduction
Signal conditioning refers to operations performed on
signals to convert them to a form suitable for interfacing
with other elements in the process control loop.
Even in applications involving digital processing, some
type of analog conditioning is usually required before
analog to- digital conversion is made.
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Principles of Analog Signal

Conditioning
A sensor measures a variable by converting information
about that variable into a dependent signal of either
electrical or pneumatic nature.
To develop such transducers, we take advantage of
fortuitous circumstances in nature where a dynamic
variable influences some characteristic of a material.
Consequently, there is little choice of the type or extent
of such proportionality.
Principles of Analog Signal

Conditioning
Analog signal conditioning provides the operations
necessary to transform a sensor output into a form
necessary to interface with other elements of the
process control loop.
We often describe the effect of signal conditioning by the
term transfer function. By this term we mean the effect of
the signal conditioning on the input signal.
Thus, a simple voltage amplifier has a transfer function
of some constant that, when multiplies by input voltage,
gives the output voltage.
It is possible to categorize signal conditioning into
several general types.
Signal level and Bias changes

One of the most common types of signal
conditioning involves adjusting the
level(magnitude) and bias(zero value) of some
voltage representing a process variable.
Ex. Some sensor output voltage may vary from
0.2 to 0.6 V as a process variable changes over
a measurement range. However, equipment to
which this sensor output must be connected
perhaps requires a voltage that varies from 0 to
5 V for the same variation of the process
variable.
Signal level and Bias changes

We perform the required signal conditioning by first
changing the zero to occur when the sensor output is
0.2V. This can be done by simple subtracting 0.2 from
the sensor output, which is called a zero shift or a bias
adjustment.
If we have voltage that varies from 0 to 0.4V and need to
make it larger, multiply the voltage by 12.5,the new
output will vary from 0 to 5 V as required. This is called
amplification and 12.5 is called the gain.
Signal Level and Bias

Changes
In some cases, we need to make a sensor output
smaller, which is called attenuation. The circuit that does
either chore is called amplifier.
In designing bias and amplifier circuits, we must be
concerned with issues such as the frequency response,
output impedance, and input impedance.
Linearization
The process control designer has little choice of the
characteristics of a sensor output versus a sensor
variable.
The dependence that exists between input and output is
nonlinear.
Even those devices that are approx. linear may present
problems when precise measurements of the variable
are required.
Historically, specialized analog circuits were devised to
linearize signals.
Linearity
Fig. 2.1 The purpose of linearization is to provide an output that varies
linearly with some variable even if the sensor output does not.
Ex. A sensor output varied

nonlinearly with a process
variable(fig.2.1a).
A linearization circuit (in
fig.2.1b) would ideally be one
that conditioned the sensor
out put so that a voltage was
produced which was linear
with the process
variable(fig.2.1c)
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Linearity
Such circuits are difficult to design and usually operate
only within narrow limits.
The modern approach to this problem is to provide the
nonlinear signal as input to a computer and perform the
linearization using software.
Virtually any nonlinearity can be handled in this manner
and, with the speed of modern computers, in nearly time.
Conversions
Often, signal conditioning is used to convert one
type of electrical variation into another.
Thus, a large class of sensors exhibit changes of
resistance with changes in a dynamic variable.
In these cases, it is necessary to provide a
circuit to convert this resistance change either to
a voltage or a current signal.
This is generally accomplished by bridges when
the fractional resistance change is small and/or
by amplifiers whose gain varies with resistance.
Signal transmission
An important type of conversion is associated with the
process control standard of transmitting signals as 4 to
20mA current levels in wire.
This gives rise to the need for converting resistance and
voltage levels to an appropriate current level at the
transmitting end and for converting the current back to
voltage at the receiving end.
Of course, current transmission is used because such a
signal is independent of load variations other than
accidental shunt conditions that may draw off some
current.
The V to I and I to V converters are often required.
Digital Interface
The use of computers in a process control requires
conversions of analog data into a digital format by IC
devices called analog to digital converters(ADCs).
Analog signal conversions is usually required to adjust
the analog measurement signal to match the input
requirements of the ADC.
Ex. The ADC may need a voltage that varies between 0
to 5 V, but the sensor provides a signal that varies from
30 to 80mV.Signal conversion circuits can be developed
to interface the output to the required ADC input.
Filtering and Impedance Matching

