Chiral Reconigition FTICR

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Host-guest Chiral Recognition in the Gas Phase by Fourier Transform

Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry
A Dissertation
Presented to the
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Brigham Young University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
By
Yongjiang Liang
August 1998
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
UMI Number: 9913298
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This dissertation by Yongjiang Liang is accepted in its present form by the

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry of Brigham Young University as satisfying
the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
vid V. Dearden, Committee Chair
Milton L. Lee, Committee Member
Nolan F. Mangelson, Uomrrtittee^fember
Paul B. Savage, Committee Member
t o Ted -cy, | R R g
U
Date
/U / . Cjg
Woolley, Committee Meffn
Member
Earl M. Woollev,
Graduate Coordinator
ii
Acknowledgments
Generous help from many people has been important to the completion o f this
project. I would like to express my gratitude to them. I am especially indebted to
Professor David V Dearden, my research adviser, for his assistance, tutoring, and
guidance for my graduate study. His insight and understanding, as well as his patience
have made this project far more enjoyable. I wish to express appreciation to professors
Milton L. Lee, Jerald S. Bradshaw, Nolan F. Mangelson, Earl M. Woolley and Paul B.
Savage for their helpful suggestions and guidance, and being members of my graduate
study committee. Dr. Bradshaw also generously supplied the chiral compounds. Help
from professor Steven R. Goates is appreciated. Bruce J. Jacksons instruction and
teaching has been very important. The friendship and cooperation of the postdocs and
graduate students in the group are also gratefully appreciated. Dr. Chadin Dejsupas kind
training on operating the instrument has been very important, and discussions with
graduate students Jeremy B. Nicoll, Nanzhu Shen and Kathy A. Kellersberger have been
very helpful. I am also indebted to the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and its
faculty and staff for the academic training received and for financial support.
At last, I would like to give special appreciation to my wife Bowen for her love and
encouragement. This accomplishment is rightfully shared with her. I am also deeply
grateful to my family for their love and understanding.
iii
Table of Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Principles of Electrospray Ionization-Fourier Transform Ion

Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry (ESI-FTICR/MS) and Fast Atom
Bombardment-Double Focusing Mass Spectrometry (FABMS)
2-1. Introduction
4
4
2-2. Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry

(FTICR/MS)
2-2-1. FTICR/MS: How it works
2-2-2. Principles of FTMS
2-2-2-1. Ion motion
2-2-2-2. Excitation and detection
12
2-2-2-3. Mass resolution, massaccuracy and upper mass limit
15
2-3. Electrospray ionization
18
2-3-1. Electrospray ionization: a brief description
18
2-3-2. Mechanism of electrospray ionization
19
2-3-3. Influence of electric field on electrospray ionization
24
2-3-4. Dependence of ion signal on solution properties
25
2-3-5. Application of electrospray ionization
27
2-4. Fast atom bombardment-double focusing mass spectrometry
30
2-4-1. Fundamentals of fast atom bombardment
30
2-4-2. Magnetic-sector mass spectrometer
36
iv
2-4-2-1. Single-focusing mass spectrometer
36
2-4-2-2. Double-focusing mass spectrometer
37
References
40
Chapter 3. Intrinsic Contributions to Chiral Recognition: Discrimination

Between Enantiomeric Amines by Dimethyldiketopyridino-18-crown-6
47
in the Gas Phase

3 -1. Introduction
47
3-2. Experimental section
56
3-3. Results
62
3-3-1. Adduct formation and proton transfer
62
3-3-2. Chiral recognition in the naphthylethylamine system
62
3-3-3. Cross-chiral recognition study in the naphthylethylamine system
68
3-3-4. Chiral recognition in other amine systems
71
3-4. Discussion
71
3-4-1. Comparison with
resultsfrom
ligand exchange experiments
71
resultsfrom
FAB experiments
73
resultsfrom
solution studies
74
3-4-4. Limitations to adduct formation
75
3-4-5. Intrinsic factors influencing chiral recognition
76
3-5. Conclusions
82
References
83
Chapter 4. Enantiomer Mixture Analysis and Chiral recognition by
Electrospray Ionization-Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance

Mass Spectrometry and Fast Atom Bombardment Mass Spectrometry
87
4 -1. Introduction
87
4-2. Experimental
88
4-2-1. Experimental setups for chiral-mixture analysis
88
4-2-2. Experimental procedures for FABMS experiments
91
4-3. Results and discussion
94
4-3-1. Results and discussion for chiral-mixture analysis

4-3-1-1. Mathematical model derivation
94
99
4-3-1-2. Reaction characteristics of enantiomer mixtures with amines
100
4-3-1-3. Features of experimental approach
100
4-3-2. Results and discussion for FABMS experiment
102
4-4. Conclusions
107
Appendix
109
References
111
Chapter 5. Investigation of Enthalpy and Entropy Contributions to a

Host-Guest Chiral Recognition System
114
5-1. Introduction
114
5-2. Experimental
114
5-3. Results
120
5-3-1. Test of the temperature measurement system
120
5-3-2. Variable temperature experiments on chiral recognition of

organic amines
120
vi
5-3-3. Variable temperature experiment for reactions of 18-crown-6 with

amines
127
5-4. Discussion
127
5-4-1. Temperature measurement
127
5-4-2. Comparison of the test reactions withliterature values
129
5-4-3. 18-crown-6 - amine exchange experiment
130
5-4-4. Chiral recognition experiments
131
5-5. Conclusions
141
References
142
Chapter 6. Summary and Recommendations for Future Work

References
144
147
Appendix Publications and Presentations
148
vii
List of Tables
Table 3-1
Degree of chiral recognition of protonated dimethyldiketo-pyridino-18crown-6 for a-(l-naphthylethylam ine at 300K
Table 3-2
Degree of chiral recognition of chiral dimethyldiketopyridino-18-crown-6

for chiral amines
Table 4-1
69
72
Summary o f experimental apparent equilibrium constant (Kexp), predicted

apparent equilibrium constant (ATp^), and calculated apparent equilibrium
constant (K^c)
Table 4-2
97
Chiral recognition in terms of relative peak intensity (RPI) by fast atom

bombardment mass spectrometry
105
Table 5-1
Comparison of test reaction results with literature
122
Table 5-2
Enthalpy (kJ mol-1) and entropy (J mol-1 K-1) changes for chiral recognition
of iS-naphthylethylamine OS-NapEtNT^) and /?-phenylethylamine (RPhEtNH2)
Table 5-3
126
Comparison of AH (kJ mol-1) and AS (J mol-1 K-1) changes for chiral

recognition of S-NapEtNH 2 and /?-PhEtNH2 by chiral dimethyldiketopyridino
-18-crown-6 in the gas phase and in solution
viii
139
List of Figures
Figure 2-1
Essential components o f mass spectrometers
Figure 2-2
Cubic and cylindrical analyzer cells for FTMS. A cell is generally
composed of two opposite trapping plates, two excitation plates and two
detection plates. B is the magnetic field
Figure2-3
Schematic of the Fourier transform detection process
Figure 2-4
Positive ion cyclotron motion in the plane perpendicular to the magnetic

field
11
Figure 2-5
Basic experimental sequence in FT-ICRMS
16
Figure 2-6
Schematic o f a conventional electrospray ion source
20
Figure 2-7
Micro-electrospray device in the BYU mass spectrometry lab (top) and

detailed structure of the zero-dead-volume connector (bottom)
Figure 2-8
Schematic representation o f the processes in electrospray ionization.

Droplets are produced from the Taylor cone at the capillary tip
Figure 2-9
21
22
Electrospray mass spectra o f insulin (from bovine pancreas) in

Methanol/water/HAc (80:18:2). The experiments were performed using a
Bruker Apex 47e FT-ICR mass spectrometer (cell pressure = 5x 1C)-9 mbar,
electrospray flow rate = 10 pL/h, concentration = 0.1 mg/mL)
Figure 2-10 Fast atom bombardment (FAB) source
29
32
Figure 2-11 Schematic of regions that could contribute to ion formation in the fast atom
bombardment process
33
Figure 2-12 A double focusing magnetic sector mass spectrometer
38
Figure 3-1
52
Structures of chiral host and chiral amine guests

IX
Figure 3-2
Tripodal hydrogen bonding between chiral host and guest
53
Figure3-3
Schematic of Bruker Apex 47e FT-ICR mass spectrometer
57
Figure 3-4
Experimental sequence employed in chiral recognition experiments
60
Figure 3-5
Approach to equilibrium in the forward (left frame) and reverse (right

frame) directions
Figure 3-6 ( a)
Mass spectra for exchange of cyclohexylamine and /?-NapEtNH: on

(S.SVlfT at various delay times (0-25 sec)
Figure 3-6 ( b)
65
Mass spectra for exchange of cyclohexylamine and /?-NapEtNH: on

(S,S)-1H+ at various delay times (30-55 sec)
Figure 3-7
64
66
Mass spectra obtained under equilibrium conditions for exchange of

cyclohexylamine and R-NapEtNH; on (S.5)-1FT (upper spectrum) and
(R,R)- 1H* (lower spectrum)
Figure 3-8
Cross-chiral recognition is observed for the chiral host [(/?./?)-! or (5.5)-1]

and chiral amine [ (5) or (/?)]-NapEt
Figure 3-9
67
70
Space-filling models of uncomplexed (5,5)-L and its complexes with (/?)-and

(5)-NapEtNH3"
78
Figure 3-10 (5,5)-lfT drawn with steric regions A, B. and C outlined (referring to
placement of the guest on top of the host), with schematic depictions of (/?)and (5)-guests viewed with the C-N bond axis pointing to the rear.
79
Figure 4-1 Structures of the chiral crown (host), chiral amine (guest) and tripodal
hydrogen bonding between the host and the guest
90
Figure 4-2
Sample preparation for chiral recognition using FABMS
93
Figure 4-3
Mass spectra of chiral mixtures with various enantiomer ratios
96
Figure 4-4
Relationship between equilibrium constant, AT, and chiral host [ (R,R)~ 1 in
this example] concentration (ATcaic = 59.0 Css + 303.5
rr)
98
Figure 4-5 Recognition of chiral naphthylethylamine (NapEt) by

dimethy!diketopyridino-18-crown-6 [(S,S)-I] using FABMS (concentration
ratio = guest/host = 25)
103
Figure 4-6 F.AB mass spectra (average of 16 scans) for a mixtureof chiral host
[(,)-1], chiral amine and benzylamine
104
Figure 5-1 Schematic of temperature control setup
116
Figure 5-2 vant Hoff plot for test reactions
121
Figure 5-3 Structures of crown ethers and chiral amines
123
Figure 5-4
vant Hoff plots for chiral recognition of S-NapEtNH2 and /?-PhEtNH2 125
Figure 5-5
vant Hoff plot for the exchange reaction of 18-crown-6 with

cyclohexylamine (CyclohexylNH 2 ) and phenylethylamine (PhEtKHz)
XI
128
Chapter 1. Introduction
Mass spectrometry is one of the most versatile and comprehensive analytical tools
nowadays. It has found applications in almost all scientific research areas. For example, it
is used routinely to obtain molecular weights and structural information, to quantitatively
analyze samples at trace levels, and to study ion chemistry and biomacromolecules.
Traditionally, ion structure information is obtained by collision-induced dissociation.
However, with advances in mass spectrometry instrumentation and efforts devoted to
studying the fundamentals of ion molecule reactions, gas phase ion-molecule reactions
have emerged as a new tool for probing the structures of a variety of molecules, such as
peptides and proteins. Ion-molecule reactions also have found a variety of analytical
applications. Based on differences in reactivity, for example, they have been employed to
solve stereochemical problems. With respect to the determination o f chirality by mass
spectrometry, several methods have been developed. In my dissertation. I will describe a
novel equilibrium approach to determine the chirality of chiral organic amines by a
synthesized chiral crown ether, and thermodynamic information on gas phase chiral
recognition is obtained for the first time.
Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry has received
considerable attention in recent years. First, because it has the unique advantages of high
resolution and accuracy and it has the ability to conduct a variety of analytical and
physical chemistry measurements; second, the advances in mass spectrometric hardware
and computer interfacing have made the cost of FTMS considerably reduced. Therefore,
the instruments have become increasingly affordable. The principle of FTMS is simple:
1
an ion in a magnetic field will undergo cyclotron motion in a plane perpendicular to the
magnetic field. The interactions of the ions with the magnetic and electric fields permit
the ions to be trapped in the analyzer cell and detected. Ion generation is the starting
point for mass spectrometry analysis. The development of new ionization methods, such
as fast atom bombardment (FAB) and electrospray ionization (ESI), has had significant
impact on mass spectrometry. For example, these make the analysis of large, nonvolatile
biomolecules possible. FAB is based on the bombardment of the sample with a fastmoving atom or ion, generating analyte ions. ESI is a method to transfer ions in solution
to the gas phase. The principles o f electrospray ionization-Fourier transform ion
cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry and fast atom bombardment-double focusing
mass spectrometry are described in Chapter 2.
Chiral recognition has been an active research field because o f
the practical
importance of chirality in living systems. As an important analytical tool, mass

spectrometry is usually not considered to be a method for chirality studies. Since the first
chirality study using mass spectrometry was reported in the late 1970s, various mass
spectrometry methods have been developed to probe chirality in the gas phase, such as
chemical ionization (Cl), FAB and ESI. I employed a novel equilibrium method to study
host-guest chiral recognition by ESI-FTICR/MS. My first study on chiral recognition of
organic amines by dimethyldiketopyridino-l8-crown-6 resulted in an interesting
discovery. The degree of chiral recognition in the gas phase is greater than that in
solution, and I experimentally verified that a guest-orienting k- k interaction will enhance
the degree of chiral recognition by the host. These research results are summarized in
Chapter 3. Chapter 4 describes the analytical utilities of ESI-FTICR/MS and FABMS. In
2
a model study, solutions with different enantiomer makeups were electrosprayed. The
differences in the concentrations of the enantiomer pairs are interpreted in terms of
apparent changes in the amine exchange equilibrium constant. A mathematic model was
derived to describe the relationship between equilibrium constant and concentration.
Chiral recognition by FABMS was also studied via an amine-exchange approach. The
degree of chiral recognition observed in the FABMS experiment was much smaller than
that observed in the ESI-FTICR/MS experiment. Although chiral recognition using mass
spectrometry has been actively studied recently, scant thermodynamic information in the
gas phase is available. Thermodynamic parameters cannot give direct information about
the structure of a molecule, but can give information which helps to interpret the
structures of the molecules. Is chiral recognition in my study enthalpically driven or
entropically driven? I proposed initially that it is entropic in origin. To verify the
hypothesis, I developed an FTICR technique to do variable temperature experiments. The
experimental results show that chiral recognition in the current host-guest system is
mainly enthalpic, while entropy opposes chiral recognition. Comparison with solution
studies suggests that there are similarities and differences between gas phase and solution
chiral recognition. These interesting results are discussed in Chapter 5. Chapter 6
summarizes the dissertation.
Chapter 2. Principles of Electrospray Ionization Fourier Transform Ion

Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry (ESI-FTICR/MS) and Fast
Atom Bombardment Double Focusing Mass Spectrometry (FABMS)
2-1. Introduction
There are several kinds of mass spectrometers. [Magnetic sector, quadrupole, time-offlight, ion trap, and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance instruments are all in use.
Although different mass spectrometers operate differently, ail mass spectrometers include
the same basic components such as an inlet system, an ion source, a vacuum system, a
mass analyzer, a detector, and a data system and electronics, as shown in Figure 2-1. Ions
are generated in the ion source. Electron ionization (El) has been the most frequently used
ion generation method. El is a hard ionization method; it provides fragment ions and,
hence, structural information can be obtained, but often it does not provide molecular ion
information. The other most frequently used ionization method, chemical ionization (Cl),
is a softer ionization method; molecular ion information can be obtained. However,
neither method can be used to analyze high molecular weight molecules. For El and Cl to
work well, the sample must be volatile. Therefore, heating of the sample probe is
sometimes required, which frequently degrades or decomposes the sample. To meet the
requirement of analyzing large molecules, new, gentle ionization methods have been
developed. Fast atom bombardment (FAB), matrix assisted laser desorption ionization
(MALDI), and electrospray ionization (ESI) have all been developed to analyze large
molecules, facilitating studies o f protein chemistry, DNA and RNA interactions, clinical
chemistry and combinatorial chemistry in vacuo, etc. In particular, ESI can generate
4
VJ
CO
T3 >>
Mgure 2-1. hssenliul com ponents ol mass s p e c tr o m e te rs .
iL
VJ
CO
multiply-charged ions o f very high molecular weight compounds, and it is this unique
property o f ESI that makes it possible for conventional mass range mass spectrometers to
analyze large molecules.
In the following sections, only those ion generation methods and mass analyzers that
were used heavily in my research project are described.
2-2. Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR/MS)

