DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Piecewise Function
A function that combines pieces of different equations.
Each piece is for a different domain (set of x values).
Example:

f ( x )= x+ 2,if x <0
3 x3,if x >0

Odd and Even Function

Squeeze Theorem
Suppose that for all x on [a, b] (except possibly at
Also suppose that,
for some

. Then,

) we have,

Continuity in Close Interval

A function f(x) is continuous at the closed interval [a, b] if:
f(x) is continuous at x for all values of x belonging to the open interval (a, b).
f(x) is right-continuous:

f(x) is left-continuous:

Derivative

Differentiation:
High Order Differentiation

Implicit Differentiation
-To find dy/dx, we simply differentiate both sides of the equation and apply the Chain Rule.
Chain Rule
Suppose that we have two functions f(x) and g(x) and they are both differentiable.
1. If we define

2. If we have:

then the derivative of F(x) is,

and

then the derivative of y is,

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Techniques of solving First-order, First-degree Ordinary Differential Equation

A. Separation of Variables
General Form:

M ( x , y ) dx + N ( x , y ) dy=0

Standard Form: f ( x ) dx+ g ( y ) dy=0

General Solution / Complete Solution:

f ( x ) dx + g ( y ) dy =0

B. Homogeneous Functions
General Form:
Where:

M ( x , y ) dx + N ( x , y ) dy=0

M ( x , y )N ( x , y ) are both functions of the same degree

Methods of Solution:
1.) Use either the substitution.
y=vx ; dy=vdx + xdv

or

x=vy ; dx=vdy + ydv

2.) The resulting equation out of substitution falls under the variable separable method.
3.) After Integration, the final answer must be transformed into its original variables.
y
x
v = v=
x
y
(depending on what was used in step 1)

C. Exact Equations
General Form:

M ( x , y ) dx + N ( x , y ) dy=0

General Solution:

F ( x , y )=C

Definition: A Differential Equation is said to be exact if and only if the function f(x,y) and its
total differential can be found such that:
dF=M ( x , y ) dx+ N ( x , y ) dy

Condition for Exactness:

M ( x , y) N ( x , y )
=
y
x

D. Integrable Combination Method (Inspection)

-This method of solution depends on the students ability to recognize Exact Differentials
(and directly integrable combinations)

d ( xy )=xdy + ydx
d ( xy )=xdy + ydx
d

( xy )= xdyx+ ydx
2

d ( x sin y )=sin y dx + x cos

y dy

d ( x m y n ) =mxm 1 y n dx+ xm y n1 dy

xdy + ydx
d ( e xy ) =e xy )
Note:

du=u+C
d (uv )=uv +C

E. Linear Equation of Order One

General Form:

M ( x , y ) dx + N ( x , y ) dy=0

Standard Form:
1.) Linear in y:
dy
+ yP ( x )=Q(x )
dx
where : P ( x )Q( x ) are functions of the Independent variable x alone or as a constant

coefficient.

I.F. = Integration Function

e

P ( x ) dx

General Solution:
y e

P ( x ) dx

= Q ( x ) e

2.) Linear in x:

P (x ) dx

dx+ C

dx
+ x P ( y )=Q( y )
dy
where : P ( y ) Q( y) are functions of the independent variable y alone or as a constant.
I . F .=e

P ( x ) dx

General Solution:
x e

P ( y ) dy

= Q ( y ) e

P ( y) d y

d y+ C

F. Bernoullis Equation
Standard Forms:
1.) Bernoulli in y:
dy
+ yP ( x )= y n Q(x)
dx
where 0 or 1

If n = 0, equation is Linear
If n = 1, equation is separable

(1n ) P ( x ) dx

I . F .=e
y(1n) e

P ( x ) dx

(1n) P ( x ) dx

=(1n) Q ( x ) e

(1n ) P ( x ) dx

I . F .=e

2.) Bernoulli in x

dx+ C

dx
+ xP ( y )=x n Q( y )
dy
(1n ) P ( y ) d y

I . F .=e

General Solution:
(1n) P ( y ) dy
(1n) P ( y ) dy
x(1n) e
=(1n) Q ( y ) e
dy +C

G. Determination of Integration Factors

General Form:

M ( x , y ) dx + N ( x , y ) dy=0

eq.1

Suppose that U possibly a function of both x and y, is to be an I.F. of eq.1. Then the equation.
UMdx+UNdy =0

Must be Exact. Therefore,

(UM )= (UN )
y
x
And U must satisfy the P.D.E.

M
U
N
U
+M
=U
=N
y
x
x
x

M N
U
U

=N
M
y x
x
y

Note: Two results of I.F. = U are expressed in the following rules:

a.) If

M N

=f (x)
y x

, a function of x-alone, then

U=e

f ( x ) dx

Is an I.F. for eq.1 or 2.

b.) If

1 M N

=g( y )
M y x

, a function of y-alone, then

g (y )d y
U=e

Is an I.F. for eq.1 or 2.