Often, spurious signals of considerable strength are
present in the industrial environment, such as 60 Hz
line frequency signals.
Motor start transients may also cause pulse and
other unwanted signals in the process control loop.
In many cases, it is necessary to use high-pass , low
pass, or notch filters to eliminate unwanted signals
from the loop. Such filtering can be accomplished by
passive filters, using only resistrors,capacitors, and
inductors, or active filters, using gain and feedback.
Filtering and Impedance Matching

Impedance matching is an important element of
signal conditioning when transducer internal
impedance or line impedance can cause errors
in measurement of a dynamic variable.
Both active and passive networks are employed
to provide such matching.
concept of loading
Important concerns in analog signal conditioning
is the loading of one circuit by another.
This introduces uncertainty in the amplitude of
voltage as it is passed through the measurement
process. If this voltage represents some process
variable, then we have uncertainty in the value
of the variable.
Qualitatively: suppose the open circuit output of
some element is voltage,Vx, when the element
input is some variable of value x.
Concept of loading
This element could be a sensor or some other part of the
signal conditioning circuit, such as bridge circuit or
amplifier.
Open circuit means that nothing is connected to the
output. Loading occurs when we do connect something,
a load, across the output, and the output voltage of the
element drops to some value,Vy<Vx. Different loads
result in different drops.
Qualitatively: Thevenins voltage source in series within
output impedance.
Example
Fig.2.2 the Thevenin equivalent
circuit of a sensor allows easy
visualization of how loading occurs.
This could be the input

resistance of an amplifier.
A current will flow, and
voltage will be dropped across
Rx. It is easy to calculate the
loaded output voltage will
thus be given by
Objective :make RL >>Rx
Question: An amplifier outputs a voltage that is 10 times the voltage on its

input terminals. It has an input resistance of 10k. A sensor outputs a voltage
proportional to temperature with a transfer function of 20mV/C. The sensor
has an output resistance of 5.0 k,find the amplifier output.
The unloaded o/p of the sensor is
simply VT=(20mV/C)50 C=1.0V.
Vout=10Vin=10*1.0V=10V
But this is wrong, because of loading!
Fig.2.3b shows the correct analysis.
Here we see that there will be a
voltage dropped across the output
resistance of the sensor. The actual
amplifier input voltage will be given
by
Fig.2.3 If loading is ignored, serious

errors can occur in expected outputs
of circuits and gains of amplifiers.
Where VT=1.0V. So, Vin=0.67V.

Thus,output of the amplifier is
Vout=10(0.67)=6.7V
Passive Circuits
Bridge and divider circuits are two passive techniques
that have been extensively used for signal conditioning
Bridge circuits are used primarily as an accurate means
of measuring changes in impedance.
Such circuits are particularly useful when the fractional
changes in impedance are very small.
Another common type of passive circuit involved in
signal conditioning is for filtering unwanted frequencies
from the measurement signal.
21
Passive Circuits
It is quite common in the industrial environment to find
signals that possess high-and/or low-frequency noise as
well as the desired measurement data.
Ex.: a transducer may convert temp. information into a
dc voltage, proportional to temp.
Because of the ever-present ac power lines, however,
there may be a 60 Hz noise voltage impressed on the
output that makes determination of the temp. difficult.
A passive circuit consisting of a resistor and a capacitor
often can be used to eliminate both high- and lowfrequency noise without changing the desired signal
information
22
Divider Circuits
Fig. 2.4 The simple voltage divider can
often be used to convert resistance
variation into voltage variation
The elementary voltage