2-2-1. FTICR/MS: How it works
Fourier transform mass spectrometry (FTMS) derives from ion cyclotron resonance
(ICR) spectrometry. The cyclotron resonance phenomenon was utilized by E. 0.
Lawrence in the 1930s as the basis for the cyclotron particle accelerator. In the following
years, ion cyclotron resonance spectroscopy obtained widespread attention because of its
powerful ability to study gas-phase ion chemistry.1 In the early 1970s, Comisarow and
Marshal adapted Fourier transform methods to ICR spectrometry and built the first FTMS
instrument/-* FTMS is also called FTICR/MS. Because of the many advantages of
Fourier transform methods, interest in FTMS has increased exponentially since that time.
Much effort has been devoted to the study of FTMS mechanisms and to its applications in
the fields of chemistry and biochemistry.5'15 It is expected that FTMS will play a key role
in the study of ion chemistry and biochemistry in the future.
The heart o f an FTMS instrument is the ion trapping cell. There are several kinds of
ion trapping cells.1*17 Figure 2-2 shows a cubic cell and a cylindrical cell. The cell is
located in the homogeneous region of a strong magnet. When ions are generated or
6
F x c ite
1)
u
"3
U
plates. 1) is (he magnetic field.
ZJ
excitation plates and two detection
D
Zj
of two opposite ir, .,
Figure 2-2. Cubic and cylindrical analyzer cells lor FTM S. A cell is generally composed
Detect
69
g plates, tw o
transferred into the cell, the magnetic field (z-direction) confines ions in the x-y plane,
but the ions can still escape in the z-direction. As shown in Figure 2-2, there are six plates
in the cell. Two plates are for trapping, two are for excitation and the other two are for
detection. An electric field is applied on the trapping plates, preventing ions from
escaping in the z-direction. When a radioffequency electric field is applied on the two
excitation plates, the cyclotron radius of the trapped ions increases. When the ion packet
approaches the two opposed detector plates, it induces image current flowing between the
two plates. The current is converted to a voltage difference between the detector plates.
The voltage is then amplified to give a time domain free induction decay signal that can
be digitized and Fourier transformed to yield a frequency domain spectrum. This process
is illustrated in Figure 2-3. Conversion from a frequency spectrum to a mass spectrum is
achieved using the mass-frequency relationship.16 Fourier transform techniques have
many advantages compared with conventional methods.413'21 The main advantage of the
FT method is that we can obtain the whole spectrum at once, rather just one frequency at
a time (Fellgett advantage). Additional advantages are improved signal-to-noise ratio
(S/N) and ultra high resolution.
2-2-2. Principles of FTMS

2-2-2-1. Ion motion
The basic principle o f all ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometers is that the
cyclotron radius of an ion orbit will increase when the ions are irradiated with a radio
frequency electric field, whose angular frequency is equal to the ion cyclotron
8
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v:
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Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
frequency.6,716'18 When an ion moves in the presence of a uniform magnetic field, B , it is

forced into cyclotron motion by the Lorentz force as given by Equation 2-1:
Force = mass x acceleration = m = q v x f i
dt
(2-1)
in which m, v and q are ionic mass, velocity and charge, respectively. The direction o f the
Lorentz force is perpendicular to the plane determined by v and B as shown in Figure 2-4.
Substituting angular acceleration, dv/dt = v/r, into Equation 2-1, Equation 2-2 can be
obtained:
= qvB
(2-2)
Since angular velocity (a) = v/r, Equation 2-2 can be rearranged as shown in Equation 2<yc = ^
m
(2-3)
3. co = 27iyc, where yc is the experimentally measurable ion cyclotron orbital frequency.

All ions of a given mass to charge ratio, m/q, have the same ICR frequency, independent
of their initial velocities. ICR frequencies for ions in the usual molecular weight range
typically lie between a few kHz and a few MHz.
Ions in a magnetic field undergoing circular ion cyclotron motion are still free to
escape in the Z-direction, parallel to the magnetic field. To prevent ions from escaping in
the Z-direction, a static electric field is applied on the two trapping plates. The applied
electric field causes two more natural motions: trapping oscillation and magnetron
motion. Ions trapped in a quadratic Z-potential oscillate back and forth along the Zdirection at a natural trapping frequency, as expressed in Equation 2-4. In this equation,
10
Figure 2-4. Positive ion cyclotron motion in the plane perpendicular to the magnetic field
SQ
x
11
d is the distance between the two trapping plates and vT is the trapping voltage. The
trapping frequency,
is generally much smaller than the ICR orbital frequency. The
trapping motion and cyclotron motion are not coupled, but this does not mean that the
electric and magnetic fields act on the ions independently. Magnetron motion is caused
by the combination of the magnetic and electric fields, and can be described as a massindependent precession of an ion along a path of constant electrostatic potential. It is a
function of the trapping potential, vT, the magnetic field strength, B, the distance between
the trapping plates, d, and the geometry factor of the cell, a , as is expressed in equation 25. Magnetron frequencies are generally much lower than cyclotron frequencies, therefore
they are ignored in most ICR applications.
(2-4)
2 ccvT
(2-5)
2-2-2-2. Excitation and detection

The phase of the ions orbital motion in the cell is random initially; the ion may start
its cyclotron motion at any point around the cycle. To obtain a detectable signal, the ion
packet must be made spatially coherent by applying an oscillating, resonant, phasecoherent electric field excitation. When a positive ion is excited, the instantaneous energy
absorbed by the ion is shown in Equation 2-6.
12
inst
oV '
( 2-6 )
(2-7)
r=
( 2-8)
Here, E0 is the energy amplitude of the rf electric field, q is the charge, t is the excitation
time, and m is the mass of the ion. The total energy absorbed during the excitation period
is quantified by Equation 2-7. The ions are excited to cyclotron radius, r, as shown in
equation 2-8. Because r is independent o f m/q, all ions o f a given m/q range can be
excited to the same ICR orbital radius by application of an rf electric field. Several
excitation methods have been developed.316" " 3 The first excitation waveform for FTICR
was a fixed-ffequency rf pulse, or burst. It works well over a narrow mass range, but it
is not practical for exciting a wide range of cyclotron frequencies. Frequency sweep
(chirp) excitation is used to excite ICR signals over a wide mass range. However, both
methods suffer from poor mass resolution in ejecting ions. Because the excitation is not
evenly distributed over the desired excitation range, all ions are not excited to precisely
the same cyclotron radius. Also, it is difficult to eject ions of one mass without exciting
ions that are close in mass, so the undesired excited ions may become a little hot.
Perhaps the best method is stored waveform inverse Fourier transform (SWIFT)
excitation,16 which is based on inverse Fourier transform of the desired excitation
spectrum. First, a frequency domain spectrum is specified and then the frequency
spectrum is inverse Fourier transformed to produce a time domain excitation waveform.
13
The time domain waveform is sent from a memory buffer to a digital-to-analog converter
and applied to the excitation plates o f the cell. SWIFT has the advantages of uniform
power distribution over the specified frequency ranges, selective excitation (ejection) and
simultaneous excitation of all ions in the specified mass range. Therefore it is the method
of choice for ion selection and excitation. Mclver et al.33 have developed impulse
excitation as an alternative to rf sweeps. In impulse excitation, a high-voltage rectangular
DC pulse is applied to accelerate ions toward the excitation plates. Advantages of this
method include simplicity in theory and execution, and simultaneous and essentially
instantaneous excitation of all ions. However, there are also problems with it. The most
serious one is that it is non-selective, and, therefore, its application in FTICR studies is
limited.
After excitation, the coherently excited ions are detected. There are three ways to
detect ions from their excited ICR orbital motion. The ICR omegatron mass
spectrometer measures the charge deposited on the plates when excited ions strike the
detector plates.16 The ICR signal can also be detected by measuring the power absorbed
from the detector circuit during the excitation process, as the excitation frequency, or
magnetic field strength, is slowly swept across the ICR frequency of interest.16 The third
method, which is the most popular one, measures the image current resulting from the
alternating charge induced in the detector plates by the coherent ICR orbital motion.16
This method is employed in all FTICR mass spectrometers.
FTMS experiments consist o f a series of events called an experimental sequence. A
typical experimental sequence is illustrated in Figure 2-5. In the quench step, all ions are
14
removed from the cell, making the cell clean for the next experiment. Ions are formed in
the cell by internal electron impact ionization or transported to the cell from an external
ion source. Ions of interest are then isolated by ejection excitation. When clean isolation
is observed, a reaction delay is set. Detection excitation follows to detect the ion signals.
By simply modifying the experimental sequence,24"26 FTMS can be regarded as a
chemical library. For example, by modifying the rf pulses and delays, collision induced
dissociation and tandem mass spectrometry can be done in FTICRyMS.
2-2-2-3. Mass resolution, mass accuracy and upper mass limit

Mass resolution and frequency resolution in ICR mass spectrometry are the same, as
expressed in Equation 2-9. Extremely high mass-resolving power has been obtained
(nearly 2 x 10* for 40Ax'). Equation 2-9 indicates the inverse relationship between
resolution and mass, and the direct proportionality with magnetic field. The resolution magnetic field relationship may serve as a primary justification for developing a 20 T
magnet system.13 Resolution is also limited by the time of observation. The maximum
resolution that can be achieved for a data set is shown in Equation 2-10, where R is the
resolving power, f c is the cyclotron frequency, and t is the duration time of a transient,
lon-ion repulsions in the cell1629 and cell geometry7 also have effects on mass resolution.
R=
m
dm
qB
md(coc)
(2-9)
(2- 10)
15
As has been described in the previous section, a static electric field is applied to the
two trapping plates to prevent ions from escaping in the Z-direction. However, a radial
outward electric field is required to balance the trapping electric Z-field. The radial
force is the sum of the inward force and the outward force. The cyclotron frequency and
the magnetron frequency in the presence of trapping electric field are shown in Equations
2-11 and 2-12, respectively.
q B n+ yjq2Bo2- ^ m q 0
2m
com =
( 2 - 11 )
( 2 - 12 )
2m
The equations clearly demonstrate that the introduction of the trapping potential
makes the observed ICR orbital frequency shift to a lower value. Because the excitation
plates are of finite dimensions, the electric excitation field is nonuniform. An rf field
along the Z-direction causes undesired Z-ejection, which is m/z dependent. Z-excitation
and Z-ejection result in significant variation in FTICR mass spectral relative peak
intensity as a function of ICR orbital radius. The interaction of ions with an
inhomogeneous radio frequency excitation field and the trapping electric field leads to
loss of resolution and limits the upper mass limit.30 The upper mass is expressed as in
Equation 2-13, in which d is the distance between the two trapping plates, a is a
geometry factor, and vT is the trapping voltage.30 Several approaches have been developed
to eliminate radial electric fields and Z-ejection by using screened electrostatic ion
traps,30 field shimming methods,31 field-corrected ion cells33 and the infinity cell.33
17
mpper -
q~B0 d
8mv
(2 -1 3 )
In FTICR, cyclotron frequency is measurable to better than 1 Hz.7 As is shown in

Equation 2-3, the cyclotron frequency is related to mass, but the equation accounts only
for the applied magnetic field. As has been described above, when the trapping electric
field, rf excitation electric field, and local electric field arising from the space charge of
the ions are all present, the cyclotron frequency is shifted. Therefore, mass calibration is
required. Equation 2-14 is a popularly used mass calibration equation,34 in which A and B
are constants and f c is the observed cyclotron frequency. By carefully controlling trap
potentials, low-ppm measurement accuracy can be achieved.
A
(2-14)
2-3. Electrospray ionization

2-3-1. Electrospray ionization: a brief description
Electrospray ionization (ESI) is a method for producing intact ions in vacuo from
large and complex species in solution. ESI can provide detailed information about
molecular weights and structures from extremely small sample quantities. ESI produces
multiply charged forms o f very high molecular weight compounds, and it also allows
noncovalent interactions between molecules in solution to be preserved in the gas phase.
Generally speaking, there are four basic steps in electrospray ionization, namely,
production of charged droplets, shrinkage of the charged droplets by solvent evaporation
18
and droplet disintegration, production of gas phase ions, and sampling o f the gas phase
ions in the atmospheric region into the mass spectrometer. Figure 2-6 is a schematic of an
electrospray ionization source. Figure 2-7 is a schematic of the micro-electrospray
apparatus in the Brigham Young University (BYU) FTICR mass spectrometry lab.
2-3-2. Mechanism of electrospray ionization

Although understanding of the ESI mechanism is not yet complete, two different
mechanisms have been proposed to account for the formation of gas-phase ions from the
small charged droplets.35'36 Mechanisms have also been proposed to explain the formation
of multiply charged ions.3738 Other studies considering the mechanism of ion production
and factors affecting the sensitivity of ESI have also been reported.39-*3 Figure 2-8 is a
schematic representation of the ion formation sequence in electrospray ionization.
The first electrospray theory was proposed by Dole.33 His explanation of the
formation of gas-phase ions relies on the formation of extremely small droplets, which
contain only one ion. Evaporation of solvent from the droplets leads to conversion of the
droplet into a gas phase ion. Droplet fission is believed to occur sequentially until the
offspring droplets contain only one analyte molecule. Recently, a model called the single
ion in droplet theory (SEDT) was proposed based on Doles theory.33-42 SIDT takes into
account the uneven fission characteristics of charged droplets. Continuous evaporation
19
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20
Reproduced
with permission
of the copyright owner.
n_Q
Zero-dead-volume-union connector
Z-adjustment
/
h|m
Teflon lube
Further reproduction
Microscope
Teflon tube
Fused silica tip
3D Stage
Y-adjustment
X-adjustment
prohibited
without p e r m is s io n .
Solution
v w
I t
Fused silica tip
Teflon tube
Apply high voltage
Teflon tube
Figure 2-7. Micro-electrospray device in the BYU mass spectrometry lab (top) and detailed
structure of the zero-dead-volume connector (bottom).
copyright owner.
&
Sample
prohibited without p e r m is s io n .
to
K)
E lec tro n s
Eleclrospray
capillary
Tuy|r a ,ne
H IG H V O L T A G E
POW ER SUPPLY
D ro p le t after
e v a p o ra tio n
(reduced size)
D ro p le t afte r
O o u lo m b ic
e x p lo s io n

0
0
MS
Io ns afte r
ion e m is s io n
E le c tro n s
F ig ure 2-8. S c h e m a tic r e p re s e n ta tio n o f the p ro c e s s e s in e le c tro s p ra y io nization . D ro p le ts are p r o d u c e d fro m the
T a y lo r c o n e at the ca p illary tip.
and uneven fission of a shrinking droplet yields a tail o f numerous substantially smaller
offspring droplets. Experiments42 suggest that uneven fission provides a mechanism for
single ion in droplet formation.
The other mechanism, which is also known as the ion emission (evaporation) model
(IEM), was first proposed by Iribame and Thomson/6 Similar to Doles theory/3 charged
droplets are emitted from a Taylor cone, and evaporation o f the solvent contained in the
droplets is critical to the formation of gas-phase ions. Preferential evaporation o f solvent
from the droplet leads to increased droplet charge density and droplet fission, producing
offspring droplets with higher charge to mass ratios than their parent droplets. Ion
emission is supposed to take place when the droplets acquire an electric field large
enough to force the ions into the gas phase. In contrast to Doles theory, the Iribame and
Thomson ion emission mechanism does not require the production of very small droplets
that contain only one ion.
Iribame and Thomsons theory is based on an equation that can be used to predict the
rate o f ion evaporation from the charged droplets. The rate of ion emission is dependent
on the properties of the ions. The relationship is shown in Equation 2-15, where K is the
rate constant for emission of ions from droplets, T is the temperature, k is the Boltzman
constant, and h is the Planck constant. AG* is the free energy of activation, which
depends on several factors: the number of charges on the droplet, the radius of the droplet
and the specific properties of the ions involved. The ion emission rate constant increases
with an increase in the number o f charges and decreases with increasing droplet radius.
23
2-3-3. Influence of electric field on electrospray ionization

