Complex Analysis

PH 503 CourseTM

Charudatt Kadolkar
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati

ii

Copyright

2000 by Charudatt Kadolkar

Preface
Preface Head
These notes were prepared during the lectures given to MSc students at IIT Guwahati,
July 2000 and 2001..

Acknowledgments

As of now none but myself

IIT Guwahati

Charudatt Kadolkar.

Contents

Preface

iii
Preface Head

iii

Acknowledgments

Complex Numbers

iii

De nitions

Algebraic Properties

Polar Coordinates and Euler Formula

Roots of Complex Numbers
Regions in Complex Plane

Functions of Complex Variables

3
3

Functions of a Complex Variable

Elementary Functions
Mappings

Mappings by Elementary Functions.

Analytic Functions
Limits

11
11

Continuity

12

Derivative

12

Cauchy-Riemann Equations

13

vi

Contents
Analytic Functions

14

Harmonic Functions

Integrals

14

15
Contours

15

Contour Integral

16

Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
Antiderivative

17

Cauchy Integral Formula

Series

17

18

19
Convergence of Sequences and Series
Taylor Series
Laurent Series

20
20

Theory of Residues And Its Applications

Singularities

23

Types of singularities
Residues

23

24

Residues of Poles

24

Quotients of Analytic Functions

References

Index

29

27

23

25

19

Complex Numbers

De nitions
De nition 1.1 Complex numbers are de ned as ordered pairs


Points on a complex plane. Real axis, imaginary axis, purely imaginary numbers. Real
and imaginary parts of complex number. Equality of two complex numbers.
De nition 1.2 The sum and product of two complex numbers are de ned as follows:


"

In the rest of the chapter use

introduce and
notation.
.

&

'

'

'

for complex numbers and

'

for real numbers.

5

Algebraic Properties

1. Commutativity
7

<

<

>

<

<

2. Associativity
?

<

3. Distributive Law

4. Additive and Multiplicative Indentity

C

5. Additive and Multiplicative Inverse

R

Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

6. Subtraction and Division
i

7. Modulus or Absolute Value

s

8. Conjugates and properties

{

9.

10. Triangle Inequality

Polar Coordinates and Euler Formula

1. Polar Form: for

where
and
. is called the argument of . Since
an argument of the principle value of argument of is take such that
For
the
is unde ned.

2. Euler formula: Symbollically,

3.

4. de Moivres Formula

is also

Roots of Complex Numbers

Roots of Complex Numbers

Let


then


"

There are only distinct roots which can be given by

principle value of
then
is called the principle root.
"

"

&

'

&

If
)

&

'

is a
*

"

Example 1.1 The three possible roots of

<

>

are
E

Regions in Complex Plane

1.
L

of
P

is de ned as a set of all points which satisfy

S

2.
X

of
b

is a nbd of
b

excluding point
b

3. Interior Point, Exterior Point, Boundary Point, Open set and closed set.
4. Domain, Region, Bounded sets, Limit Points.

Functions of Complex Variables

Functions of a Complex Variable

A
de ned on a set is a rule that uniquely associates to each point of a
a complex number Set is called the
of and is called the value of at
and is denoted by
d

Example 2.1 Write

in

form.

and

and

Domain of
A
domain.

is

is a rule that assigns more than one value to each point of

Example 2.2
This function assigns two distinct values to each
One can choose the function to be single-valued by specifying

where is the principal value.



Elementary Functions

Chapter 2 Functions of Complex Variables

1. Polynomials

whrere the coef cients are real. Rational Functions.

2. Exponential Function


Converges for all For real

tion. Easy to see that
"

&

'

the de nition coincides with usual exponential func. Then

"

'

a.
.
b.
c. A line segment from
origin.
d. No Zeros.
$

'

'

to
3

<

maps to a circle of radius

centered at

3. Trigonometric Functions
De ne
$

>

"

'

<

"

>

'

<

"

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
and
f.
iff
g.
iff
h. These functions are not bounded.
i. A line segment from
to
equal to
under
function.
7

"

"

'

"

'

"

<

"

"

'

"

"

<

<

"

"

'

"

"

"

"

"

"

"
C

'

"

"

"

"

<

"

'

"

"

'

"

'

"

'

"

"

'

"

<

'

'

'

"

<

maps to an ellipse with semimajor axis

3

4. Hyperbolic Functions
De ne
P

O
S

Mappings
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
U

iff
iff

s
r

5. Logarithmic Function
De ne
then

a. Is multiple-valued. Hence cannot be considered as inverse of exponetial function.

b. Priniciple value of log function is given by

where
c.

is the principal value of argument of .