divider often can be used to
provide conversion of
resistance variation into a
voltage variation.
The voltage of such divider is
given by
VD=(R2*Vs)/(R1+R2)
(2.2)
Where Vs=supply
voltage;R1,R2=divider resistors
Either R1 or R2 can be the sensor
whose resistance varies with
some measured variable.
23
Divider Circuits
It is important to consider the following issues when using a
divider for conversion of resistance to voltage variation:
1. The variation of VD with either R1 or R2 is nonlinear; that is,
even if the resistance varies linearly with the measured
variable, the divider voltage will not vary linearly.
2. The effective output impedance of the divider is the parallel
combination of R1 and R2. This may not necessarily be high,
so loading effects must be considered.
3. In a divider circuit, current flows through both resistors; that
is, power will be dissipated by both, including the sensor.
The power rating of both the resistor and sensor must be
considered.
24
Q. The divider circuit has R1 = 10.0 k and Vs =5.00 V. Suppose R2 is a sensor

whose resistance varies from 4.00 to 12.0 k as some dynamic variable varies
over a range. Then find (a) the minimum and maximum of VD, (b) the range of
output impedance, and (c) the range of power dissipated by R2.
Solution:
a) The solution is given by eq. 2.2. For R2=4k,we have
VD=(5V)(4k)/(10+4)k=1.43V;
For R2=12k,VD=(5V)(12k)/(10+12)k=2.73V
b) Thus, the voltage varies from 1.43 to 2.73 V.
c) The range of output impedance is found from the parallel
combination of R1 and R2 for the min. and max. of R2. Simple
parallel resistance computation shows that this will be from
2.86 to 5.45 k .
d) The power dissipated by the sensor can be determined most
easily from V/R2 as the voltage across R2 has been calculated.
The power dissipated varies from 0.51 to 0.62mW.
25
Bridge Circuits
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Pilani Campus
26
Bridge Circuits
It is used to convert impedance variation into voltage
variations.
Adv.: it can be designed so the voltage produces varies
around zero.
This means that amplification can be used to increase
the voltage level for increased sensitivity to variation of
impedance.
Another application of bridge circuits is in the precise
static measurement of an impedance.
27
Wheatstone Bridge
Fig. 2.5 The basic dc
Wheatstone bridge
The simplest and most common bridge

circuit is the dc Wheatstone bridge.
This network is used in signal
conditioning applications where a
sensor changes resistance with process
variable changes.
The object labeled D is a voltage
detector used to compare the
potentials of points a and b of the
network.
Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
28
Wheatstone Bridge
In most modern applications, the detector is a very high
input impedance differential amplifier.
In some cases , a highly sensitive galvanometer with a
relatively low impedance may be used, especially for
calibration purposes and spot measurement instruments.
Wheatstone Bridge
For initial analysis, assume the detector impedance is infinite.
The potential difference , V=Va-Vb
(2.3)
where Va= potential of point a with respect to c
Vb= potential of point b with respect to c.
Va=VR3/(R1+R3) and Vb=VR2/(R2+R4)
where V= bridge supply voltage.
V= V(R3R2-R1R4)/(R1+R3)(R2+R4)
(2.7)
A particular combination of resistors can be found that will
result in zero difference and zero voltage across the detector,
i.e. , a null.
R3R2=R1R4
(2.8)
The application of Wheatstone bridges to process-control
applications using high-input impedance detectors.
30
Galvanometer Detector
The use of galvanometer as a null detector in the bridge
circuit introduces some differences in our calculations
because the detector resistance may be low and because we
must determine the bridge offset as current offset.
When the bridge is nulled, eq 2.8 still defines the relationship
between the resistors in the bridge arms.
Eq 2.7 must be modified to allow the determination of current
drawn by the galvanometer when a null condition is not
present.
Easy way to determine the offset current is to first to find the
Thevenin equivalent circuit between points a and b of the
bridge.
31
Galvanometer
The Thevenin voltage is simply
the open circuit voltage
difference between points a and
b of the circuit.
VTh
R3 R2 R1 R4
V
R1 R3 R2 R4
Fig 2.6 When a galvanometer is used

for a null detector , it is convenient
to use the Thevenin equivalent
circuit of the bridge
Consider the internal resistance of

supply is negligible compared to
the ridge arm resistances.
R1 R3
R2 R4
RTh
R1 R3
R2 R4
The offset current is
IG
VTh
RTh RG