As described above, production of charged droplets at the electrospray capillary tip is
achieved by applying an electric field at the tip. The actual electric field strength, c. at
the tip of a blunt capillary of radius rc, is given by Equation 2-16:^
E.C
(2-16)
Von = 2 x IO5 (;r ) - ln( )
(2-17)
where d is the distance from the counter electrode to the tip and Vc is the potential applied
to the capillary. It can be clearly seen that Ec is proportional to Vc, inversely proportional
to rc and decreases slowly with the logarithmic distance, d. To obtain a good quality
electrospray, an appropriate Ec value must be applied. Otherwise, the Taylor cone will
not be stable, thus leading to an unstable mass spectrometric signal. The electric field
required for the onset of charged droplet emission, V on, is shown in Equation 2-17,3946
where y is the surface tension of the solvent, rc is the capillary radius, and d is the
distance between the capillary tip and counter electrode. The surface of a solvent with
higher surface tension will be harder to stretch out into a Taylor cone and a liquid
filament, and therefore requires higher Vo n For stable ES operation, a few hundred
volts higher than Von is sometimes necessary. When the applied voltage is too high, either
24
unstable electrospray or electrical discharge will occur. The discharge degrades the
performance o f the electrospray and introduces discharge-produced ions into the mass
spectrometer.
2-3-4. Dependence of ion signal on solution properties

Electrospray is a method that transfers ions present in solution to the gas phase.
Therefore, solution properties, such as concentration, conductivity, and solvent, will
affect the performance of electrospray ionization. For example, when a biomolecule is
electrosprayed, a change in solvent often results in a change in charge state distribution.41
Charge state distribution is also affected by the analyte concentration and aqueous
solution chemistry of the biomolecules.38'0 Aggregation and multimer formation in the
electrospray ionization o f small molecules are also concentration dependent," and can be
regulated by incorporating certain cationic additives.
The current leaving the eiectrospray capillary is dependent on the conductivity o f the
solution,40 as is shown in Equation 2-18, in which / is the current leaving the eiectrospray
capillary tip, H is a constant, A is the electrical conductivity, which has a threshold value
of 10'7 Q '1c m 1, and n = 0.2-0.3. No spray is observed with totally deionized solutions. As
the conductivity is increased above the threshold value, the current leaving the capillary
increases and becomes stable. It is found that / is a very weak function of conductivity.
I = HAn
(2-18)
25
The current is also dependent both on the concentration and the nature of the electrolyte.
A model has been proposed4042'44 to describe the relationship between mass
spectrometricaily measured ion current and electrolyte concentration in a solution
composed o f two electrolytes (A~X~ and B~Y'), as is shown in Equations 2-19 and 2-20,
(2-19)
( 2 - 20 )
Â.ms P Â-*.g
where lA
represents the mass spectrometricaily measured ion intensity o f A \
is the
current due to gas-phase ions generated by emission of analyte ions from droplets, and /
is the total ion current. The rate constants kA and kB are rate constants which express the
rate of transfer of ions from the droplets to the gas phase of ions A and B, respectively,
while / is the fraction of droplet charge that is converted into gas phase ions. The
efficiency of the mass spectrometer sampling of gas phase ion current (fA- g) is
represented by p. Symbols [A] and [B] are the concentrations of analyte ions A' and B \
respectively. Because o f the very weak dependence of ion current (I) on the total
electrolyte concentration, addition of B to A will not increase the total current
significantly. On the other hand, B* will compete with A' for the charges on the droplets,
so the amount o f gas phase ions (A') produced from the charged droplets will decrease.
At the low concentration range, intensity increases with increasing concentration; at
higher concentrations, the current levels off and even decreases slowly with
26
concentration. The values of p and / were found to be independent o f the nature of the
ions.44 An estimation of f the efficiency of conversion of droplet charge to gas-phase
ions, is likely to be in the range of 0.5 - 0.1. However, Smith32 estimates that ESI appears
to have unit ionization efficiency.
As can be seen from Equation 2-19, IA^nvs depends on the ratio of kAikB instead of the
individual values of kA and kB. The ratio expresses a conversion factor in the transfer of
ions in solution to ions in the gas phase. The value of kA and kB can be explained by
Iribame theory (Equation 2-15). When there are two analytes in the solution, the larger
the kAlkB, the stronger the intensity of A'.
2-3-5. Application of eiectrospray ionization

Since the coupling of eiectrospray ionization with mass spectrometers in the early
1980s,5354 ESI-MS has experienced an exponential advance in both instrumentation and
application.45534,7 ESI-MS provides new means to analyze non-volatile, polar and
thermally labile compounds. Its unique ability to produce multiply charged ions from
very large molecules68 makes it applicable to most conventional mass spectrometers with
low m/z range. Its easy coupling with separation methods makes it a more attractive
method compared with other ionization methods. The characterization of biomolecules by
ESI-MS has been studied extensively, as can be seen from recent reviews.3256
The development of the ESI sources has undergone several stages: the novel
eiectrospray source assembled by Fenn54 in the early 1980s, the ultrasonically assisted
27
eiectrospray
ionization
source,37
the
micro-electrospray
source6366
and
the
nanoelectrospr^y ion source.64 Efforts on the design and modification of eiectrospray

sources have allowed researchers to obtain useful information from limited samples.
Attomole sensitivity for large molecules can be achieved easily with a micro-ESI or
nano-ESI source. ESI has been applied to essentially all kinds of mass spectrometers. For
example, the combination of ESI with magnetic sector instruments resulted in low ppm
mass measurement accuracy and resolution of 104 for small proteins;36 and ESI-time-offlight mass spectrometry (TOFMS) achieves mass resolving power of over 1000 for both
low mass and high mass ions.38 In the past, most ESI-MS studies have been done using
quadrupole mass spectrometers.4041 33 Recently, the coupling of ESI with quadrupole ion
traps has achieved sensitivity that is at least comparable to that of quadrupole
instruments, and significant advantages exist for MS/MS sensitivity in comparison with
conventional tandem mass spectrometers.43 The combination of ESI with FT-ICRMS was
pioneered by McLafferty,69 resulting in ultra-high resolving power for proteins. Perhaps
the most exciting advancement is the coupling o f ESI-MS with various separation
methods, such as liquid chromatography (LC) and capillary electrophoresis (CE).' 60-62
The rapid development of the eiectrospray ionization technique also arises from its
ability to analyze biological samples. As has been mentioned, one of the important
features of the ESI mass spectra of proteins is the presence of multiply charged ions. The
net number o f charged sites in solution is proposed to be the principal factor affecting the
maximum charge state observed in ESI mass spectra. ES of proteins with molecular
weights greater than 190 kDa has been reported.35 Figure 2-9 is a mass spectrum of
28
Reproduced
with permission
(M +5H )
jt
1147.88
( M + 4 H ) 4'
( M + 3 H ) 3
1434.89
1913.39
SO
(2M +7H )
l l ))
( MI + 6v H
<*
956.64
i- 1 - i ^ i
(3M +8H )* (2M + 5H )
1640.12
2152.80
II
120C
i ^ |--------- S
1700
V-
Li
2296.45
-------- ,
h-t
2200
F ig u re 2-9. E ie c tro s p ra y m ass s p e c tru m o f insulin (fro m bo vin e p a n c re a s) in m e th a n o l/w a te r /ll A c (8 0 :1 8 :2 ) T h e ex p erim en ts w e re
p e r f o r m e d u s in g a B r u k e r A pex 4 7 e F T-1C R m ass s p e c tr o m e te r (cell p re ssu re - 5 * 1 0 y m bar, eiec tro sp ray flow ra te - 10 /^L/h,
c o n c e n tra tio n = 0.1 m g /m L ).
insulin obtained using ESI-FTICR/MS at the BYU FT-ICR lab. Recently, a new method
called time-resolved ESI-MS was developed to study the folding kinetics of cytochrome c
and denaturation of myoglobin.071 ESI-MS can also generate non-covalent complexes in
the gas-phase. This is claimed to provide insights into specific non-covalent associations
in solution.0 This is especially important because ESI mass spectrometry can be applied
to aqueous solution conditions similar to those of physiological interest/5 Thus, the
possibility that ESI could be used to probe the solution thermodynamics of non-covalent
complexes, guest-host complexes, receptor-ligand, enzyme-substrate and structurally
specific liquid-phase associations, has attracted much attention. The future of ESI is
bright.
2-4. Fast atom bombardment-double focusing mass spectrometry

2-4-1. Fundamentals of fast atom bombardment
Fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry (FABMS) was introduced by Barber and
co-workers^ as a new technique for secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) in the early
1980s. This new technique made a great impact when Barbers group published the
novel procedure of introducing the analyte in a viscous liquid m atrix.3 Since that time,
fast atom bombardment (FAB) has been established as one o f the most important
ionization methods in mass spectrometry. Because FAB has the ability to introduce polar
or charged molecules into the gas phase, it has been used extensively in the analysis of
biological compounds.74"76
30
In FAB mass spectrometry, the sample is dissolved in a liquid matrix, which is then
bombarded with high energy atomic particles. These atoms are usually inert gases such as
argon or xenon that have been given translational energies of 5 ~ 10 kV. It was also found
that if a beam of Cs' ions is used to bombard a sample in a liquid matrix, similar results
can be obtained.7 Figure 2-10 is a schematic representation o f the sputtering of a liquid
sample by a fast atom or fast ion in a FAB process. To produce fast atoms, a beam of ions
with known kinetic energy is produced. The ions are then allowed to undergo charge
exchange with little change in forward momentum. Fast moving ions will be fast moving
atoms after charge exchange, with almost no energy loss. The following reaction is a
resonant gas phase charge exchange o f Xe ion with neutral Xe atom:
XeA' + XeB
A- ->
XeA + XeB'
When a sample is bombarded with high energy particles, momentum transfer from the
impinging particle to the sample occurs, and the sample materials are then bombarded
into the gas phase. Some of the sputtered material will be in the form of ions.
Figure 2-11 is a schematic of regions that could contribute to ion formation in the fast
atom bombardment process. The mechanism for the production o f gaseous ions in FAB is
complex and not completely understood. 3 Several models for ionization and desorption
have been discussed in a review .9 The first mechanism considers the desorption of
preformed ions in solution, while the second considers the evaporation of preformed ions
from splash droplets analogous to the Iribame theory,36 and the third model considers gasphase ion-molecule reactions. Ionization in the selvedge region between the liquid surface
31
Reproduced
with permission
Sample tip
Ion o p tic s
0
1
Fast atoms
or ions
Mass analyzer
Detector
Analyte and matrix

ions, atoms
Sample and matrix
Figure 2-10. Fast atom bombardment (FAB) source. Bombardment of a sample by a beam of fast atoms or
ions desorbs ions and atoms that are characteristic of the analyte and matrix .
Reproduced
with permission
Analyte ion
Matrix ion
3
?.
Analyte &
matrix atoms
Condensed
phase
Interfacial
Selvedge
region
region
High vacuum
Figure 2-11. Schematic of regions that could contribute to ion formation in the fast atom bombardment process.
Condensed phase: preformed ions in solution; interfacial region: the interface between liquid and gas, ion/ion
recombination reactions occur with high rates; selvedge region: region between the interfacial region and gas phase, ionmolecule reactions occur; vacuum region: ion-molecule reactions may occur for volatile sample.
and the gas phase is also possible.78 All mechanisms have received experimental support.
One research group observed that ion intensities in a FAB mass spectrum parallel gasphase proton affinities,80'82 and their gas-phase collision model strongly supports the gas
phase ion-molecule theory. Gas-phase reactions have also been observed using a divided
probe in FABMS.83 It was found that most of the observed crown ether clusters are due to
gas-phase reactions analogous to chemical ionization. A recent study* also supports the
gas-phase ion-molecule reaction model. The author claims that the FAB ion source is
similar to a chemical ionization (Cl) source, and that the FAB mechanism is consistent
with a chemical ionization (Cl) mechanism, which is responsible for the ions observed in
FAB and may be the dominant mechanism in some instances, depending on analyte,
matrix and experimental conditions. In brief, it seems that all the mechanisms mentioned
above occur in FABMS. Their contributions to ion intensity vary with sample, matrix,
ionization chamber, and in general, the experimental conditions. Perhaps it is the co
existence of all of the proposed models that makes it hard to understand and evaluate the
FAB mechanism with a specific model. Practically, most researchers agree that the best
way to form ions for FAB experiments is through solution chemistry in the liquid matrix.
Different matrices have been evaluated.84'89 Improved mass spectra often involve changes
o f matrix.
The liquid matrix has three main functions: (1) it allows the formation o f ions through
solution chemistry, (2) it serves to minimize sample damage from the high energy
particle beam by absorbing most of the incident energy, and (3) it serves to constantly
replenish the surface with new sample as the particle beam bombards the surface. Owing
34
to the use of the matrix, FAB can be used to ionize nonvolatile, polar, thermolabile
biomolecules. Molecular masses up to 7000 Da have been successfully analyzed.
However, there are also problems with the use of a matrix. Mass spectra from FABMS
generally have high background matrix peaks, chemical noise, and a peak at every massto-charge value. The mass o f the matrix ions may be very high because of the formation
of matrix cluster ions and sample-matrix cluster ions, or the mass can be low because of
fragment ions arising from cluster ions and the matrix ion itself.89'91 Sample
decomposition and transformation may also occur in the matrix prior to analysis. Sample
ions and matrix ions may overlap sometimes. In a word, employment of a matrix in FAB
results in complications. However, judicious choice o f matrix and experimental
conditions73-76 may overcome or minimize those problems. For example, the intensity of
matrix ions in the spectrum can be reduced by increasing sample concentration. Because
only the surface layers are sputtered in the bombardment process, adjusting the
hydrophobicity of the sample and matrix can also improve the quality of FAB mass
spectra.
Several reviews have summarized the properties of different matrices.3 6' 992'94 The
factors that should be considered when choosing a matrix are as follows. (1) It must
dissolve the sample to be analyzed, allowing the molecule to diffuse easily to the surface
to replenish samples that have been sputtered off. It is generally accepted that secondary
ion currents are stronger and more prolonged if the sample is actually dissolved in the
matrix or a cosolvent, as opposed to being present as a mull or suspension. (2) The matrix
should have low volatility so that evaporation does not significantly limit the time in
35
which spectra can be obtained. Once the matrix is evaporated, the desorption of ions will
be terminated. (3) The matrix should not react with the sample, but if it does react, the
background contributions should be in a reproducible and predictable way. (4) The
acidity or basicity of the matrix relative to that of the sample should also be considered.
This is critical to the production o f ions with good abundances. (5) The surface activity of
the sample in the matrix is also an important factor to have strong ion current. Surface
activity for a given compound may be improved by changing the matrix or by adding
appropriate surfactants. As a summary, a good matrix should give as strong an analyte
signal as possible, with low chemical background.
2-4-2. Magnetic-sector mass spectrometer

2-4-2-1. Single-focusing mass spectrometer
The earliest mass analyzers separated ions by means of a magnetic field. When a
charged particle passes through a magnetic field, it experiences a force and travels a
circular path in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, as can be seen
from Equation 2-2. The equation can be rearranged as mv/q = Br, and r = mv/qB, where q
is the number of charges on the ion. It can be clearly seen that the magnetic sector acts as
a momentum analyzer and disperses the ions according to their momentum-to-charge
ratios. It can also be used for direction focusing. Only ions of a given m/q ratio are able to
reach a point detector at any given magnetic field. Considering the kinetic energy an ion
obtains when it exits the ion source, qV = mv2^ , Equation 2-2 can be rearranged to
36
Equation 2-21. The equation clearly shows that a magnetic sector also separates ions
according to their mass-to-charge ratios.
m B 2r 2
- =
q
2V
(2-21)
Ions obtain kinetic energy through the accelerating potential in the ion source. Ions of
different masses but with the same charge acquire the same kinetic energy. When these
ions pass through a radial electric field, they travel in a circular path and are dispersed
according to their kinetic energy. The motion o f an ion in an electrostatic analyzer is
described by Equation 2-22, where E is the electrostatic field. When an ion exits the ion
source, it acquires kinetic energy, BCE = qV = mv2/2. Substituting into Equation 2-22, one
obtains the equation, r = 2V/E. This demonstrates that an electrostatic analyzer can be
used as an energy filter to produce an ion beam o f nearly homogeneous energy.
=qE
(2-22)
2-4-2-2. Double-focusing mass spectrometer