Mappings
. Graphical representation of images of sets under
cally shown in following manner:

is called

Typi

1. Draw regular sets (lines, circles, geometric regions etc) in a complex plane, which
we call plane. Use

2. Show its images on another complex plane, which we call

.

Example 2.3

plane. Use

Chapter 2 Functions of Complex Variables

2

1.5

0.5

-0.6-0.4-0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Mapping of
1. A straight line
2. A straight line

Mapping

maps to a parabola

maps to a parabola

3. A half circle given by

where
maps to a full circle given by
This also means that the upper half plane maps on to the entire complex
plane.

4. A hyperbola

maps to a straight line

Mappings by Elementary Functions.

1. Translation by

is given by

2. Rotation through an angle

is given by

3. Rel ection through x axis is given by

4. Exponential Function

Mappings by Elementary Functions.

Exponential Function
A vertical line maps to a circle.
A horizontal line maps to a radial line.
A horizontal strip enclosed between
plane.
5. Sine Function

and

maps to the entire complex

A vertical line maps to a branch of a hyperbola.

A horizontal line maps to an ellipse and has a period of

Analytic Functions

Limits
A function

is de ned in a deleted nbd of

De nition 3.1 The limit of the function

given
there exists a
such that

Example 3.2

Example 3.3
+

"

Theorem 3.1 Let

Show that
2

is a number


&

'

>

Example 3.4
Example 3.5

and
1

>

does not exist as

+

and
.

and
1

8
7

.
<

if

+
*

8
7

Theorem 3.2 If

. Show that the

3

. Show that the

-

>

if, for any



Show that the limit of

2

and only if

Show that
#

Example 3.1

as

This theorem immediately makes available the entire machinery and tools used for real
analysis to be applied to complex analysis. The rules for nding limits then can be listed
as follows:

12

Chapter 3 Analytic Functions

1.
v

2.

z
y

3.

if

4.

is a polynomial in .

z
y

5.

z
y

Continuity
De nition 3.2 A function , de ned in some nbd of

is continuous at

if

z
y

This de nition clearly assumes that the function is de ned at and the limit on the LHS
exists. The function is continuous in a region if it is continuous at all points in that
region.

If funtions and
continuous at .

are continuous at

then

and

are also

If a function
and are also continuous at

is continuous at

then the component functions

Derivative
De nition 3.3 A function , de ned in some nbd of

Example 3.7
real analysis

Show that

is differentiable at

if

exists. The limit is called the derivative of

Example 3.6

at

and is denoted by

or

. Show that this function is differentiable only at

is not differentiable but
is.

If a function is differentiable at , then it is continuous at .

. In

Cauchy-Riemann Equations

13

The converse in not true. See Example 3.7.

Even if component functions of a complex function have all the partial derivatives, does
not imply that the complex function will be differentiable. See Example 3.7.
Some rules for obtaining the derivatives of functions are listed here. Let
differentiable at

1.

and

be

2.

3.

if

4.

5.

6.

Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Theorem 3.3 If
function
and

exists, then all the rst order partial derivatives of component

exist and satisfy Cauchy-Riemann Conditions:

Example 3.8
are satis ed.
Example 3.9
satis ed only at

Show that Cauchy-Riemann Condtions

Show that the Cauchy-Riemann Condtions are

Theorem 3.4 Let

be de ned in some nbd of the point
If
the rst partial derivatives of and exist and are continuous at and satisfy CauchyRiemann equations at , then is differentiable at and

Example 3.10

Example 3.11

Show that
Show that

Example 3.12
Show that the CR conditions are satis ed at
function is not differentiable at

but the

14

Chapter 3 Analytic Functions

If we write
nates:

then we can write Cauchy-Riemann Conditions in polar coordi

Analytic Functions
De nition 3.4 A function is analytic in an open set if it has a derivative at each point
in that set.
De nition 3.5 A function is analytic at a point

if it is analytic in some nbd of



De nition 3.6 A function is an entire function if it is analytic at all points of

Example 3.13

Example 3.14

is analytic at all nonzero points.

is not analytic anywhere.