32
Bridge Resolution
The resolution of the bride circuit is a function of
the resolution of the detector used to determine
the bridge offset. Thus, referring to the case
where a voltage offset occurs, we define the
resolution in resistance as that resistance
change in one arm of the bridge that causes an
offset voltage that is equal to the resolution of
the detector.
33
Lead Compensation
There are many effects that can change the
resistance of the long lead wires on a transient
basis, such as frequency, temperature, stress,
and chemical vapors. Such changes will show
up as a bridge offset and be interpreted as
changes in lead resistance are introduced
equally into two arms of the bridge circuit, thus
causing no effective change in bridge offset.
34
Lead Compensation
Figure For remote sensor applications,

this compensation system is used to
avoid errors from lead resistance.
Assume R4 is sensor and has

been removed to a remote
location (1),(2) & (3).
Wire(3) is power lead and has no
influence on the bridge balance
condition.
If wire(2) changes in resistance
because of spurious influences, it
introduces this change into the
R4 leg of the bridge.
Wire (1) is exposed to the same
environment and changes by the
same amount, but is in the R3 leg
of the bridge.
35
Lead Compensation
Both R3 & R4 are identically changed, and thus eq. 2.8
shows that no change in the bridge null occurs.
This type of compensation is often employed where
bridge circuits must be used with long leads to the active
element of the bridge.
Current Balance Bridge

One disadvantage of the simple Wheatstone
bridge is the need to obtain a null by variation of
resistors in bridge arms.
A technique that provides for an electronic
nulling of the bridge and that uses only fixed
resistors (except as may be required for
calibration) can be used with the bridge. The
method uses a current to null the bridge.
A closed-loop system can even be constructed
that provides the bridge with a self-nulling ability.
37

Figure : The current balance
bridge
The standard Wheatstone

bridge is modified by splitting
one arm resistor into two R4
and R5. A current, I is fed into
the bridge through the
junction of R4 and R5 as
shown. We now stipulate that
the size of the bridge resistors
is such that the current flows
predominantly through R5.
This can be provided for by
any of several requirements.
The least restrictive is to
require.
R4>>R5

38

Often, if a high impedance null detector is used, the
restriction of equation becomes
(R2 + R4)>>R5
Assuming that either conditions of equation are satisfied,
the voltage at point b is the sum of the divided supply
voltage plus the voltage dropped across R5 from the
current, I.
V R4 R5
Vb
R2 R4 R5
IR5
V Va Vb
The voltage of point a is still given by equation. Thus, the
bridge offset voltage
given by
VR3
V R4 R5
V
IR5
R1 R3 R2 R4 R5
39

This equation shows that a null is reached by
adjusting the magnitude and polarity of the current I
until IR5 equal the voltage difference of the first two
terms. If one of the bridge resistors changes, the
bridge can be renulled by changing current, I. In this
manner, the bridge is electronically nulled from any
convenient current source. In most applications, the
bridge is nulled as some nominal set of resistance
with zero current. Changes of a bridge resistor are
detected as a bridge offset signal that is used to
provide the renulling current.
40
Potential Measurement Using Bridges

Figure Using the basic Wheatstone
bridge for potential measurement
A bridge circuit is also useful

to measure small potentials
at a very high impedance,
using either a conventional
Wheatstone bridge or a
current balance bridge. This
type of measurement is
performed by placing the
potential to be measured in
series with the detector, as
shown in figure.