In order to provide sufficient resolving power to separate ions that have the same
nominal mass and to determine the exact masses of the ions, the double-focusing mass
spectrometer was developed. A double-focusing instrument combines the magnetic mass
analyzer with an electrostatic analyzer. Figure 2-12 illustrates a double focusing mass
spectrometer. As described above, the magnetic sector separates ions according to their
momentum to charge ratio and mass to charge ratio. However, ions exiting from a
37
is improved
Kinetic energy distribution of ions exiting the

magnetic s e c to r
Figure 2-12. A if. ' 'e focusing magnetic sector mass spectrom eter. Resolution
magnetic sector with an electrostatic sector.
09
after combining
magnetic sector still have a large kinetic energy distribution. The electrostatic sector
serves as a kinetic energy filter, which only lets ions with a specific kinetic energy pass
through the electric field regardless o f their mass-to-charge ratios. Because o f the
coupling of the magnetic and electrostatic sectors, the double focusing mass spectrometer
offers the advantages of high resolution and accurate mass measurement. It has found
popular applications in various fields.'5
39
References
1. Beauchamp, J. L. Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem. 1971, 22, 527 - 561.
2. Comisarow, M. B.; Marshall, A G. Chem. Phys. Letters, 1974, 25, 282 - 283.
3. Comisarow, M. B.; Marshall, A. G. Chem. Phys. Letters, 1974, 26, 489 - 490.
4. Marshall, A. G.; Comisarow, M. B. Anal. Chem. 1975, 47, 491A - 504A.
5. Comisarow, M. B. J. Chem. Phys. 1978, 69, 4097 - 4104.
6. Comisarow, M. B.; Marshall, A. G. J. Chem. Phys. 1976, 64, 110 - 119.
7. Marshall, A. G.; Schweikhard, L. Int. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion Processes. 1992, 118/119,
37 - 70.
8. Gross, M. L.; Rempel, D. L. Science, 1984, 226, 261 - 268.
9. Nibbering, N. M. M. Acc. Chem. Res. 1990, 22, 279 - 285.
10. Wang, Y.; Wanczek, K. P. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 1993, 64, 883 - 889.
11. Audier, H. E.; McMahon, T. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994,116, 8294 - 8299.
12. Smith, R. D.; Cheng, X.; Bruce, J. E.; Hofstadler, S. A.; Anderson, G. A. Nature,
1994, 369, 137- 139.
13. Limbach, P. A.; Grosshans, P. B.; Marshall, A. G. Anal. Chem. 1993, 65, 135-140.
14. Bruce, J. E.; Cheng, X.; Bakhtiar, R.; Wu, Q.; Hofstadler, S. A.; Anderson, G. A.;
Smith, R. D. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994,116, 7839 - 7847.
15. Hofstadler, S. A.; Wahl, J. H.; Bakhtiar, R.; Anderson, G. A.; Bruce, J. E.; Smith, R.
D. J. Am. Soc. Mass. Spectrom. 1994, 5, 894 - 899.
16. Marshall, A. G.; Verdun, F. R. Fourier Transforms in NMR, Optical, and Mass
Spectrometry, A user's Handbook, 1990, Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.
40
17. Guan, S.; Marshall, A. G.; Int. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion. Processes, 1995, 146/147, 261.
18. Amster, I. J. Mass Spectrom. 1996, 31, 1325 - 1337.
19. Marshall, A. G.; Grosshans, P. B. Anal. Chem. 1991, 63, 215A -229A.
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46
Chapter 3. Intrinsic Contributions to Chiral Recognition:

Discrimination Between Enantiomeric Amines
by Dimethyldiketopyridino-18-crown-6 in the Gas Phase
3-1. Introduction
Molecules relating to each other as an object and its mirror image which are not
superimposable are known as enantiomers, and are said to be chiral. Enantiomers have
identical physical properties and show identical chemical characteristics in an achiral
environment, but will display different behavior toward other chiral molecules. Research
projects relating to chiral compounds have been given great attention in recent years
because the building blocks of living systems are chiral. For example, nucleic acids,
proteins and polysaccharides all have chiral structures. Their chiral structures determine
their specific functions. Because of the existence of chirality, living organisms usually
respond differently to enantiomeric drugs. Nearly 60% of the most frequently prescribed
drugs in the United States have one or more asymmetric centers in the molecule.I(a)
Isomeric impurities may have undesired toxicological, pharmacological, or other effects.
Usually, one isomer of a series may produce a desired effect, but another may be inactive
or even produce undesired effects. The differences in activity between enantiomer pairs
demonstrate the importance of evaluating the chiral purity o f pharmaceuticals,
agricultural pesticides, and other chemical products.
In a word, the importance of
determining the stereoisomeric composition and identifying the chirality of chemical

compounds, especially those of pharmaceutical importance, cannot be overemphasized.
It is not hard to understand the chirality o f a molecule. Chiral molecules can be
simply related to each other as are right and left hands. The principles o f chiral
47
recognition are based
on
the
three-point
model
proposed
by
Dalgliesh
for
chromatographic chiral recognition in the early 1950s.I(b) Dalglieshs model suggested

that at least three attractive interactions, or two attractive and one repulsive interaction,
between the receptor and the enantiomeric compounds are required to obtain chiral
recognition. This three-point model was improved by Lochmuller and Souter in the
1970s.: In a host-guest chiral recognition study, Cram et al.3 proposed that a fourth
binding site would enhance the stability o f the host-guest complexes. Various methods
have been developed to study the chirality of molecules, such as calorimetry , 4 NMR, 5
chromatography, 6"8
capillary
electrophoresis, 9 11
capillary
electrokinetic
chromatography, 12 etc. However, all o f these methods are conducted in solution. Because
of the effects of solvents on chiral recognition, the true factors affecting chiral
recognition cannot be observed. Hence, solution studies cannot provide clear guidelines
for the design and synthesis of chiral molecules.
It is well known that mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical tool and its
application in various areas of industry and academia has been growing rapidly.
However, it is still a challenging area for mass spectrometry to study isomers, 13
especially when the compounds are chiral. Chiral compounds have identical elemental
compositions and atom connectivities; only the arrangement around the stereocenter(s) is
different. Mass spectrometry is based on measuring the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of
ions. Therefore, it seems that it is not an ideal candidate to measure chirality directly. But
mass spectrometry is still an attractive method that needs to be developed to conduct
chirality studies because its high speed, high sensitivity and the unique advantage of
providing the intrinsic factors (gas-phase experiment) contributing to chiral recognition.
48
Like other chiral recognition methods, successful mass spectrometric methods depend on
the differences in the reactivity of the enantiomer pairs with a chiral compound.
Enantiomer pairs display the same reactivity with an achiral agent, but differences may
be substantial when they react with a chiral molecule. For example, chemical ionization
using a chiral reagent ion may yield different results for enantiomeric analytes. 14 More
recently, chiral recognition has been studied via a proton transfer approach using an
electrospray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron mass spectrometer. Cytochrome c
is found to react more favorably with (2 R)- than with (2 S)-2 -butylamine. 15
In the past twenty years or so, much effort has been given toward developing mass
spectromeric methods to identify enantiomers and study the thermodynamics o f chiral
reactions. The first study of gas phase chiral recognition using mass spectrometry was
described by Fales and Wright in 1977.14 Using chemical ionization mass spectrometry,
differences in chiral species were observed as evidenced by differences in abundance of
the enantiomeric dimer cluster ions. Other research groups also studied chirality by
measuring the relative intensities o f the corresponding hetero- and homo-chiral dimer
clusters. 16' 18 More recently, chiral recognition by fast atom bombardment mass
spectrometry (FABMS) 19' 27 and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass
spectrometry (FTICR/MS) 28' 33 has been given great attention and has yielded promising
results. The degree of chiral recognition in FABMS is usually interpreted in terms o f the
relative peak intensities (RPI) o f the adduct peaks arising from interactions between
chiral molecules. In a typical experiment, one of the enantiomers is isotopicaily labeled
and the chiral adducts are distinguished by mass difference. Alternatively, the
enantiomers are not labeled, one achiral ligand is used as a control, the two chiral ligands
49
are allowed to react with the chiral guest separately, the intensity ratio of chiral adduct to
achiral adduct is obtained for each chiral ligand, and therefore, the RPI value is obtained.
These experiments can be performed quickly with very small amounts of sample, and
appear to be an excellent means of rapidly screening chiral molecules. However, the
nature of FABMS itself presents limitations, as is outlined in a recent review." There is
ambiguity about the environment in which the recognition occurs, because it is difficult
to determine whether the adducts are formed in solution prior to desorption, in the
selvedge region via chemical ionization reactions, or in the gas phase. Interactions of
chiral molecules with the FAB matrix are also possible. Therefore, one needs to pay
attention to the selection of matrix. Further, RPI values from FABMS do not reflect true
equilibrium
conditions,
so
interpretation
of the
results
to
yield
quantitative
thermochemical information is not possible. In short, FABMS is a fast screening method

and has the potential for real world analytical applications, but it is not a good method to
study the fundamentals of chiral recognition.
Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry was first used by
Nikolaev28 to measure equilibrium populations of clusters of chiral molecules such as Land D-dimethyltartrate. In pioneering studies of chiral host-guest recognition by
FTICR/MS, 29 an achiral ligand and a chiral ligand were used to react with a chiral guest,
the host exchange equilibrium constant was measured by monitoring the host exchange
reactions as a function of time, and the degree of chiral recognition was determined from
the apparent free energy difference between the two enantiomeric reactions. Compared
with FABMS. FTICR/MS provides unambiguously gas-phase experimental results,
because the reactions occur in a much simpler environment than those that prevail in
50
solution. On the other hand, FTICR/MS experiments are probably more difficult to
perform and require much more time than FAB experiments. But considering the
information that the FT-ICRMS experiment can provide and the high sensitivity of
FTICR/MS, it seems that FTICR/MS is a better choice to study the fundamentals
governing chiral recognition, and it is also a more sensitive method for analytical
applications than FABMS.
The chiral host-guest recognition system studied in my experiments involved the
chiral ligand shown in Figure 3-1. The host molecule, dimethyldiketopyridino-18-crown6
(referred to as {R,R)-\ or (S,S)-\ herein), has two stereocenters, one at each of the
carbon atoms where methyl groups are attached to the crown ring. Solution studies have
thoroughly investigated the ability of this chiral host to recognize chiral amine guests. 34*38
Those studies found that one of the best recognized chiral guest molecules is [a-(lnaphthyl)ethyl] ammonium ion (NapEt). In condensed media, the ^-configuration of the
ammonium ion is bound in preference to the (^)-enantiomer by (W )-l. X-ray structure
studies of the complexes36*38 suggest that the host-guest interaction in this system arises
from two major forces: three-point hydrogen bonding between the ammonium group of
the guest and the nitrogen and two alternative oxygens of the host, and face-to-face k- k
interactions between the pyridino moiety of the host and the naphthyl group o f the guest.
Figure 3-2 shows the tripodal hydrogen bonding between the host and the guest. Multiple
hydrogen bonding is very important for formation of stable complexes, hence it should be
regarded as the cornerstone for us to be able to do chiral recognition experiments
51
R eproduced
with perm ission
of the copyright ow ner.
CHj
Cll
prohibited
Chiral Host: diinedtyldikelopyridino-18-crown-6 [(S,S)-1|
without p e rm issio n .
NH
R- or,S-l-(l-Napluhyl)elhylamine
R- orS-l-Phenylelhylanune
R- orS-l-Cyclohexyledtylam ine
Figure 3-1. Structures o f chiral host and chiral amine guests.
jec-Buiylainine
Figure 3-2. Tripodal hydrogen bonding between chiral host and guest.
53
in such a host-guest system. Unfavorable steric interactions are believed to destabilize the
(S,S)~ 15'-NapEtH3 complex relative to the (S,S)-1*/?-NapEtH3' complex.
In previous experiments, 29 the chiral host, (S,S)~ 1 , and an achiral host, 18-crown-6,
were both admitted into the trapping cell of a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance
mass spectrometer. The partial pressures of these two neutral ligands were carefully
measured. Either R- or ,S'-NapEtNH2 was also admitted into the trapping region, and ions
(NapEtNH3 ) were formed by self-chemical ionization. Reaction of NapEtNH3 with the
neutral ligands forms the host-guest complexes. The exchange of the guest between the
chiral and achiral hosts, as illustrated in Reaction 3-1, was allowed to proceed to
equilibrium. The establishment of equilibrium was verified by monitoring ion intensities
as a function of reaction time until the ratio of the 18 -crown-6 NapEtNH3 and (S,S)l*NapEtNH3~ ion intensities became constant. Perturbation of the system away from
equilibrium by ejection of either of the complexes always resulted in reestablishment of
the same equilibrium ratios after an appropriate reaction delay, proving that true
equilibrium was reached.
(S\S)-1(/? or ^-NapF.tNHi " +- 18-crown-6
*=*
18-crown-6(^ or 5 )-NapEtNH 3 *
{S,S)-1
(3-1)
The experimental results demonstrate that the equilibrium constant for exchange of
(/?)-NapEtNH3 was only about one quarter that for exchange of (^-NapEtNFk*.
corresponding to about 4 kJ/mol greater free energy of interaction between (R)NapEtNTb* and (S,S)- 1 than between (.Sj-NapEtNIV and (S,S)-1. Thus, (S,S)~ 1
preferentially binds (^-N apEtN PV in the gas phase, just as it does in solution. 3 4 3 5 '38 The
degree of chiral recognition in the gas phase is about the same as is observed in a weakiy
54
-solvating solvent such as dichloromethane and is about twice as great as is seen in a

better solvent, such as methanol.38
However, these were quite difficult experiments. 29 First, (S,S)-1 is fairly nonvolatile,
so that usable vapor pressures were barely attainable when the ligand was inserted into
the high vacuum region of the instrument on a heated direct-exposure solids probe. The
use of a heated probe also introduces ambiguity about the temperature o f the system,
making the thermochemical measurements less useful. Second, 18-crown-6 binds to the
chiral guest much more strongly than the chiral ligand, making equilibrium difficult to
observe unless there is a large excess pressure of the less volatile, chiral (^,5)-1. Third,
the lack of an external ion source on the instrument made some o f the chemistry
ambiguous. Finally, measurement of the partial pressures of the ligands, which is crucial
to the results, is difficult and introduces a great deal of uncertainty.
The main objective of the chiral recognition experiment presented here is to
investigate the importance of
tz -k
interactions in chiral recognition and to do the
experiment without the ambiguities which occurred in the previous experiment. The
current experiment takes advantage of recent advances in electrospray ionization mass
spectrometry39 to avoid the volatility problems that plagued the previous experiment. The
new experimental setup is much faster than the old one. No heating o f sample probes or
of the vacuum chamber is required, so that the entire chamber is maintained at uniform,
ambient temperature. The new method allows experiments to be designed so that the
results do not depend on the pressures of the neutrals, thus eliminating a large potential
source of error. Finally, I use the new experimental setup to examine the interactions of a
number of additional chiral amine guests with the chiral host. The new results shed
55
important new light on the intrinsic, solvent-free interactions that are essential to chiral
recognition by the host and illustrate the superior recognition achieved when
tz - k
interactions help to orient the guest as it binds with the host.
3-2. Experimental section

All experiments were performed using a commercial Fourier transform ion cyclotron
resonance mass spectrometer (Model APEX 47e, Bruker Instruments, Billerica, MA),
featuring a 4.7 T superconducting magnet and an external ion source. Figure 3-3 is a
schematic diagram of the instrument setup. Vacuum is maintained by means o f two
stages of mechanical pumping followed by three regions of differential cryopumping
(Edwards) such that with the electrospray source in operation at atmospheric pressure, the
trapping cell region remains at a typical base pressure of 1 x 10 '9 mbar. Ion injection into
the magnetic field is accomplished via electrostatic focusing of the ion beam along the
field lines into the high-magnetic field region, where the ions are captured inside a
cylindrical trapping cell designed to approximate a cell of infinite length (infinity
design) . 40 Trapping is facilitated by application of a small voltage kick perpendicular to
the magnetic field axis as the ions pass through the front trapping plate o f the instrument.
During all experiments, the trapping cell remained at ambient temperature (about 300 K).
The instrument is interfaced to an electrospray ionization source (Analytica of Branford,
Branford, CT) of the Whitehouse type, 41'42 with pneumatically-assisted nebulization and a
Pt-coated glass capillary drying tube.
The chiral host was synthesized using published procedures. 43 Cyclohexylamine
(97.9%) was purchased from Fisher. (^)-Naphthylethylamine (>99%) was purchased
56
R eproduced
with perm ission
Direct insertion solid

sam p le probe(s)
Trapping cell
(cylindrical, Infinity)
D
Vacuum
lock
P ulsed
valve
Focusing
optics
Ion
sou rce
prohibited
without p e rm issio n .
Superconducting
solenoidal magnet,
4 .7 T esla
G ate
valves
Cryopum ps
Controlled variable
leak v a lv es
Figure 3-3. Schematic of Bruker Apex 47e FT-1CR mass spectrometer.
from Aldrich, while (S)-1- ( I -naphthyl)ethylamine (>99%),
D-l-phenylethylamine
(>99%), (/?)- l-cyclohexylethylamine (>98%), and (i?)-sec-butylamine (>99%) came from

Fluka. All compounds were used as supplied, with the exception that they were degassed
through several freeze-pump-thaw cycles prior to introduction into the vacuum system.
In a typical experiment, one enantiomer of the chiral amine o f interest was introduced
into the ion-trapping region of the vacuum chamber, along with an achiral reference
amine. Volatile samples were introduced using precision variable leak valves (Varian,
Palo Alto, CA), while less volatile amines were introduced via a direct-exposure solid
sample vacuum lock. In most experiments, cyclohexylamine served as the achiral
reference,
although
in
experiments
with
the
enantiomers
of sec-butylamine,
isopropylamine served as a better reference because its affinity for the ligand is closer to
that of sec-butylamine than is that of cyclohexylamine. The partial pressures of each
amine were allowed to stabilize and were determined using a cold cathode ionization
gauge (Balzers), which is mounted above the cryopump in the high vacuum region of the
instrument. Rough calibration of the gauge was accomplished by measuring proton
transfer kinetics, but careful compound-specific calibration was not performed since only
relative pressures need be measured in these experiments. I do assume that the gauge has
similar response to the chiral and achiral amines, but even this assumption has no bearing
on the results, as will be shown.
One enantiomer of the chiral host molecule [(5',.5)-l, for example] was electrosprayed,
and the resulting ions were guided into the trapping cell and captured. Typically,
concentrations of 0.1 mg/mL in 80:18:2 methanol/water/acetic acid were used. The
countercurrent drying gas was N2 , at approximately 470 BC. All source voltages were
58
adjusted to optimize the signal. Under these conditions, the protonated chiral crown was
the dominant ion detected. Smaller peaks, arising from alkali metal ion adducts, were also
generated, presumably from trace contamination in the source. Ion accumulation times of
200
ms were typically used, after which the ion beam from the source was
electrostatically deflected to stop any further accumulation in the trap.

The trapped protonated host was allowed to react with the neutrai amines in the
trapping cell by setting a reaction delay, resulting in the formation of complexes. The
reaction delay was typically 2 seconds. Following this delay, either the complex of the
protonated chiral host with the chiral amine, or with the achiral reference amine, was
isolated in the trapping cell using standard RF shot ejections. The reaction of the isolated
complex with the neutral amines resulted in establishment of an equilibrium distribution
of complexes with the chiral and achiral amines (see Reaction 3-2). The reaction was
monitored as a function of time. All such reactions were carried out in both the forward
(achiral amine complex reacting with chiral amine to yield chiral amine complex) and
"reverse (chiral amine complex reacting with achiral amine to yield achiral amine
complex) directions. This procedure served to verify that true equilibrium was attained,
since if the system is at equilibrium, the same ratio of complex ions should be reached
regardless of the direction of approach. The equilibrium constant for Reaction 3-2 is
determined from the ratio of the peak intensities of the complexes and the measured
partial pressures of the two amines, as is shown in Equation 3-3. The sequence of the
above experiment is illustrated in Figure 3-4.
(RJZ or .S',5)-lH~*Cyclohexylamine (Ii) + (5 )-NapEtNH2 (Pi)
( ^ ^ o r 5 ,i> ltT ( 5 ')-NapEtNH2 (l 2 )
**
+ Cyclohexylamine (P2 )
59
(3-2)
R eproduced
with perm ission
prohibited without p e rm issio n .
o\
Q uench
Q uench
d ela y
Io n iza tio n
P o st-io n iz a tio n
d ela y
E jec tio n
R ea ctio n
D etectio n
d ela y
Time
Figure 3-4. Experimental sequence employed in chiral recognition experiments.
Here, P, is the pressure of the corresponding neutral amines, and /, is the mass
spectrometrically measured ion signal intensity of the corresponding adduct ions. The
degree of chiral recognition , AAC?s, is defined as the difference between the free energy
obtained for the two enantiomers,
A G r ,r .s
and AC?s.s-s, as is shown in Equation 3-4 (an
analogous expression can be written for AAG r , expressing the degree of preference of
the system toward (R )-NapEt).
A A G 5 = AC?R.R.s - A C ?s.ss ~ /?7Tn
R/r s
K -S .S - S
= -R T \n lRR-sIsS-'"
IS . S S I R .R - r t f
(3-4)
Here K is the corresponding equilibrium constant, and R and T are the ideal gas constant
and absolute temperature, respectively. As Equation 3-4 shows, AAC?s is obtained from
the ratio of the equilibrium constants for the two reactions, Krr .s and K s.s-s, respectively.
The pressures of the neutral amines are part of each equilibrium constant, but assuming
the pressures do not change during the measurements, these neutral pressures cancel in
the determination of the degree of chiral recognition, such that AAC?$ depends only on
the mass spectral intensities of the chiral and achiral reference complexes, Ir.r.s, Ir.r. ^
IS'S-s,
and h.s-refIf both host enantiomers are available, this is most easily accomplished
by flushing the electrospray source to remove the original enantiomer and then spraying a
solution of the other. This can be done rapidly enough (requiring perhaps 15 min) that the
partial pressures of the reference and chiral amines remain constant, so that the pressures
61
cancel as is shown in Equation 3-4. Cross-chiral recognition experiments were done for
chiral (/?)- and (S)-naphthylethylamine using both enantiomers of the chiral host.
3-3. Results
3-3-1. Adduct formation and proton transfer
Prior to working with the chiral ligands, a number of model protonated hosts were
surveyed for their ability to form complexes with neutral amines in the gas phase. The
hosts examined include unsubstituted 18-crown-6 (18C6), dicyclohexano-18-crown-6
(DC18C6, mixture of isomers), and dibenzo-l 8 -crown- 6 (DB18C6). The amines included
ammonia, sec-butylamine, tert-butylamine, cyclohexylamine, ethylenediamine,
1.3-
di ami nopropane, and 1,4-diaminobutane. Protonated 18C6 readily formed adducts with
all of the amines examined, but neither protonated DCI 8 C6 nor protonated DB18C6
formed adducts with any of the amines. A small amount of proton transfer from each of
the crowns to tert-butylamine was observed, but no other proton transfer reactions were
seen. These may be cases where proton transfer is sterically hindered and entropic
barriers make the reactions very slow .44 The chiral host shown in Figure 3-1 readily
formed adducts with all of the amines examined.
3-3-2. Chiral recognition in the naphthylethylamine system

All of the results shown here arise from recognition as a purely gas-phase process,
since all complexation and guest exchange took place in the gas phase, not in solution
prior to electrospray. Only protonated chiral crowns are generated by electrospray
ionization and transported into the cell. As has been stated, the reaction is monitored in
62
both the forward and reverse directions to make sure that real equilibrium is reached.
For example. Figure 3-5 illustrates the approach to equilibrium in the gas phase for
Reaction 3-2. In the left-hand frame, the complex of achiral cyclohexylamine with (RM)IH* was initially isolated and allowed to react with (/?)-NapEtNH?. In the frame on the
right, equilibrium was approached from the opposite direction; the (tf)-NapEtNH:
complex with (/?,/?)-I l f was isolated and allowed to react with achiral cyclohexylamine.
After about 20 s, the ratio of chiral guest complex to achiral guest complex attains a
roughly constant value of about 1 : 1 .
Figure 3-6 shows the mass spectra of amine exchange reactions of cyclohexylamine
and (/?)-naphthylethylamine with (5,5)-1 at various delay times. Mass 525, the complex
of (R)-naphthylethylamine with (5,5)-1, and mass 354, the protonated (5,5)-1, were both
ejected at the beginning of the experiment; only the mass 453 (complex of
cyclohexylamine with the chiral ligand) was left in the cell. From Figure 3-6a, it is
obvious that clean ejection was obtained. With increasing reaction time, the intensity of
the peak at mass 525 increased. After about 25 seconds, the intensity ratio of chiral
complex to achiral complex became stable, as can be seen from Figure 3-6b. These
spectra qualitatively demonstrate the processes of the amine-exchange equilibrium
experiment. Ejection of the protonated chiral host at the beginning of the experiment is
necessary; otherwise equilibrium cannot be reached within reasonable experiment time.
Figure 3-7 displays two mass spectra obtained under identical equilibrium conditions,
except that the upper spectrum was obtained while electrospraying (5,5)-1, while the
lower spectrum was obtained a few minutes later while electrospraying
63
Neutral
cyclohexylamine*R,fr1 H+ + fl-NapEtNH2
453.27
cyclohexylamine*/?,f?-1H+
/?-NapEtNH2*H,/?-1H+
1.0*0------------------------------------- r 6
525/453 ratio
1. 0 **
[-5
0. 8 -
0. 6 -
525/453 ratio
Intensity / I(lntensity)
o 525.28
cyclohexylamine + fl-NapEtNH2*fl,/?1H+
* *
D n
0.4
a a 0 D D s
2
.
0.2
aA a a a
A a
0 . 0 1
i i i | i i i i | i i i i | i i i i | i i i i | i i i i
10 20
30 40
50 60
0.0 ^
0
B - T - I " I - |- l - r - T - |- |- |- l - T
10 20 30 40
50
60
Reaction Delay, sec
Figure 3-5. A p p ro a c h to eq u ilib riu m in the forw ard (left fram e) and reverse (right fram e) d irectio ns.
Figure 3-6 (a). Mass spectra for exchange o l'c y c lo h e x y '
72
65
e anil /f-N apltlN lh
on (.S',.S')-111
time ( s)
at various delay times (0-25 sec)
R eaction
R eproduced
with perm ission
cn
i t V) o
i r -
ennu
mi
R e a c tio n tim e (s)
55
45
40
o\
35
On
prohibited
without p e rm is sio n .
T=T'
340
T =i
390
F ig u re 3 -6 (b). M a s s s p e c tra for e x c h a n g e ol c y c lo h e x y l a m in e a n d / l - N a p l i t N I l i o n (.S',.Sr)- 111* at v ario u s d elay tim e s (3 0 -5 5 sec).
R eproduced
with perm ission
Cyclohexylamine*S,S-1 H
achirai
= 4.0 0.4
Cyclohexylamine*/?,/?-! H+
prohibited without p e rm issio n .
achiral
460
480
= 1.2 0.4
500
520
m /z
Figure 3-7. M ass spectra obtained under equilibrium conditions for exchange of cyclohexylamine and (/?)-NapEtNH2 on
(S,S)-1H+ (upper spectrum) and (/=?,/=?)-1H+ (lower spectrum).
(/?)-NapEtNH2 and cyclohexylamine were present in the cell during both experiments.
The equilibrium ratios of chiral complex to achiral complex are clearly quite different in
the two cases, about (4.0 0.4): 1 for (5,5)-1 and about (1.2 0.4): I for (RJl)-1. Using
Equation 3-4, this corresponds to a AACfn of 3.1 0.4 kJ mol-1.
3-3-3. Cross-chiral recognition studies in the naphthylethylamine system

To further verify the observation of chiral recognition in this system, the cross-chiral
recognition relationship (the recognition of both (/?)- and (5)-NapEtNH:) was examined
using both (/?J?)-l and (5,5)- 1 . The results are shown in Table 3-1. The (/?)-NapEtNH2 is
bound, on average, 3.9 kJ mol' 1 more strongly by (5,5)-1 than by (RJt)-l. The results for
the (5 )-NapEtNH2 are in excellent agreement: it is preferentially bound by {RJZ)~ 1, by
essentially the same amount. The cross-chiral recognition relationship is vividly shown in
Figure 3-8. The degree of chiral recognition in this system is taken to be the average of
the absolute value of AACf x obtained for the system, 3.5 0.6 kJ mol'1. This value
should be valid at the temperature of the trapping cell at the time of the measurement
(300 K). The results are in close agreement with the AACf r value of 4.2 0.4 kJ mol' 1
obtained earlier for the NapEtNH 3 + system using ligand-exchange methods, 29 with an
estimate of 3.6 kJ mol' 1 from MM2 molecular mechanics calculations29 and with a
calculated difference of 2.9 kJ mol 1 between free energies of activation for dissociating
complexes of the two enantiomeric guests/
Cross-chiral recognition experiments were
also done by Sawda et al. using fast atom bombardment-double focusing mass
spectrometry, which verified the existence of cross-chiral relationships in a different hostguest system. 23
68
Table 3-1. Degree of chiral recognition of protonated dimethyldiketo-pyridino- lK-crown-6 for a-(l-naphthyl)ethylamine
-9.2 (kJ/mol)
(S )-NapEt
(/?X
4,N
Nv
/
-5.9
'
AAG = -3.3
M G = -3.7
v
X
(S*S)-1
(R)-NapEt
-8.2 (kJ/mol)
Figure 3-8. Cross-chiral recognition is observed for the chiral host [(RJZ) or (5,5)]-1 and
chiral amine[(S) or (/?)]-NapEt. AAG is the measured apparent free energy difference
between the enantiomer reactions of
and (5,5)-1 with (R)-or (5)-NapEt.
70
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
3-3-4. Chiral recognition in other amine systems

The procedures described above were used to characterize the recognition of other
chiral amines, with the results shown in Table 3-2. In every case, the guest with the
absolute configuration opposite that of the two host stereocenters was preferentially
bound. This is expressed in Table 3-2 as the hetero/homo ratio, which is the ratio of
observed equilibrium constants involving opposite absolute configurations to that
involving the same absolute configurations. This corresponds to the equilibrium ratio of
hetero to homochiral complexes which would be present when the chiral host reacts with
an excess of racemic guest. Table 3-2 also describes recognition using AAGx, as defined
above. The least-recognized guest was sec-butylamine, which has a AAGx value within
experimental error of zero, while NapEtNT^ was the best recognized.
3-4. Discussion
3-4-1. Comparison with results from ligand exchange experiments
The excellent agreement between the ligand-exchange results29 and those of the
present experiments for the NapEtNKb system gives us great confidence in these methods
for measuring chiral recognition. In addition, I note that in the ligand-exchange
experiments, complexes were formed by reaction of ammonium cations with neutral
crowns, while in the amine exchange experiments the complexes were generated by
reaction of protonated crowns with neutral amines. It is interesting to note that the degree
of chiral recognition is the same whether the proton is initially located on the chiral
crown or on the amine. This strongly suggests that both pathways lead to similar, if not
structurally identical, complexes. In retrospect, this is probably not surprising since one
71
Reproduced
with permission
Table 3-2. Degree of chiral recognition of chiral dimethyldiketopyridino-18-crown-6 for chiral amines*.
FABC
G a s p h a se
Chiral amine
Hetero/homob
preference
AAGk
kJ mol' 1
Hetero/homo
preference
M eth a n o l so lu tio n 11
Hetero/homo
preference
AAGr
kJ mol' 1
Aec-Butyl
1 .1
0 .2
0.3 0.4
Cyclohexylethyl
1.5 0.1
0.9 0.2
Phenylethyl
2.6 0.5
2.4 0.5
1.10
0 .0 2
1.7
1.3
Naphthylethyl
4.0 1.0
3.5 0.6
1.17 0.02
2 .6
2.4
= [AG(.SVY)-11f * (/l)-amine] - (AG(^,/^)-1H* * (/{)-amine]. All results at 300 K, reported as average standard
deviation for replicate measurements.b corresponding equilibrium constant ratio.c Reference 25 .d Reference 34.
* A A G r
would expect that the best hydrogen bond donor-acceptor sites in the complex would not
depend on the initial location of the proton.
The new method is clearly superior to the old one. First, it eliminates experimental
difficulties in achieving adequate vapor pressures of low-volatility host ligands, since the
ligand bears the charge and a stable vapor pressure of the nonvolatile material is not
required. Instead, only the relatively volatile amines need to be present as neutrals. As a
result, no heating of the vacuum chamber or of sample probes is required, removing
ambiguities in the temperature. Further, the electrospray method uses only a very small
quantity of chiral ligand. I have made no attempts to optimize sensitivity, but.
conservatively, less than
0 .1
mg of ligand is required for an entire series of experiments
with several different guests. This method is also very rapid, especially for screening
many hosts for recognition of a given guest. The main time limitation arises from the
time required to flush the electrospray source as host enantiomers are changed. The
biggest advantage of the new procedure is the elimination of a major potential source of
systematic error, inaccurate pressure measurements. For this advantage of the new
procedure to be fully realized, however, both enantiomers of the host must be available,
increasing the amount of effort which must be devoted to synthesis. If pressure
measurements are made carefully, the degree of recognition can be quantified using only
one host enantiomer, and all of the other benefits still apply.
3-4-2. Comparison with results from FAB experiments

Chiral recognition in the complexes of protonated (5,5)-1 with phenylethylamine and
naphthylethylamine has been investigated using fast atom bombardment (FAB) mass
73
spectrometry. 25 That study found the same preference for heterochiral complex formation
measured in this work, but the observed degree of recognition was much smaller than I
observed and is also significantly less than is observed in solution. The data are shown in
Table 3-2. As the authors of the FAB study noted, their results probably do not reflect
true equilibrium conditions. In addition, energy deposited during the FAB desorption
process renders the internal temperatures of the ions difficult, if not impossible, to
determine, and if the degree of recognition has a strong temperature dependence (as
seems likely), this might account for the differences. Allison34 pointed out that large
temperature increases are observed in the desorption processes of FAB experiments,
although traditionally, it had been thought that there is only a small temperature increase.
The smaller degree of chiral recognition in FAB may also arise from the complicated
nature of the reaction environment, 45 since all the sample materials and matrix are mixed.
The matrix may mask the recognition ability of the chiral host.
Comparison of the two methods suggests that the amine exchange equilibrium
methods presented here are a more sensitive measure of chiral discrimination than the
FAB methods and are a better source of quantitative equilibrium information.
3-4-3. Comparison with results from solution studies

Solution results are given in Table 3-2 for comparison with the gas-phase
experiments. Comparison with observations in methanol34 shows that the degree of
recognition is greater in the gas phase than in solution for both phenylethylamine and
naphthylethylamine.
This
corroborates
and
extends
the
earlier
74
report
for
naphthylethylamine using ligand-exchange methods, 29 where it has been pointed out that
solvation by an achiral solvent leads to decreased recognition.
3-4-4. Limitations to adduct formation

The adduct formation behavior of the chiral host used in this study is unusual. For
example, while adducts readily formed for unsubstituted 18C6 and for the chiral host
(S,S)-l, none were observed for DC18C6 or DB18C6. It is somewhat surprising that
substitution on the alkyl skeleton of the crown makes such a difference in adduct
formation. Steric hindrance might account for the differences, since both of the
unreactive crowns include bulky substituents.
A better rationalization may originate in the relative flexibilities of the various
ligands. The cyclohexyl- or benzo-substituted crowns are certainly less flexible than
either I 8 C 6 or the chiral host; I 8 C6 is quite flexible, with many energetically similar
low-lying conformations,46 and while the diketopyridino portion of the chiral host is
fairly rigid, the remainder of the molecule should be reasonably flexible and therefore
able to adopt conformations appropriate for binding the guests/
Although flexibility
seems to have little effect on binding affinities for alkali metal cations, 47 it is reasonable
to expect that orientational requirements would be much greater for the more directional
hydrogen bonds48,49 involved in these complexes than for electrostatically-bound, nondirectional alkali cation complexes. Previous gas phase studies of the binding of
oxonium 50 and ammonium 51 ions to crown ethers observed enthalpies and entropies of
complexation consistent with the formation of three hydrogen bonds in the complexes. In
addition, the ligand-exchange study29 has already pointed out that the affinity of 18C6 for
75
NapEtNH3+ is much greater than that of the more rigid dimethyldiketopyridino-18crown-6 .
3-4-5. Intrinsic factors influencing chiral recognition

The data of Table 3-2 provide insight into the effects of guest substituents on the
degree of chiral recognition, in the absence of ambiguities introduced by solvation. The
gas phase results arise only from interactions between the host and the guest; hence, they
are described as intrinsic interactions.
The gas phase complexation between crown ethers and molecular cation guests,
including oxonium50 and ammonium 51 cations, has been examined. Although the guest
ions in those studies were not chiral, many of the fundamental host-guest interactions are
similar, so the results are pertinent to the present work. For both oxonium and ammonium
guests, the enthalpies of complexation were large enough to suggest the formation of
multiple hydrogen bonds involving the oxygen donor groups of the crowns. For the 18crown- 6 complex with cyclohexylammonium, the multiple bonding contribution has been
estimated to be as great as
88
kJ m o l 1.51 Not surprisingly, the entropies of complexation
were found to be very large and unfavorable; for the reaction between 18-crown-6 and
H 30 + ,50 this was measured to be -230 J mol' 1 K '\ while for the reaction between
cyclohexylammonium and 18-crown-6,51 it was estimated to be -160 J mol' 1 K '1.1 expect
similar effects in the chiral systems examined here.
Prior work with sterically-hindered proton-bound dimers5" found that the enthalpies
of complexation did not vary appreciably with substituent steric bulk, but that the
entropies became increasingly unfavorable as substituents became larger and more and
76
more conformational space was sacrificed to allow favorable complexation geometries. It

is reasonable that similar factors may account for chiral discrimination in the current
systems. Molecular models, shown in Figure 3-9, suggest that it is not particularly
difficult for any of the host-guest enantiomeric complexes to achieve favorable binding
geometries, but it is likely that this occurs at the expense of entropically unfavorable
partial locking of methyl rotors, and it is probable that the degree to which this occurs
differs for enantiomers. It should be noted that locking effects were not observed in
proton-bound dimers of hindered, methyl-substituted pyridines,52 but it is likely that the
current chiral complexes require better-defined binding conformations than the pyridines.
Thus, chiral discrimination may be largely entropic in the chiral systems. This idea is
tested through variable-temperature experiments, as is discussed in Chapter 5.
As has been discussed above, in every case the guest with absolute configuration
opposite that of the two host stereocenters is bound in preference to the guest with the
same absolute configuration as the host stereocenters. Referring to Figure 3-10, there are
three regions in which an ammonium ion perched above the cavity of (5,5)-1 by three
hydrogen bonds can orient its substituent groups: region A, over the pyridino group,
region B, over the downward-pointing methyl group, and region C, over the upwardpointing methyl group. Region C, with the interfering methyl group, is clearly the most
sterically constrained. The relative degree of crowding in regions A and B is harder to
evaluate. The experimental results suggest region A of (5,5)-1 is less hindered than B.
For all of the guests in this study, the perched (R)-enantiomer can orient its largest
substituent toward region A and its smallest toward region C, while for the (5)enantiomer, only the less favorable orientation, with the largest substituent in region A
77
Reproduced
with permission
(S, SJ-1 fS/-NapEtNH J
(S,S)--\ ('RJ-NapEtNH 3
(S, S )-1 f'Sj-NapEtNH * side view
uncomp texed (S,S )-1
Figure 3-9. Space-filling models of uncomplexed (.V,S)-l and its complexes with (R)- and (.SyNapLitNHj' The guest molecule is
denoted by a bold outline. Arrows mark the close D--D' ' , 1 '' , 1 contact in the models of the homochiral complex. The side view
of the homochiral complex involves rotation of the top view by 9l) clockwise about a vertical axis.
Reproduced
with permission
(S.SJ-host
(flj-guest
(SJ-guesl
Figure 3-10. (.SVO-IH drawn with steric regions A, B, and C' outlined (referring to placement of the guest on top of the host), with
schematic depictions of (H)- and (.V)-gnests viewed with the C'-N bond axis pointing to the rear Large-, medium-, and small-sized
substituents are symbolized by L, M, and S, respectively
and the medium-sized substituent in C, is possible. Thus, if A is the least-hindered region,

sterics favor binding the (/?)-guest, as I have observed. On the other hand, if B is less
hindered than A, then the (/?)-enantiomer could not orient its largest substituent toward B
and its smallest toward C, while the (S)-enantiomer could, and would be favored. The
latter does not agree with the experimental results.
Consistent with these steric arguments, the smallest degree of recognition (essentially
none) is observed for sec-butylamine, which also has the smallest and most
conformationally mobile large substituent (ethyl). The ethyl group can easily rotate out
of the way of the chiral barriers on the host and so is ineffective at promoting recognition.
Change of the ethyl group to the considerably bulkier and less flexible cyclohexyl leads
to a significant enantiomeric preference (about 1.5:1) for the guest with absolute
configuration opposite to that of the stereocenters of the host. These complexes therefore
correspond to the three-point binding model initially described by Dalgliesh 1 and
proposed in a host-guest chiral recognition system by Cram3, wherein three hydrogen
bonds hold the perching guest in the host, and sterics account for the other two
interactions required for recognition. The relative sizes of the various regions above the
host determine which enantiomeric guest is preferred.
For guests that include a 7t-system, additional bonding is possible that may influence
recognition. As has been described above, the guests with 7t-systems have a greater
degree of chiral recognition, supporting experimentally the idea that the fourth binding
site will enhance the degree of chiral recognition .3 The magnitude of resonance
stabilization in gas-phase complexes of radical cations with aromatic neutrals can be
substantial: 25 kJ mol' 1 for the dimer of benzene radical cation with benzene and 15 kJ
80
mol' 1 for the dimer of naphthalene radical cation with naphthalene. 33 It is reasonable that
the Tt-system should play a role in chiral recognition by chiral dimethyldiketopyridino18-C-6. The electron-withdrawing keto groups make the pyridino moiety a weak rt-acid.
while both phenylethylamine and naphthylethylamine are weak rt-bases. Thus, in guests
where the Tt-system is present, there is substantial preference for orienting the aromatic
substituent toward region A to allow face-to-face
k - tz
interactions. Since the aromatic
group is also the bulkiest substituent, preferring orientation toward region A. the steric
and rt-effects reinforce each other, and again the binding of the (/?)-guest by (5,57-1 is
more strongly preferred than when crowding alone promotes recognition.
Comparison of the observed degree of recognition by the chiral host for
cyclohexylamine and phenylethylamine suggests that the presence of the rc-system in the
latter greatly enhances the degree of chiral recognition. Models of these two amines
indicate that the steric bulk of the cyclohexyl and phenyl substituents is roughly the same,
or perhaps slightly greater for the aliphatic amine, yet AAGqX more than doubles when the
cyclohexane ring is dehydrogenated to form phenylethylamine, corresponding to a
hetero/homo preference change from 1.5:1 to 2.6:1. The degree of recognition increases
further
when
the
t-system
is
more
extensive,
as
in
naphthylethylamine.
Naphthylethylamine is also the guest amine with the bulkiest substituent, but molecular
models, as shown in Figure 3-9, suggest that the size of the naphthyl group contributes
more toward allowing simultaneous hydrogen bonding and rt-overlap than it does toward
steric bulk.
81
All of these ideas are consistent with an entropic origin for chiral recognition, as
described above. Space-filling models of the complexes (Figure 3-9) suggest that partial
locking of the methyl rotors of the host and guest may occur upon complexation.
particularly in the homochiral complex. The difference in the degree of locking for the
two guest enantiomers, and thus in entropy, is likely greater for the tr-bonded systems,
accounting for the increase in recognition.
The aromatic amine guests comprise interesting examples of systems with a fourth
binding site3 (three hydrogen bonds plus the n-n interaction) for comparison with the
simpler
tripodai
systems
(such
as
the
recognition
of
sec-butylamine
and
cyclohexylethylamine): recognition, as quantified through the apparent free energy

difference between the two enantiomer reactions, more than doubles when the fourth
interaction (7t-7i) anchors the guest in the host and supplements the steric interactions.
3-5. Conclusions
Measurement of amine exchange equilibria offers a powerful new method for
evaluating chiral recognition in the absence of solvation effects and using only very small
amounts of sample material. Using protonated crowns and neutral amines, 1 found the
same results as were reported earlier when protonated amines reacted with neutral
crowns, suggesting that both sets of reactants lead to the same host-guest complexes. On
the basis of prior work with hindered complexes involving ammonium ions, including
complexes with crown ethers, I postulate that chiral recognition in these systems may be
largely entropic in origin. I have also demonstrated that
tz- k
interaction in the systems
studied leads to enhanced chiral recognition.

82
References
1. (a) Chiral Separations by Liquid Chromatography, Ed. Ahuja S. 1991, American
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K.;Wang, T.;
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16. Hua, S.; Chen, Y.; Jiang, L.; Xue, S. Org. Mass. Spectrom. 1986, 21, 7 - 10.
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19. Hofmeister, G.; Leary, J. A. Org. Mass Spectrom. 1991, 26, 811-812.
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K.; Misumi, S. Org. Mass. Spectrom. 1993, 28, 1525-1528.
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K. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 7726-7736.
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Chem. 1996, 68, 792-795.
26. Vekey, K.; Czira, G. Anal. Chem. 1997, 69, 1700-11705.
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28. Nikolaev, E. N.; Goginashvili, G. T.; TalRose V. L. Kostyanovsky, R. G. Int. J.

Mass. Spectrom. 1988, 86, 249-252.
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R. M. J. Org. Chem. 1984, 49, 353-357.
85
39. Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry: Fundamentals, Instrumentation and

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86
Chapter 4. Enantiomer Mixture Analysis and Chiral Recognition by

Electrospray Ionization-Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance
Mass Spectrometry and Fast Atom Bombardment Mass Spectrometry
4-1. Introduction
Differences in the chirality of a compound may result in quite different chemicalphysical and physiological properties. So it is important to have rapid, accurate analytical
techniques for determining enantiomeric excesses. Generally, enantiomeric recognition
methods can be classified into two categories: traditional solution methods and modem
mass spectrometric methods. Herein I report a rapid and sensitive method for identifying
enantiomeric mixtures by coupling micro-electrospray ionization and Fourier transform
ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry.
Various solution methods have been employed to detect chirality. These include
liquid membrane transport, 1 solvent extraction, 2-4 polarimetry,5 '6 circular dichroism ,6' 8
calorimetry,9' 11 NMR, 5' 12' 14 chromatography15' 16 and capillary electrophoresis. 17 However,
these solution methods generally require large amounts of sample. For example, liquid
membrane transport and extraction methods typically require about 50 mg, and
sometimes more than 100 mg is needed . 1' 3'5 In the same host-guest chiral recognition
system as I report herein, calorimetry generally required 20 mL of 0.1 or 0.01 M sample
solution (100-1000 mg of host) , 9' 11 and extraction NMR consumed about 10 mg. 3' 1" 13
Even the well-established chiroptical methods, polarimetry and circular dichroism, have
their disadvantages, and these limit their practical application. One disadvantage of
polarimetry is that it requires relatively large sample sizes. In a typical host-guest chiral
87
recognition experiment, 3.9 g of host and 3 g of guest were required to obtain satisfactory
results. 5 Also, the accuracy of polarimetry experiments is temperature- and solventdependent, so errors may arise from the concentration-dependence of the specific
rotation .6 Circular dichroism appears to consume less sample; the concentration of the
host and guest is about 0.10 mmol/1 in a typical experiment. 7 '8 Circular dichroism also has
a good detection limit of 0.1 pg/mL, but it is considered to be too selective to be applied
widely for practical analytical use, and it is not able to analyze racemic mixtures.6
Perhaps the common drawback of solution methods is the influence of solvent on the
degree of chiral recognition. 10 In conclusion about these solution methods, their common
feature is that they require large sample sizes, and the experimental results do not reflect
intrinsic chiral recognition properties because of solvent effects.
My recent chiral recognition study using electrospray ionization Fourier transform
ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry not only solves the problem of ionizing
nonvolatile compounds, 23 but also allows us to characterize the makeups of chiral
mixtures quite easily. Herein I report results of my study of electrospraying different
makeups of enantiomeric mixtures, and the relationship between the degree of chiral
recognition and the makeup of the mixtures. The results of a chiral recognition study
using fast atom bombardment-double focusing mass spectrometry will also be presented.
4-2. Experimental
4-2-1. Experimental setups for chiral-mixture analysis
88
The instrument used was a Bruker Apex 47e Fourier transform ion cyclotron
resonance mass spectrometer. Details about this instrument have been described
elsewhere. 23 The ions are generated using a commercial electrospray source (Analytica,
Branford, CT; and Bruker Daltonics, Billerica, MA) modified for microspray with a 50
pm i.d. fused silica capillary tip. Typically. 1.3 kV is applied to the capillary tip. and the
electrospray flow rate is 10 pL/h. Electrospray-generated ions are first transported to a
hexapole ion trapping device and accumulated, and then transferred to the trapping cell by
electrostatic focusing lenses. The typical ion accumulation time in the hexapole is 0.1 s.
Use of the hexapole increases sensitivity substantially, so that the experiment time
required for optimizing the ion signal is reduced. All experiments were performed at
room temperature (about 300 K).
Both enantiomers of chiral dimethyIdiketopyridino-l8 -crown- 6 [referred to as
(RM)-1 and (5,5) - 1 herein] were used as host and electrosprayed to generate the
protonated ions. The synthesis of this chiral host has been described.4' 5-a-( lNaphthyl)ethylamine (purity > 99%, referred to as 5-NapEt herein) was purchased from
Fluka, and cyclohexylamine (purity > 97.9%) was purchased from Fisher. Figure 4-1
shows the structures of the host and guest. All chemicals were used as supplied, with the
exception that they were purified through several freeze-pump-thaw cycles prior to being
introduced into the vacuum system.
Experimental procedures similar to those used here have been described.^ However,
the unique features of my current experiment will be discussed here. Mixtures of known
amounts of the enantiomers of (RJi)-l and (5,5)-l were prepared in 80:18:2
89
^ N
CH,
V .^
CL
*?
N
CH-,
'O
NH,
(5 ,5 )-Dimethyldiketopyridino-l8 -C - 6
R- or S-l-( 1 -Naphthyl)ethylamine
Figure 4-1. Structures of the chiral crown (host), chiral amine (guest) and tnpodal
hydrogen bonding between the host and the guest.
90
methanol/water/acetic acid and electrosprayed to generate protonated chiral crowns. The

total concentration of the mixtures was 0.1 mg/mL, which is the sum of the two
enantiomers. All of the solutions were prepared using syringes (Hamilton). The
protonated chiral crowns were allowed to react with 5-NapEt and cyclohexylamine to
form adducts. One of the adducts was then isolated and allowed to react with the neutral
amines. Since the enantiomers have identical masses, the observed intensity of a peak was
contributed to by both enantiomers. The apparent reaction in the cell is as follows:
[(R Jiyi + (S.SMlH^Cyclohexylamine di) + S-NapEt (Pi)
*=*
[(/?,/?)-! + (S,5)-l]HVS-NapEt (I2 ) + CyclohexylaminefP^)
(4-1)
The difference between different enantiomer mixtures was determined by measuring the
apparent equilibrium constant, K, of Reaction 4-1. K = (PdzVfPiIi), where P, is the
corresponding pressure of the amines, and Ij is the corresponding mass spectrometric
intensity of the reaction complexes. As has been described,22 -3 the reaction is observed in
both forward and reverse directions. Characterization of the chiral mixtures was done
through interpretation of the apparent equilibrium constant of Reaction 4-1. Chiral
mixtures having different (/?,/?)-1 and (5,5)-1 makeups should have different apparent
equilibrium constants, as will be shown .
4-2-2. Experimental procedures for FABMS experiments

