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A hydronic system uses water as the heat transfer medium and could be used to heat or cool the space.
Hydronic systems could be open loop or closed loop depending upon the requirements. For our case, we
would consider closed loop systems due to following benefits;
Closed-loop circuits have several advantages over
open-loop systems. First, because they are well-sealed from the atmosphere, there is very little fluid
loss over time. Any slight fluid loss that occurs is usually attributable to weepage at valve packings or
gaskets.
Second, properly designed closed-loop systems allow very little oxygen to enter the system. This greatly
reduces the potential of corrosion, especially in systems containing iron or steel components.
Third, closed-loop systems operate under slight pressure. This helps in eliminating air from the system. It
also helps in suppressing boiling or circulator noise within the system.
Other Components:
Basic Controls:
One of the most basic controllers is a thermostat that measures room air temperature and turns the
circulator on and off based on how the rooms temperature compares to the thermostats set point. The
thermostats goal is to keep the room air temperature at, or very close to, its set point temperature. If
the rooms air temperature begins rising above the set point temperature, the thermostat turns off the
Figure shows a basic hydronic system supplied by a fuel-burning heat source. The circulator is assumed
to be
controlled by a room thermostat. The water temperature supplied by the heat source is limited by the
high-limit controller.
Expansion Tank:
Water expands when it is heated. This is a very powerful but predictable characteristic that must be
accommodated in any type of closed-loop hydronic system. Below figure shows a diaphragm-type
expansion tank added to the system. This tank contains a captive volume of air. As the heated water
within the system expands, it pushes into the tank and slightly compresses the captive air volume. This
causes the system pressure to rise a small amount. As the systems water cools, its volume decreases,
allowing the compressed air to expand, and the system pressure returns to its original value. This
process repeats itself each time the system heats up and cools off.
Air Separator:
An air separator is designed to separate air from water and remove that air from the system. Modern air
separators create regions of reduced pressure as water passes through. The lowered pressure causes
dissolved gases in the water to form into bubbles. These bubbles are guided upward into a collection
chamber where an automatic air vent expels them from the system. For best results, the air separator
should be located where fluid temperatures are highest.
For our case study with 20m3 space and assuming 10-ton work part to be heated to 70C with indirect
heating, before designing a heating system for our requirements, we first try to calculate the heating
load considering all the given data.
Heating load is the amount of heat that the heating system would have to add.
Calculations:
Net Heating Load= Heating Load to heat 20m3 space + Heating load for the 10-ton work part.
Design parameters:
Water is the essential ingredient in any hydronic system. Its physical properties make it possible to
deliver heating or cooling throughout a building using relatively small conduits and minimal amounts
of electrical energy. The performance of all hydronic systems is intimately tied to the physical properties
of waterin particular, the process by which water absorbs heat, conveys it and releases it.
Sensible Heat Latent Heat:
The heat absorbed or released by a material while it remains in a single phase is called sensible heat.
The word sensible means that the presence of the heat can be sensed by a temperature change in the
material. When a material absorbs sensible heat; its temperature must increase. Likewise, when a
material releases sensible heat, its temperature must decrease. Under normal operating conditions,
most hydronic systems operate with water that remains in liquid form. Thus, all heat and heat transfer
quantities are sensible heat.
Specific Heat and Heat Capacity:
One of the most important properties of water relevant to its use in hydronic systems is specific heat.
The specific heat of any material is the number of Btu required to raise the temperature of one pound of
that material by one degree Fahrenheit (F). The specific heat of water is 1.0 Btu per pound per degree
F. To raise the temperature of 1 pound (lb.) of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit (F) will require the
addition of 1 Btu of heat.
Another index used to quantify a materials ability to contain sensible heat is called heat capacity. It is
the number of Btu required to raise the temperature of one cubic foot of the material by one degree
Fahrenheit.
By comparing the heat capacity of water and air, it can be shown that a given volume of water can hold
almost 3,500 times as much heat as the same volume of air for the same temperature rise. This allows a
given volume of water to transport vastly more heat than the same volume of air. This is the underlying
(and very significant) advantage of using water rather than air for moving sensible heat.
Density:
The word density refers to the number of pounds of the material needed to fill a volume of one cubic
foot. For example, it would take 62.4 pounds of water at 50F to fill a 1 cubic foot container, so its
density is said to be 62.4 pounds per cubic foot.
The density of water varies with its temperature. Like most substances, as the temperature of water
increases, its density decreases. As temperature increases, each molecule of water requires more space.
This molecular expansion is extremely powerful and can easily burst metal pipes or tanks if not properly
accommodated.
Sensible Heat Formula:
It is often necessary to determine the quantity of heat stored in a given volume of water that undergoes
a temperature change.
= 8.33
h = quantity of heat absorbed or released from the water (Btu)
v = volume of water (gallons)
T = temperature change of the material (F)
Sensible Heat Rate Formula:
Hydronic system designers often need to know the rate of heat transfers to or from a fluid flowing
through a device such as a heat source or heat emitter. This can be done using the sensible heat rate
formula,
= 8.01
Q = rate of heat transfers into or out of the water stream (Btu/hr)
8.01 = a constant based on the units used
D = density of the fluid (lb/ft3)
c = specific heat of the fluid (Btu/lb/F)
= flow rate of fluid through the device (gpm)
T = temperature change of the fluid through the device (F)
Thermal Equilibrium:
every hydronic system attempts to establish operating conditions such that the rate of heat input from
the heat sources is exactly the same as the rate of heat released at the heat emitters. This condition,
when achieved, is called thermal equilibrium. If not for the intervention of temperature-limiting
controls, every hydronic system would eventually stabilize at a supply water temperature where this
thermal equilibrium exists. This temperature may or may not provide proper heat input to the
building. Likewise, it may or may not be conducive to safe and efficient operation or long system life.
By adjusting the size, number or other characteristics of heat emitters in the system, the designer can
manipulate the steady state supply water temperature at which the system wants to operate. When
properly done, this allows both the heat source and distribution system to operate at conditions that are
safe, efficient, comfortable and conducive to long system life. If the principle of thermal equilibrium is
disregarded, the resulting system may attempt to stabilize at a supply temperature that is either unsafe,
inefficient or shortens the life of the heat source.
A fundamental principal in sizing any type of hydronic heat emitter is that heat output is approximately
proportional to the difference between supply water temperature and room air temperature.
= ( )
Where:
Qoutput = heat output of the heat emitter (Btu/hr)
c = number dependent on the type and size of the heat emitter (Btu/hr/F)
Ts = water temperature supplied to the heat emitter (F)
Tr = room air temperature (F)
The term (Ts-Tr) in formula is called the driving delta T. It determines the rate that a given distribution
system releases heat into the space being heating. Anything that makes the driving delta T larger (i.e.,
increasing supply temperature and/or decreasing space air temperature) increases the rate of heat
transfer into the space and vice versa.
Steeper lines mean that a given rate of heat release occurs at lower values of the driving delta T. For a
given room temperature, steeper lines favor lower supply water temperature. This in turn improves the
efficiency of ground source water-to-water heat pumps.
pipe over a given time would be exactly the same as the amount of fluid moved by the varying internal
flow velocities.
0.408
)*f
2
=(
where:
v = average flow velocity in the pipe (ft/sec)
= flow rate through the pipe (gpm)
d = exact inside diameter of pipe (inches).
Pipe Size Selection:
When selecting a pipe size to accommodate a given flow rate, the resulting average flow velocity should
be kept between 2 and 4 feet per second. The lower end of this flow velocity range is based on the
ability of flowing water to move air bubbles along a vertical pipe. Average flow velocities of 2 feet per
second or higher can entrain air bubbles and move them in all directions, including straight down. The
ability of flowing water to entrain air bubbles is important when a system is filled and purged, as well as
when air has to be removed following system maintenance.
The selected sizes of type M copper, PEX and PEX-AL-PEX tubing after calculations from the formulae are
represented in the table below. Each formula in the second column can be used to calculate the flow
velocity associated with a given flow rate. Also given are the flow rates corresponding to average flow
velocities of 2 feet per second and 4 feet per second.
Head Energy:
Fluids in a hydronic system contain both thermal and mechanical energy. The exchange of thermal
energy is sensed by a change in temperature of the fluid. For example, hot water leaving a boiler
contains more thermal energy than cooler water entering the boiler from the distribution system. The
increase in temperature of the water as it passed through the boiler is the evidence that thermal
energy was added to it.
= (
)
144
where:
P = pressure change corresponding to the head added or lost (psi)
H = head added or lost from the liquid (feet of head)
The only device that adds head energy to fluid in hydronic systems is an operating circulator. Every other
device through which flow passes causes a loss of head energy. This happens because of friction forces
between the fluid molecules, as well as friction between the fluid molecules and the components
through which they are passing. Whenever friction is present, there is a loss of mechanical energy.
Water-to-Water
Air-to-Water
Water-to-water heat pumps typically absorb low temperature heat from tubing buried in the earth or
directly from ground water. Such heat pumps are further classified as geothermal heat pumps. They
then deliver higher temperature water to a hydronic distribution system.
Air-to-water heat pumps absorb low temperature heat directly from outside air. Then, as with water-towater heat pumps, they deliver higher temperature water to a hydronic distribution system within the
building.
Solar Thermal Collectors:
Significant increases in the price of conventional fuel combined with increased interest in environmental
stewardship have created a growing market for thermally based use of solar energy. Solar thermal
collectors can be easily integrated as a hydronic heating source in systems that supply both space
heating and domestic hot water. Such systems are called solar combisystems.
Design Strategy:
The design process of a hydronic circuit for our requirements will be carried out in following steps:
1. Sensible heat of water is calculated from ASSUMED WATER VOLUME using
= 8.33
2. As we are given with the heating rate, so Flow Rate of fluid is calculated from
= 8.01
3. The fluid Velocity is chosen and then the pipe size (diameter) is calculated or vice versa
0.408
)*f
2
using = (
= (
)
144
6. Head Loss is calculated using
= 1.75
The sequence of these steps should be followed as such.