41

V R4 R5
V V V
V
IR
b
R2 R4 R5
And
Where Va is given by Equation and Vx is the potential to be

measured. The voltage appearing across the null
detector is
V = Vc-Vb= Vx+Va-Vb
Vx can be measured by varying the bridge resistors to
provide a null with Vx in the circuit and solving for Vx
using the null condition
42

R3V
VR4
Vx
0
R1 R3
R2 R4
The potential is placed in series with the detector, and

V is defined exactly as before. Now, however, Vb is
given by equation, so the null condition becomes
R3V
V R4 R5
Vx
IR5 0
R1 R3 R2 R4 R5
If the fixed resistors are chosen to null the bridge with

I=0 and Vx = 0,then a very simple relationship between
Vx and the nulling circuit is:
Vx- I R =0
5
43
AC Bridge
Employs an ac excitation, usually
a sine wave voltage signal. The
analysis of bridge behavior is
basically the same as in the
previous
treatment,
but
impedances replace resistance.
The bridge offset voltage then is
represented as
E E
Figure : A general ac bridge

circuit
Z 3 Z 2 Z1 Z 4
Z1 Z 3 Z 2 Z 4
E ac offset voltage
Where
E = sine wave excitation voltage
Z1,Z2,Z3,Z4 = bridge impedances.
Z3Z2=Z1Z4

44
AC Bridge

Figure : The ac bridge circuit and components for example
An ac bridge employs impedance as shown in figure.

Find the value of Rx and Cx when the bridge is nulled.
45
Capacitive reactance
A capacitor has a purely reactive impedance which is inversely
proportional to the signal frequency. A capacitor consists of two
conductors separated by an insulator, also known as a dielectric.
At low frequencies a capacitor is open circuit, as no charge flows in the
dielectric.
A DC voltage applied across a capacitor causes charge to accumulate
on one side; the electric field due to the accumulated charge is the
source of the opposition to the current. When the potential
associated with the charge exactly balances the applied voltage, the
current goes to zero.
Driven by an AC supply, a capacitor will only accumulate a limited
amount of charge before the potential difference changes sign and
the charge dissipates. The higher the frequency, the less charge will
accumulate and the smaller the opposition to the current.
Example
Solution
Because the bridge is at null, we have
Z2Z3=Z1Zx
or
j
j
R2 R3
R1 Rx
C
C x
R2
jR1
R2 R3 j
R1 Rx
C
C x
47
R2
jR1
R2 R3 j
R1 Rx
C
C x
The real and imaginary parts must be independently equal,

so that
CR
R2 R3
Rx
0
R1
And
Cx
R2
2k 1 k C 1 F *(1k / 2k )
Rx
x
1k
Rx 2k
0.5 F
48
Bridge Applications
To convert variations of resistance into variations of
voltage.
This voltage variation is then further conditioned for
interface to an ADC or other system.
The variation of bridge offset is nonlinear with respect to
any of the resistors.
If the range of resistance variation is small and centered
about the null value , then the nonlinearity of voltage
versus resistance is small.
Amplifiers can be used to amplify this voltage variation,
since it is centered about zero, to a useful range.
49
RC Filters
To eliminate unwanted noise signals from
measurements, it is often necessary to use
circuits that block certain frequencies or bands
of frequencies. These circuits are called filters. A
simple filter can be constructed from a single
resistor and a single capacitor.
50
Low pass RC filter

Figure : Circuit for the low-pass
RC filter
It is called low pass because it

blocks high frequencies and
passes low frequencies.
A low pass filter had a
characteristic such that all
signals with frequency above
some critical value are simply
rejected.
Practical filter circuits
approach that ideal with
varying degrees of success.
When the ratio of o/p voltage
to i/p voltage is one, the signal
is passed without effect; When
it is very small or zero, the
signal is effectively blocked.
51
Low pass filter

The critical frequency is that frequency for which
the ratio of o/p to i/p voltage is approx. 0.707.
In terms of the resistor and capacitor, the critical
frequency is given by
fc = (1/ 2RC)
The output to input voltage ratio for any signal
frequency an be determined graphically or can
be computed by
Vout/Vin = 1/[1+(f/fc)]
52
Design Methods
A typical filter design is accomplished by finding