In the FABMS experiments, the instrument used was a Jeol JMS-SX102A double
focusing mass spectrometer. The instrument was equipped with a Jeol MS-FAB 10 FAB
91
gun,
and
the
source
pressure
was
typically about
10'6 Torr.
(5,5)-
Dimethyldiketopyridino-18-crown-6 [(5,5-1)] was used as chiral host, and nitrobenzyl

alcohol (purity > 98%) was purchased from Aldrich and was used as supplied. The
perchlorate salts of (/?)- and (5)-naphthylethylamine (NapEt) and benzylamine were used
as received from Dr. Jerald S. Bradshaw and Dr. Reed M. Izatt. The preparation of these
salts has been described.12 The ammonium salts were dissolved in methanol (HPLC
grade, Mallinckrodt), and the concentrations of
/?-NapEtNH3 +, 5-NapEtNHj" and
benzylNH3+ were 0.10 M, 0.10 M and 0 .11 M, respectively. The chiral host was dissolved
in 80:17:3 methanol/water/acetic acid with a concentration of 0.014 M (5 mg/mL). All of
the solutions were prepared using syringes (Hamilton).
In a typical FABMS experiment, the sample solution was prepared by mixing the
following solutions: 3 pL of 0.014 M (5,5)-1, 5 pL of 0.10 M 5-NapEt, 5 pL of 0.11 M
benzylamine and 13 pL of nitrobenzyl alcohol (matrix). The mixture was thoroughly
mixed using an ultrasonic vibrator and allowed to equilibrate for at least 24 h. Figure 4-2
illustrates the procedures for the FABMS experiments. The double focusing mass
spectrometer was operated at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV with a mass range of 2201000. Xenon was used as the fast atom beam accelerated to 3 kV with an emission
current of 20 mA. Scans were collected for 10 min (20 min in some experiments) with a
scan rate of 10 s/decade. About 15 scans were averaged to obtain the intensity ratio for
each enantiomer in a single run and the final RPI value is the average of several runs. The
experiment was done in such a way that once the spectra for one enantiomer guest (5NapEt, for example) was collected, the experiment was quickly switched to the other
92
Chiral host
Chiral guest (amine)
Achiral guest (amine)
Mixed solution
FAB tip
Figure 4-2. Sample preparation for chiral recognition using FABMS.
93
Matrix
enantiomer guest (/?-NapEt, for example). The degree of chiral recognition was
determined by the relative peak intensities (RPI) of the adducts of the two enantiomeric
reactions. The RPI value is the ratio of the chiral adduct to achiral adduct for the two
reactions, as shown in Reactions 4-2 and 4-3, and Equation 4-4.
(5,S)-1 5-NapEtNHj" (I i) + Benzylamine ^
(5.5)-lBenzylamineFT (I:) +
S-NapEtNFE
(4-2)
R-NapEtNTT
(4-3)
(5,5)-lR-NapEtNH3'K(Ii) + Benzylamine =*=*

(5.5)-lBenzylammeH* (I2) +
The experiment was switched between the two enantiomer reactions, so that effects of
instrument fluctuation could be minimized. The relative peak intensity ratio of chiral
adduct to achiral adduct is RPIs = Ii/E for Reaction 4-2, and RPIr = l\flz for Reaction 4-3.
The degree of chiral recognition was determined as shown in Equation 4-4.
Degree of chiral recognition =
RPIr
i\P L^
(4-4)
4-3. Results and discussion

4-3-1. Results and discussion for chiral-mixture analysis by ESI-FTICR/MS
Mixtures containing different concentration ratios of enantiomers of (R.R)-l and
(S,S)-1 were electrosprayed. 5-NapEt was introduced into the background, and
cyclohexylamine was used as a reference. Shown in Figure 4-1 are the structures of the
chiral host and chiral guest and their complex. Figure 4-3 shows typical equilibrium mass
spectra at different enantiomer concentration ratios. The peak at mass 453 is the complex
94
of chiral host mixture with reference achiral amine (cyclohexylamine), while mass 525 is
the complex of the chiral host mixture with the chiral amine, S-NapEt. Since enantiomers
of (/?,/?)-1 and (S,S)-1 have the same molecular mass, the observed peak intensity is
actually the sum of the complexes of (RJi)-1 with amine and (S,5)-l with amine. From
the spectra shown in Figure 4-3, it is clear that different concentration ratios of the
enantiomers result in different intensity ratios of chiral host-chiral amine complex to
chiral host-achiral amine complex. The intensity ratio increases with increasing (R.R)-l
concentration. This is in agreement with what I observed in my previous experiments;" "J
that is, (RJl)-1 binds S-NapEt more favorably than (S,5)-l does. My previous experiment
also shows that cross relationships exist in this chiral host-guest system . 2-5 The
identification of the chiral mixtures is interpreted in terms of apparent equilibrium
constant, K. From the data shown in Table 4-1, Kexp is the experimentally measured
apparent equilibrium constant, K ^ [c is the calculated apparent equilibrium constant by
using the derived mathematical model, Afpred is the predicted apparent equilibrium
constant from linear fitting, Kcxp-Ka ic is the difference between the experimentally
measured apparent equilibrium constant and the calculated apparent equilibrium constant,
and ATexp-Kpred is the difference between the experimentally measured apparent
equilibrium constant and the predicted apparent equilibrium constant. The differences are
small relative to normal experimental error. Figure 4-4 shows therelationship between
measured apparent equilibrium constant, ATexp, and (RJl)-1 concentration with a linear fit
to the experimental data.
95
Intensity ratio (chiral adduct/achiral adduct)
(mg/mL) (5,^)-l(mg/mL)
14.5
JI
4.7
0.05
0 05
0.02
JL
CyclohexylNHnr^^- t+^.J-1
3.08
T-N apEt+i^-l+ST-l
2.7
440
3.02
i_
^ 1
0.08
7.7
n ------ ,------,------------ j------ :-----
0.0
11.0
1
0.1
3.1
3.0
i
L
1 i
49 0
""
!1
540
i'
---------
:
i
m /z
Figure 4-3. Mass spectra of chiral mixtures with various enantiomer ratios. The total
concentration of the mixture
and (S^S)-1] is 0.1 mg/mL. The intensity ratio
shown in the spectra is the ratio of chiral adduct to achiral adduct.
Reproduced
with permission
T ab le 4-1. S u m m a ry o f ex perim ental a p p a re n t equilibrium c o n stan t (A^p), p re d ic ted ap p a ren t equilibrium co n stan t (A pica), and
ca lc u lated ap p a ren t equilibrium co n stan t (Ac,u).
(R,R)-\ C o n c . f
Kcxp
Apicii
Rcak
A CXp-/wp(cj
K-cxp-K-calc
m g /m L
0 .0
5.9 0.2
5.5
5.9
0.4
0.0
0 .02
10.3 0.2
10.4
10.8
-0 1
-0 .5
0.05
17.0 0.3
17.8
18.1
-0 .8
- 11
0.0 8
25.2 0 6
25 1
25.5
0 1
-0 3
0.1
30.4 0.2
30 0
304
0.4
00
t T h e s u m o f (R,R)-\ co n c e n tra tio n an d (S,S)-\ c o n c e n tra tio n is 0.1 m g /m L in e a ch e n a n tio m e r mixture.
35 - r
30
I 20
c
ou
* Kcalc
4 Kexp
Linear (Kexp.)
3
C
L,
3C.
<
Cl
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
(RJt)-1 concentration, mg/mL
Figure 4-4. Relationship between equilibrium constant, K, and chiral host [(ICR)-1 in this
example] concentration (A!caic = 59.0 Css + 303.5 Crr)- Y = 245.4 Cr#
5.5 is the
equation obtained from linear fitting of experimental data. Css and Crr are the
concentrations of (ICR)-1 and (S,S)- 1 , respectively.
98
4-3-1-1. Mathematical model derivation

Electrospray ionization is a concentration dependent process. The characteristics of
the electrosprayed solution, including analyte concentration, conductivity, solvent, pH,
and the electrospray parameters, such as solution flow rate, and voltages applied on the
spray capillary and interface, may affect the observed ion signal intensity. 2 6 0 0 Other
factors, such as the transfer rate of ions from the droplet to the gas phase, the efficiency of
conversion of droplet charge to gas phase ions and the ion transmission efficiency of the
ion transport system were also considered. A comprehensive mathematical model has
been proposed to consider most of the above mentioned factors. 29"30 Experimental data in
the low concentration range (10'8 -5xl0 '6 M) are in agreement with those predicted using
the proposed equation. The equation also provides valuable predictions in the high
concentration range (105 -10'2 M). However, the electrospray ionization process is
complicated. Its mechanism is not completely understood presently, and is hardly
complete. The situation in my experiment is quite different, since the ions of interest are
similar in size and exist in the same environment. They differ only in absolute
configuration. The two enantiomeric ions also have the same ionization and transport
experience until they are trapped in the cell. Therefore, I can assume that all of the factors
determining the observed ion intensity are the same except the dependence on the
concentration ratios of the two enantiomers. This assumption makes my derivation quite
easy. The empirically derived mathematical model relating enantiomeric makeup to
apparent equilibrium constant is given in Equation 4-5. The detailed mathematics can be
seen in the Appendix at the end of this chapter.
99
tfc a ic
= 59.0 Css + 303.5
rr
(4-5)
Here Css and Crr are the concentrations of (5,5)-1 and (RJ?)-l in the enantiomer
mixture, respectively. The calculated equilibrium constant, Kîc, from the derived
mathematical model (Equation 4-5), and the difference between the measured equilibrium
constant (ATeXp) and the calculated one (K ^lc), are shown in Table 4-1. ATexp, ^Tcaic and Kpred
are in agreement. The differences between them can be considered to be within
experimental error, as can be seen in Table 4-1. Figure 4-4 is a linear fit to the
experimental data. Good linearity is obtained by using this simple linear fitting method.
The relative standard deviation for the slope is 2.6%, with a correlation coefficient of
0.999 (R) at 95% confidence level.
4-3-1-2. Reaction characteristics of enantiomer mixtures with amines

The ability of the chiral host used in my experiment to recognize chiral amines has
been studied both in solution and in the gas phase. 10'21'22'23 These previous experiments
found that naphthylethylamine has the greatest degree of recognition compared with
several other amines. 23 The fundamental factors contributing to the chiral recognition
ability of the chiral host have been discussed extensively in Chapter 3.
4-3-1-3. Features of the experimental approach

Several features characterize my experimental method. The results are quite straight
forward. The relationship
between the apparent equilibrium constant and the
concentration of one of the enantiomeric components can be described using either the
100
derived mathematical model or the simple linear fitting method. Once the apparent
equilibrium constant of an unknown mixture is measured, the concentrations of the
enantiomers can be obtained. It is easy to characterize host enantiomer mixtures by using
pure standard guests, or to characterize guest mixtures by electrospraying pure
standard hosts. Second, this takes advantage of recent developments in electrospray
ionization. It is easy to generate protonated ions by electrospraying the solution (typically
0.1 mg/mL), so the volatility of the host sample is not a factor. When micro-electrospray
is used, the signal stability and sensitivity are greatly increased, and sample consumption
is greatly reduced. With a typical syringe flow rate of 10 pL/h, less than 5 pL sample is
enough for the experiment. This experiment is fast, 10-20 min are sufficient to measure
one unknown mixture. Once the background amine pressures are stable, a large number
of unknown mixtures can be sprayed and characterized. The third feature of the method is
that absolute pressure measurements are not necessary, as can be seen from Equation 4-5.
Although I need the pressure ratio of the two amines to obtain /sTexp, I assume that the
pressure gauge responses to the two amines are the same. Since the experiment is
performed quickly, and only the pressure ratio is required, uncertainties with regard to
pressure fluctuations are minimized. It is worth mentioning that my experimental
approach also has the unique advantage of providing a purely gas-phase identification
process. Solvent effects and the matrix effects of FABMS do not exist in my approach.
This is a quite sensitive method considering the attomole sensitivity of electrospray. 25
I have not specifically optimized the sensitivity of this enantiomeric mixture analysis
method, but it is clear that my experimental method is at least
100
times more sensitive
101
than the solution methods, 1' 3' 10' 11 and I estimate that 5% contamination in a pure
enantiomer can be easily quantitatively detected. Although the sensitivity of my method is
not as good as that of chromatographic methods, which can analyze enantiomer mixtures
at 1 % impurity levels, 16 my method consumes less chiral material, while chromatography
generally requires the preparation of a chiral stationary phase or mobile phase, and
requires larger amounts of sample material. Also, chromatography alone cannot identify
the contaminant, therefore mass spectrometric identification is sometimes required.
4-3-2. Results and discussion of the FABMS experiments