A function is not analytic at a point

but is analytic at some point in each nbd of
then is called the singular point of the function .

Harmonic Functions
De nition 3.7 A real valued function
is said to be
in a domain of
xy plane if it has continuous partial derivatives of the rst and second order and satis es
:


"

&

'

>

Theorem 3.5 If a function

the functions and are harmonic in

is analytic in a domain

<

then
A

.
A

De nition 3.8 If two given functions

and
are harmonic in domain D
and their rst order partial derivatives satisfy Cauchy-Riemann Conditions
B

Example 3.15 Let

not vice versa.
Example 3.16
\

then is said to be

of

and

Show that is hc of

. Find harmonic conjugate of

\

and

Integrals

Contours
Example 4.1 Represent a line segment joining points
equations.
j

and
n

Example 4.2 Show that a half circle in upper half plane with radius
at origin can be parametrized in various ways as given below:
1.

2.

3.

and

where

, where

if

. Show that the

An arc is differentiable if
ous. A smooth arc is differentiable and

and centered
s

in complex plane is called an

are continuous functions of the real parameter

An arc is called simple if

An arc is closed if

where
|

where

Example 4.3
curve cuts itself and is closed.

De nition 4.1 A set of points

where

by parametric
n

exists and
and
is nonzero for all .

De nition 4.2 Length of a smooth arc is de ned as

The length is invariant under parametrization change.

are continu-

16

Chapter 4 Integrals
De nition 4.3 A
is a constructed by joining nite smooth curves end to end
such that
is continuous and
is piecewise continuous.

A closed simple contour has only rst and last point same and does not cross itself.

Contour Integral
If

is a contour in complex plane de ned by

is de ned on it. The integral of
denoted and de ned as follows:

and a function
along the contour is

The component integrals are usual real integrals and are well de ned. In the last form
appropriate limits must placed in the integrals.
Some very straightforward rules of integration are given below:
1.

2.

3.

4.

where

is a complex constant.

5. If
countour

for all

then

, where

Example 4.4
Find integral of
and also along st line path from
to

Example 4.6 Show that

from to


from
to
and from


along a straight line

.


to


to

along a semicircu-

for

Example 4.5
. Find the integral from
lar path in upper plane given by

is length of the

and

Cauchy-Goursat Theorem

17

Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
Theorem 4.1 (Jordan Curve Theorem) Every simple and closed contour in complex
plane splits the entire plane into two domains one of which is bounded. The bounded
domain is called the interior of the countour and the other one is called the exterior of
the contour.
De ne a sense direction for a contour.
Theorem 4.2 Let be a simple closed contour with positive orientation and let be
the interior of
If and are continuous and have continuous partial derivatives
and
at all points on and , then


"

"

&

'

"

&

"

&

"
!

0
#

"

Theorem 4.3 (Cauchy-Goursat Theorem) Let be analytic in a simply connected

domain
If is any simple closed contour in , then
2

'
&

Example 4.7
loop is zero.

"

"

<

etc are entire functions so integral about any

+

Theorem 4.4 Let

and
be two simple closed positively oriented contours such
that
lies entirely in the interior of
If is an analytic function in a domain that
contains
and
both and the region between them, then
$

'
&

>
(

'
&

?
(

'

Example 4.8
. Find
Choose a circular contour inside
+

if
,

is any contour containing origin.

$

'

Example 4.9

if
H

B
C

contains
$

'

6
4

Example 4.10 Find

where
to multiply connected domains.

Extend the Cauchy Goursat theorem

Antiderivative
Theorem 4.5 (Fundamental Theorem of Integration) Let be de ned in a simply
connected domain
and is analytic in . If
and are points in
and is any
contour in joining and then the function
4

"

&

'

18

Chapter 4 Integrals
is analytic in
O

and
P

De nition 4.4 If is analytic in

integral is de ned as
V

and
O

and
X

are two points in

Y

then the de nite

where
P

is an antiderivative of .
V

Example 4.11

Example 4.12

W
_

Example 4.13

Z
]

Cauchy Integral Formula

Theorem 4.6 (Cauchy Integral Formula) Let be analytic in domain . Let
positively oriented simple closed contour in . If is in the interior of then

be a

W
u

S
_

Example 4.14

Find

if
S

o
y

o
_

Example 4.15

Theorem 4.7 If
at that point.