the critical frequency, fc that will satisfy the
design criteria.
The following practical guidelines are offered
on this process.
1. Select a standard capacitor value in the F to
pF range.
2. Calculate the required resistance. If it is below
1k or above 1M , try a different value of
capacitor so that the required resistance falls
within this range, which will avoid noise and
loading problems.
53
Design Methods
3.If design flexibility allows, use the nearest standard value
of resistance to that calculated.
4. Always remember that components such as resistors
and capacitors have a tolerance in their indicated
values. This must be considered in your design. Quite
often, capacitors have a tolerance as high as 20%.
5. If exact values are necessary, it is usually easiest to
select a capacitor, measure its value, and then
calculate the value of the required resistance. Then a
trimmer resistor can be used to obtain the required
value.
54
High-Pass RC Filter
Figure : Circuit for the highpass RC filter
A high pass filter passes
high frequencies (no
rejection) and blocks
(rejects) low frequencies. A
filter of this type can be
constructed using a resistor
and a capacitor, as shown in
schematic of figure.
55
High pass RC filter

It is similar to low pass filter, the rejection is not
sharp in frequency but distributed over a range
around a critical frequency.
The magnitude of Vout/Vin= 0.707 when the
frequency is equal to the critical frequency.
An equation for the ratio of output to input
voltage as a function of the frequency for the
high filter is found to be
Vout/Vin=(f/fc)/[1+(f/fc)]
56
Practical consideration
1.
After the critical frequency is determined, the values of R and C

are selected. A number of practical issues limit the selection:
a) Very small values of resistance are to be avoided because they can
lead to large currents, and thus large loading effects. Similarly very
large capacitors should be avoided. In general , we try to keep the
resistance in the k and above range and capacitors in the F or
less range.
b) Often, the exact critical frequency is not important, so that fixed
resistors and capacitors of approx. the computed values can be
employed . If exact values are necessary, it is usually easier to
select and measure a capacitor, then compute and obtain the
appropriate resistance using a trimmer resistance.
57
Practical Consideration
2. The effective input impedance and output impedance of the
RC filter may have an effect on the circuit in which it is used
because of loading effects . If the input impedance of the
circuit being fed by the filter is low, you may want to place a
voltage follower between the filter output and the next stage.
Similarly, if the input impedance of the feeding stage to the
filter is high , you may want to isolate the input of the filter with
a voltage follower.
3. It is possible to cascade RC filter in series to obtain improved
sharpness of the filter cutoff frequency. However, it is
important to consider the loading of one RC stage by another.
The output impedance of the first stage filter must be much
less than the input impedance of the next stage to avoid
leading.
58
Next Class
Active Circuits:
OP-Amp
Inverting Amplifier
Summing Amplifier
Differential Amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier

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Instrumentation and

Analog Signal Processing

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Principles of Analog Signal

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Principles of Analog Signal

Signal level and Bias changes

Signal level and Bias changes

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Signal Level and Bias

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Ex. A sensor output varied

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Filtering and Impedance Matching

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Filtering and Impedance Matching

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

This could be the input

Objective :make RL >>Rx

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Question: An amplifier outputs a voltage that is 10 times the voltage on its

Fig.2.3 If loading is ignored, serious

Where VT=1.0V. So, Vin=0.67V.

The elementary voltage

Q. The divider circuit has R1 = 10.0 k and Vs =5.00 V. Suppose R2 is a sensor

The simplest and most common bridge

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fig 2.6 When a galvanometer is used

Consider the internal resistance of

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure For remote sensor applications,

Assume R4 is sensor and has

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Current Balance Bridge

Current Balance Bridge

The standard Wheatstone

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Current Balance Bridge

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Current Balance Bridge

Potential Measurement Using Bridges

A bridge circuit is also useful

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Potential Measurement Using Bridges

Where Va is given by Equation and Vx is the potential to be

Potential Measurement Using Bridges

The potential is placed in series with the detector, and

If the fixed resistors are chosen to null the bridge with

Figure : A general ac bridge

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure : The ac bridge circuit and components for example

An ac bridge employs impedance as shown in figure.

The real and imaginary parts must be independently equal,

Low pass RC filter

It is called low pass because it

Low pass filter

A typical filter design is accomplished by finding

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus