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.
Coecient Matrix of System of Linear Equations
.
Let (b1 , b2 , b3 ) R3 , and aij R (1 i 3, 1 j 3),
Consider the
following linear system of unknown (x1 , x2 , x3 ) :
a
a
a
(
a
)
=
a21 a22 a23
21
22
23
ij
a
a
a
3rd row
31
32
33
a31 a32 a33
1st col.
3rd column
.
Laplace Expansion Formula of Determinant
.
det(aij ) =
a11
a21
a31
= +a11
=
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
a22 a23
a
a
a
a
a12 21 23 +a13 21 22
a32 a33
a31 a33
a31 a32
a11 (a22 a33 a32 a23 )a12 (a21 a33 a31 a23 )
.
Laplace Expansion Formula of Determinant
.
a11
a21
a31
= +a11
=
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
a22 a23
a
a
a
a
a21 12 13 + +a31 12 13
a32 a33
a32 a33
a21 a23
a11 (a22 a33 a32 a23 )a21 (a12 a33 a13 a32 )
.
System of Linear Equations
.
Let (b1 , b2 , b3 ) R3 , and aij R (1 i 3, 1 j 3),
Consider the
following linear system of unknown (x1 , x2 , x3 ) :
a11
a21
a31
= a11
=
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
a22 a23
a
a
a
a
a12 21 23 + a13 21 22
a32 a33
a31 a33
a31 a32
a11 (a22 a33 a32 a23 ) + a12 (a21 a33 a31 a23 )
.
System of Linear Equations
.
Theorem. Let (b1 , b2 , b3 ) R3 , and
aij R (1 i 3, 1 j 3). Suppose that the
D = det(aij ) = 0, then the following linear system
b1
b2
b3
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
D2 =
a11
a21
a31
b1
b2
b3
a13
a23
a33
a11
a21
a31
D3 =
a12
a22
a32
b1
b2
b3
.
Example. Evaluate the determinant of the matrix
1
1
1
A = (aij ) = 1 1 1 .
1
1
1
.
Solution.
det(aij ) =
= a11
=
a22 a23
a
a
a
a
a12 21 23 + a13 21 22
a32 a33
a31 a33
a31 a32
a11 (a22 a33 a32 a23 ) + a12 (a21 a33 a31 a23 )
.
Example.
Solve the linear system
x1 + x2 + x3 = b1 ;
(*)
x1 x2 + x3
= b2 ;
x1 + x2 x3
= b3 .
.
Let (aij ) be the associated coecient matrix of linear system (*).
D1 =
b1
b2
b3
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
b1
b2
b3
a13
a23
a33
b1
b2
b3
1
1
1
1
1
1
b1
b2
b3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
b2
+ b3
1 1
1 1
1 1
2
2
2
= ((1) (1) )b1 (1 1 )b2 + (12 (1))b3
= 2b2 + 2b3 .
= + b1
D2 =
a11
a21
a31
1 1
1 1
1 1
+ b2
b3
1 1
1 1
1 1
2
2
2
= (1 (1) )b1 + ((1) (1) )b2 (1 12 )b3
= 2b1 + 2b3 .
= b1
.
Example.
Solve the linear system
x1 + x2 + x3 = b1 ;
(*)
x1 x2 + x3
= b2 ;
x1 + x2 x3
= b3 .
.
D3 =
a11
a21
a31
a12
a22
a32
b1
b2
b3
1
1
1
1
1
1
b1
b2
b3
= (1
+ ((1)2 12 )b3
= 2b1 + 2b2 .
It follows from the Cramers rule that the solution vector
(
)
D1 D2 D3
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
,
,
D D D
(
)
2b2 + 2b3 2b1 + 2b3 2b1 + 2b2
=
,
,
4
4
4
(
)
b2 + b3 b1 + b3 b1 + b2
=
,
,
.
2
2
2
Remark. This solution can be easily obtained by adding any two
equations, and then simplify a little bit.
2
.
Example. Prove that det(a, b, c) = (a b) c for any
3
.a, b, c R .
Solution.
a 1 b1 c1
det(a, b, c) = a2 b2 c2
a 3 b3 c3
a a
a a
a a
= c1 2 3 c2 1 3 + c3 1 2
b2 b3
b1 b3
b1 b2
)
(
a2 a3
a1 a3
a1 a2
=
,
,
( c1 , c2 , c3 )
b2 b3
b1 b3
b1 b2
= (a b) c.
.
Exercise. Prove the following equalities:
det(a, b, c) =
.
det(b, c, a) =
det(c, a, b)
. Properties of Determinant
.
Let a1 , a2 , , an be vectors in Rn , and denote
aj = ( a1j , a2j , , anj ) with n components,
vertically
vector:
as column
a11 a12
a1j
a2j
a21 a22
aj = . ,
det(aij ) = .
..
..
..
.
by
and we write it
a1n
a2n
.. .
.
anj
an1 an2 ann
.
.
Write the polynomial expression det(aij ) = det(a1 , a2 , , an ),
then the determinant polynomial satises the following:
1. (Normalization): det(e , e , , e ) = 1.
1 2
n
. (Skew-symmetric)
By interchanging any two columns, det changes by 1 :
det(a1 , , ai , , aj , , an )
= det(a1 , , aj , , ai , , an ) with i < j.
.
Orthogonality of Cross-Product
.
Let a, b R3 , the cross-product a b satises the following:
1. a b = b a;
.
.
Let u, v, w R3 and , R, then
1. < u, v >=< v, u >;
2. < u + v, w >= < u, w > + < v, w >;
3. < w, u + v >= < w, u > + < w, v >;
. < v, v > 0 for all v R3 ;
5. < v, v >= 0 if and only if v = 0.
4
.
.
.
Prove
that (< a, b >)2 + a b2 = a2 b2 .
.
()
| < a, b > |2 + a b2
= (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )2
+(a2 b3 b2 a3 )2 + (a1 b3 b1 a3 )2 + (a1 b2 b1 a2 )2
= (a2 b3 )2 + (b2 a3 )2 + (a1 b3 )2 + (b1 a3 )2 + (a1 b2 )2 + (b1 a2 )2
+(a1 b1 )2 + (a2 b2 )2 + (a3 b3 )2
= (a21 + a22 + a23 )(b21 + b22 + b23 ) = a2 b2 .
.
By (*), a2 b2 = | < a, b > |2 + a b2 | < a, b > |2 ,
so a b | < a, b > |. Hence, if a and b are non-zero
< a, b >
1.
vectors, then
.
.
< a, b >
1.
Recall that if a and b are non-zero vectors, then
a b
.
Denition. Let u and v be non-zero vectors in R3 . The (directed)
the vectors
u and v is given by
angle (u, v) between
(
)
<
u,
v
>
(u, v) = cos1
.
u v
.
Then < u, v >= u v cos (u, v)
| < u, v > |2 = u2 v2 cos2 (u, v).
By identity (< u, v >)2 + u v2 = u2 v2
.
.u v = u v sin (u, v).
Proof. u2 v2 sin2 (u, v)
= u2 v2 ( 1 cos2 (u, v) )
= u2 v2 u2 v2 cos2 (u, v)
= u2 v2 (< u, v >)2
= u v2 .
So u v = | < u, v > | sin (u, v).
(), we have
.
Denition. Let u, v be vectors in R3 . u and v are perpendicular, if
.< u, v >= 0. Recall < u, v >= u v cos (u, v).
.
Proposition. Two vectors are perpendicular if
(
. u, v) = /2, or u = 0, or v = 0.
.
Example. Let a, b R3 , then the vector a b is perpendicular to
.both a and b.
Remark. Even though a and b are non-zero, the cross-product
a b may be zero. According to a b = a b sin (a, b),
it happens if and only if sin (a, b) = 0, i.e. they are in the same
direction, or they are in the opposite direction.
.
Cauchys Inequality. Let u = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), v = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) R3 .
2
2
2
.Prove that |u v| u v .
Proof. u2 v2 |u v|2
.
Denition. Let u be a non-zero vector in R3 , and v R3 .
Dene the component compu v of v in the direction given by u to
<v,u>
be compu v = <
u,u> u.
.
With this denition, we have the following result:
.
Proposition. Let u be a non-zero vector in R3 , and v, w R3 .
Then (i) compu (v + w) = compu v + compu w.
(ii) compu (v) = compu (v) for all R;
(iii)
The vector v compu v is is perpendicular to the vector u.
.
Proof. (i) and (ii) follows directly from the formula of compu v.
(iii) < v compu v, u >=< v, u > < compu v, u >
< v, u >
=< v, u > <
u, u >
< u, u >
< v, u >
=< v, u >
< u, u >
< u, u >
=< v, u > < v, u >= 0.
Hence v compu v and u are perpendicular.
.
.
Denition. A non-zero vector n = (, m, n) is called a normal
n = (, m, n) PQ = (x x0 , y y0 , z z0 ), i.e.
0 = < n, PQ >
x
)
+
m
(
y
y
)
+
n
(
z
z0 ) = 0.
0
0
.
.
.
Let be the plane passing through A(a1 , a2 , a3 ), B(b1 , b2 , b3 ) and
C(c1 , c2 , c3 ). Then for any point P(x, y, z) of , one has
.x + my + nz = D, where (, m, n) is normal to the plane .
Solution. Let b = AB = OB OA = (b1 a1 , b2 a2 , b3 a3 ),
and c = AC = OC OA = (c1 a1 , c2 a2 , c3 a3 ).
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the plane , then
AP = OP OA = (x a1 , y a2 , z a3 ).
Then the vector n = b c = (, m, n) is perpendicular to the