Find
V

if
S

is square with vertices on

t

is analytic at a point, then all its derivatives exist and are analytic
c


u

S
_

Series

Convergence of Sequences and Series

Example 5.1

Example 5.2

Example 5.3

De nition 5.1 An in nite sequece

if for each positive , there exists positive integer

of complex numbers has a

such that

The sequences have only one limit. A sequence said to converge to if is its limit. A
sequence diverges if it does not converge.

Example 5.4

converges to 0 if

Example 5.5

else diverges.

and

converges to .

if and only if

Theorem 5.1 Suppose that

Then,

De nition 5.2 If

is a sequence, the in nite sum

is called

a series and is denoted by

De nition 5.3 A series

sums

is said to converge to a sum

converges to .

if a sequence of partial

20

Chapter 5 Series
Theorem 5.2 Suppose that

and

Then,

if and only if

Example 5.6

if

Taylor Series
Theorem 5.3 (Taylor Series) If is analytic in a circular disc of radius
at
then at each point inside the disc there is a series representation for


andcentered
given by

where


Example 5.7

Example 5.8

Example 5.9

Example 5.10

Laurent Series
Theorem 5.4 (Laurent Series) If is analytic at all points in an annular region
such that
then at each point in there is a series representation
for given by


where

"

"

&

Laurent Series
and

is any contour in
'

21

.
(

Example 5.11 If is analytic inside a disc of radius about

then the Laurent
series for is identical to the Taylor series for . That is all
.
)

Example 5.12

>

<

where
=

Example 5.13
and

Find Laurent series for all

>

D
>

Example 5.14 Note that

Q

E
J

Theory of Residues And Its

Applications

Singularities
De nition 6.1 If a function fails to be analytic at but is analytic at some point in
each neighbourhood of , then is a
of .
W

De nition 6.2 If a function fails to be analyitc at

for some then is said to be an
e

Example 6.1

Example 6.2

Example 6.4

but is analytic at each

of .
p

in

has an isolated singularity at .

}

Example 6.3
, also has a singularity at
{

has isolated singularities at

~

has isolated singularities at

for integral

all points of negative x-axis are singular.

}

Types of singularities
If a function
points in
part

in the prinipal part then

but
for all
then it is called a simple pole.

3. If all s are zero then

is called an essential singu-

2. If for some integer

order of If

1. If there are in nite nonzero

larity of

has an isolated singularity at

then a such that is analytic at all
. Then must have a Laurent series expansion about . The
is called the principal part of

is called a removable singularity.

then

is called a pole of

24

Chapter 6 Theory of Residues And Its Applications

Example 6.5
singularity at

is unde ned at

has a removable isolated

Residues
Suppose a function has an isolated singularity at
that is analytic for all in deleted nbd
representation

then there exists a

such
. Then has a Laurent series

The coef cient

where

is any contour in the deleted nbd, is called the residue of

at

Example 6.6
wise .

. Then

if

contains

, other-

Example 6.7

Example 6.8

if

. Show

if

. Show

Example 6.9
has a singularity at

Show

if


even though it

Theorem 6.1 If a function is analytic on and inside a positively oriented countour

, except for a nite number of points
inside , then

Res

Example 6.10 Show that



"

&

'

Residues of Poles
Theorem 6.2 If a function

has a pole of order

(

at
)

then
@

<

"

Res

6
4

>

"

<

Example 6.11
B

Simple pole Res

B

Quotients of Analytic Functions

Example 6.12
order at
. Res
M

Example 6.13

. Simple pole at
.

Res
M

. Pole of
]

. Res
d

25

. Res
k

Quotients of Analytic Functions

Theorem 6.3 If a function
1.
2.

is singular at

iff

has a simple pole at

if

, where

and

are analytic at

then

. Then residue of

at

is

References

This appendix contains the references.

Index

This appendix contains the index.