Amine exchange equilibrium is used in the FABMS experiments, as shown in
Reactions 4-2 and 4-3. The relative peak intensity ratio (RPI) of chiral adduct to achiral
adduct is stable over long experiment times. Shown in Figure 4-5 is the relative peak
intensity ratio of chiral adduct to achiral adduct over a 10 min experimental period. The
RPI value is frequently stable over the course of a 20 min experiment. In practical
applications, less than 5 min should be enough to obtain reliable data. Figure 4-6 includes
the mass spectra obtained for the reactions of (5,5)-1 with /?-NapEt and (5,5)-1 with 5NapEt. The peaks at mass 354, 461 and 525 correspond to chiral host, chiral hostbenzylamine adduct and chiral host-chiral amine adduct, respectively. Other peaks are
either matrix peaks or trace impurities. The results are summarized in Table 4-2. The
degree of chiral recognition is much larger than that reported using a host exchange
system , 21 which found a stability constant ratio of 1.17 compared with the RPI ratio of
1.83 observed in my experiments. The results from both ESI-FTICR/MS and FABMS are
102
(S,S)-1 -S-NapEt
a (S,S)l-R-NapEt
0.9 -r
0 .8
,__,
a. 0.7 w
O
ee
u. 0 . 6 ->
C/3
4) 0.5 -
II
1J i J I | J I J J I { { I
-ueed
<
a.D 0.4 D
>
.2 0.3 0 .2
1- - - - - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - i
10
11
Time, min
Figure 4-5. Recognition of chiral naphthylethylamine (NapEt) by dimethyldiketopyridino18-crown-6 [(5,5)-1] using FABMS (concentration ratio = guest/host = 25). The relative
peak intensity ratio (RPI) is the intensity ratio of chiral complex to achiral complex.
103
Figure 4-6. FAB mass spectra (average of 16 scans) for a mixture of chiral host [(5.5)-1],
chiral amine and benzylamine. Top: mixture with /?-NapEt, chiral adduct/achiral adduct =
0.86 0.01; Bottom: mixture with 5-NapEt, chiral adduct/achiral adduct = 0.46 0.01.
Masses 354, 461 and 525 correspond to protonated chiral host [(5,5)-!], chiral hostbenzylamine adduct, and chiral host-chiral amine adduct, respectively. Mass 391 is a matrix
peak.
104
Reproduced
with permission
Table 4-2. Chiral recognition in terms of relative peak intensity (RPI) by fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry.
G u e s t/h o s t ratio
( C o n e .)
RPls
R P Ik
F A B results*
F T 1 C R results
(R P Ik/R Pls)
(RPIk/RPIs)
0 .4 6 1 0 .0 1 *
0 .8 5 1 0 . 0 1 *
1.83 0 . 0 5 *
0.51 0 . 0 3 c
0 .8 8 0 .0 2 c
1 .7 4 1 0 .1 1 c
3.3 0 . 4
15
25
prohibited without p e rm is s io n .
37
0.41 0 . 0 1 *
0.83 0 . 0 2 *
2 .0 2 1 0 .0 7 *
0.43 0 . 0 1 b
0 .8 4 0 . 0 3 b
1.96 0 .0 8 b
0 .3 8 0 01 *
0 .7 4 1 0 01 *
1 .9 0 1 0 .0 7 *
0 .4 0 1 0 .0 1 b
0.71 0 . 0 2 b
1 .7 8 1 0 .0 8 b
0 .4 0 1 0 .0 1 *
0 .7 8 1 0 .0 4 *
1 .9 5 1 0 .1 2 *
0.41 0 0 1 b
0 .7 6 1 0 . 0 3 b
1.84 1 0 .0 9 b
* Chiral host is (iSVV)-dimethyldiketopyridino-18-C-6

a. Short term (10 scans) average value.
b. Long time (10 min) average value.
c. Long time (60 scans) average value
in agreement. Both methods suggest the preference for heterochiral complex formation:
that is, (RJl)-1 binds S-NapEt more strongly than (S,S)-1 does, and vice versa.
The nature of the FAB process24 31 leads to ambiguities in the experiments. One can
not be sure whether the recognition occurred in solution, in the selvedge region, or in the
gas phase. It is possible that all three play a role . 24'34 Despite the ambiguity about its
exact mechanism, study of the application of FABMS to chiral recognition has been
extensive /
2'33
Although the FAB matrix could affect the intensity of the ions produced,
when FAB is applied to chiral recognition, matrix effects should be minimal, because the
target molecules are chiral, and the enantiomers show the same reactivity toward an
achiral matrix. As has been pointed out, the RPI method essentially measures two
reactions, assuming the solution environment and experimental conditions are the same
for both enantiomers. The effect of the matrix and other achiral participants in the mixed
solution on the enantiomer pairs should be the same. This ubiquitous advantage can only
be achieved when FAB is applied to chirality studies. Fenselau et al. 24 pointed out that no
matter what mechanism dominates the FAB ion formation process, most researchers
assume preformed ions in solution, practically. Based on comparison with my FT-ICRMS
results, which clearly come from gas phase processes,
I believe enantiomeric
discrimination in FAB occurs primarily in solution, with possible contributions from

other regions. The degree of recognition in FABMS is much smaller than that in the gas
phase, as is shown in Table 4-2, and is a little smaller than in methanol solution
(hetero/homo preference is 1.9 in FABMS and 2.6 in methanol solution). Thus, chiral
106
recognition studies can also be a unique method to probe the ion formation mechanism of
FAB.
Compared with the FABMS experiment, material consumption in the ESI-FTICR
experimental method is considerably lower. For example, FABMS21 typically employs a
host-guest complex concentration at 0.1 M level; while in ESI-FTICR. 0 .1 mg/mL (0.3
mM) total concentration of the enantiomeric mixture is sprayed. However, FABMS may
have the advantage of lower sample volume consumption over the electrospray ionization
method. A 1 pL sample is typically consumed in FAB, 18' 21 while in ESI-FTICR. a sample
solution flow rate of 10 pL/h is employed. Considering a 20 min experiment time, the
consumed sample volume is about 3 pL. The real advantage of FABMS is its simplicity
and speed, but the main disadvantage is ambiguity about the observed recognition, as has
been mentioned above. Other disadvantages of the FABMS method are a smaller
observed degree of recognition, and inability to obtain thermodynamic parameters that are
useful for explaining the factors contributing to chiral recognition. On the other hand, the
answers from ESI-FTICR are straightforward; it involves *pure gas phase processes,
there are no solvent or matrix effects, a greater degree of recognition is observed, and it
provides thermodynamic values to allow us to probe the factors contributing to the
recognition process. In summary, FABMS is suitable for fast-screening analysis, while
ESI-FTICR/MS can serve either as a fast screening method or as a method to study
intrinsic recognition results.
4-4. Conclusions
107
Characterizing chiral mixtures by ESI-FliCR/MS is a sensitive and fast method,

especially when the background amine is stable. Electrospraying the chiral mixture takes
only 10-20 min. This method can also be used to identify chiral amine mixtures, by
spraying an enantiomerically pure chiral host. Compared with FAB and most solution
methods, my experimental approach consumes less sample material. My method is at
least 100 times more sensitive than most solution methods. When only limited amounts
of sample materials are available, the ESI-FT1CR/MS method seems to be the best
choice. The electrospray ionization method is so sensitive that even a small amount of
enantiomer impurity could be determined.
Comparison of FABMS and ESI-FTICR/MS suggests that ESI-FLICR/MS is a more
sensitive measure of chiral recognition than FABMS and is a better source for
quantitative equilibrium information. ESI-FTICR/MS can also reflect pure gas phase
phenomena. FABMS also has unique advantages; it is simple and fast, and is useful as a
rapid screening method for identifying chiral compounds. FABMS has the potential to be
applied in academia and industry for routine chiral recognition analysis.
108
Appendix
The mathematics for deriving Equation 4-5 are as follows:
(5,5)- 1H+.Ref (Iss.Rtf) + S-NapEt (Ps) -
(5,5)-1 FT* S-NapEt (Iss-s) + Ref (PRef)
(1)
1BT-Ref (IRR.Ref) + 5-NapEt (Ps) -
(P,P)-1BT* 5-NapEt (IRR.S) + Ref(P*,/)
(2)
[(RJt)-1 + (5,5)-1 JBT.Ref (Iss-Ref+ W , / ) + 5-NapEt (Ps)
**
[(R Jt)- 1 + (5,5)-1 ]BT 5-NapEt (Iss-s + I r r . s ) + Ref(P,/)
(3)
Reactions (1) and (2) are the reactions occurring in the experiment, while Reaction (3) is
the actual reaction that is mass spectrometrically observed. The observed equilibrium
constant can be expressed as:
=
ob v
^ 5 S 5 ~l~
I RR*S
1SS*Re f
1 RRRc f
r S
Where /, is the mass spectrometrically measured ion intensity of the corresponding

complex, and P, is the corresponding pressure of the amine. The following assumptions
are made for the ion intensities:
Isss = Iss Css Ps
I r r *s
= I r r Crr P s
Iss-Ref = mss Css PRef
^RR*Rrf
~ m Mt Cgg P Ref
Where l%s is the chiral preference factor for (5,5)-1 with
-NapEt, lRR is the chiral
preference factor for (P,P)-1 with 5-NapEt, mss is the chiral preference factor for (5,5)-1
with reference amine, and mRRis the chiral preference factor for (RM)-i with the reference
109
amine. Css and CRR are the concentrations of (5,5)-1 and (R Jl)-1 in the enantiomer
mixture, respectively.
Because the chiral ligands react identically with the achiral
reference amine, no chiral effects can be observed (mss mRR). Substituting these
parameters into the observed equilibrium constant equation, the following general
equation is observed.
_ IssCss
m ( C ss + C r r )
Substituting the experimental equilibrium constants in Table 4-1 into the above equation.
Iss
= 5.9m.
Irr
= 30.35m. Substituting
lSs
and
Irr
into the above equation, the following
mathematical model is then obtained.

K , air
= 59.0 Css + 303.5
rr
110
References
1. Newcomb, M.; Toner, J. L.; Helgeson, R. C.; Cram, D. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1979,
/0/.4941-4947.
2. Gokel, G. W.; Timko, J. M.: Cram, D. J. J. C. S. Chem. Comm. 1975. 394-396.
3. Lingenfelter, D. S.: Helgeson, R. C.; Cram, D. J. J. Org. Chem. 1981. 46. 393-406.
4. Bussmann, W.; Lehn, J-M.; Oesch, U.; Plumere. P.; Simon, W. Helvetica Chimica
Acta, 1981, 64, 657-661.
5. Kyba, E. P.; Timko, J, M.: Kaplan, L. J.: Jong, F. D.; Gokel, G. W.; Cram, D. J. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 1978, 100. 4555-4568.
6
. Schreier, P.; Bemreuther, A.; Huffer, M. Analysis o f Chiral Organic MoleculesMethodology and Applications, 1995, Walter de Gruyter & Co.
7. Morozumi, T.; Shinkai, S. Chem. Letters, 1994, 1515-1518.

8
. Morozumi, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. 1994, 1219-1220.
9. Lamb, J. D.; King, J. E.; Christensen, J. I.; Izatt, R. M. Anal Chem. 1981. 53, 21272130.
10. Izatt, R. M.; Zhang, X. X.; Huszthy. P.: Zhu, C. Y.; Hathaway, J. K.: Wang, T.:
Bradshaw, J. S. J. Inclu. Phenomena & Molecular Recog. 1994, 18, 353-367.
11. Izatt, R. M.; Terry, R. E.: Nelson, D. P.; Chan, Y.; Eatough, D. J.; Bradshaw, J. S.:
Hansen, L. D.; Christensen, J. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1976, 98, 7626-7630.
12. Davidson, R. B.; Bradshaw, J. S.; Jones, B. A.; Dailey, N. K.; Christensen, J. J.; Izatt,
R. M. J. Org. Chem. 1984, 49, 353-357.
13. Huszthy, P.; Bradshaw, J. S.; Zhu, C. Y.; Izatt, R. M.; Lifson, S. J. Org. Chem. 1991,
111
56, 3330-3336.
14. Li, Y.; Echegoyen, L.; Martinez-Diaz, M. V.; Mendoza, J. D.; Torres, T. J. Org.
Chem. 1991, 56, 4193-4196.
15. Sogah, G. D. Y.; Cram, D. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1979. 101, 3035-3042.
16. (a) Ahuja, S. Chiral Separations by Liquid Chromatography, ACS Symposium Series
471, 1991; (b) Sousa, L. R.; Sogah, G. D. Y.: Hoffman, D. H.: Cram. D. J. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 1978, 100, 4569-4576.
17. Kuhn, R.; Emi, F.; Bereuter, T.; Hausler, J. Anal. Chem. 1992, 64, 2815-2820.
18. Sawada, M.; Okumura, Y.; Shizuma, M.; Takai, Y.; Hidaka. Y.; Yamada. H.; Tanaka,
T.; Kaneda, T.; Hirose, K.; Misumi, S.; Takahashi, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993,115,
7381-7388.
19. Sawada, M.; Takai, Y.; Yamada, H.; Hirayama, S.; Kaneda, T.: Tanaka, T.; Kamada.
K.; Mizooku, T.; Takeuchi, S.; Ueno, K.; Hirose, K.; Tobe, Y.; Naemura, K. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 1995, 117. 7726-7736.
20. Sawada, M.; Okumura, Y.; Yamada, H.; Takai, Y.; Takahashi, S.; Kaneda, T.; Hirose,
K.; Misumi, S. Org. Mass. Spectro. 1993, 28, 1525-1528.
21. Pocsfalvi, G.; Liptak, M.; Huszthy, P.; Bradshaw, J. S.; Izatt, R. M.; Vekey, K. Anal.
Chem. 1996, 68, 792-795.
22. Chu, I-H.; Dearden, D. V.; Bradshaw, J. S.; Huszthy, P.; Izatt, R. M. J. Am. Chem.
Soc. 1993,115,4318-4320.
23. Dearden, D. V.; Dejsupa, C.; Liang, Y.: Bradshaw, J. S.; Izatt, R. M. J. Am. Chem.
Soc. 1997,119, 353-359.
112
24. Fenselau, C.; Cotter, R. J. Chem. Rev. 1987, 87, 501-512.

25. Valaskovic, G. A.; Kelleher, N. L.; Little, D. P.; Aaserud, D. J.; McLafferty, F. W.
Anal. Chem. 1995, 67, 3802-3805.
26. Blades, A. T.; Ikonomou, M. G.; Kebarle, P. Anal. Chem. 1991. 63. 2109-2114.
27. Kebarle, P.; Tang, L.. Anal. Chem. 1993, 65. 972A-986A.
28. Ikonomou, M. G.: Blades, A. T.; Kebarle, P. Anal. Chem. 1991, 63, 1989-1998.
29. Tang, T.; Kebarle, P. Anal. Chem. 1991, 63, 2709-2715.
30. Tang, L.; Kebarle, P. Anal. Chem. 1993, 65, 3654-3668.
31. Szekeley, G.; Allision, J. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 1997, 8, 337 - 351.
32. Sawada, M. Mass Spectrm. Rev. 1997, 16, 73-90.
33. Dobo, A.; Liptak, M.: Huszthy, P.: Vekey, K. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 1997.
11, 889-890.
34. Fenselau, C. In Ion Formation from Organic Solids', Benninghoven, A.. Ed.:
Springer-Verlag: Berlin, 1983; PP 90 -100.
Chapter 5. Investigation of Enthalpy and Entropy Contributions to a

Host-Guest Chiral Recognition System
5-1. Introduction
Variable temperature experiments have traditionally been one of the most important
approaches to obtain thermodynamic information for chemical reactions. In ion-molecule
reactions, enthalpy and entropy changes have been determined by measuring equilibrium
constants at different temperatures.1" Thermodynamic parameters do not directly provide
structural information, but they do shed light on the nature of chemical reactions.
Although various mass spectrometry methods3-6 have been employed to study chiral
recognition in the gas phase, as has been described in Chapter 3. no enthalpy/entropy
measurements have been reported so far. In order to test our rotor locking hypothesis
(Chapter 3) , 6 we have developed vant Hoff techniques in a Fourier transform ion
cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer to determine the contributions of enthalpy and
entropy in the host-guest chiral recognition system. Herein for the first time, I report the
enthalpy and entropy information obtained from the vant Hoff experiment. Comparison
of the gas phase experimental results with solution results will also be discussed.
5-2. Experimental
This thermodynamic study was performed using a Bruker Daltonics (Billerica, MA)
Apex 47e Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer with a modified
temperature measurement system. Details of the instrument have been described in
Chapter 3. However, for clarity, the basics of the instrument and the modified
114
temperature measurement system will be described here. The instrument is equipped with
a 4.7 Tesla superconducting magnet and an ion source external to the high magnetic field
region. Ions are generated using a home-made micro-electrospray ion source. The source
is equipped with a zero-dead volume union mounted on an xyz translation stage.
Typically, a 50 pm i.d. fused silica capillary is used as an electrospray tip. The
electrospray tip is ground to be conical in shape. About 1.3 kV is applied directly on the
union. Ions are introduced into the high magnetic field region via a hexapole ion guiding
device and electrostatic focusing, and trapped in an infinity type6<c>cylindrical cell. The
employment of hexapole ion-guiding greatly enhances the sensitivity of the electrospray
source.
In order to do the variable temperature experiment, I modified the heating system of
the instrument. Figure 5-1 is a schematic diagram of the temperature measuring system.
A heater band (220 V, 100 W) was placed around the outside of the vacuum chamber,
just outside the cell. Copper-constantan thermocouples were inserted on both the front
and rear trapping plates of the cell. An OMEGA CN 9000A temperature controller was
used to control the rear (the left side of the cell as shown in the diagram) temperature
reading of the cell, and an OMEGA CL-505A temperature controller was used as a read
out of the front (the right side of the cell as shown in the diagram) temperature of the
cell. Both temperature controllers could be read to the nearest 0.1 C. No significant
temperature gradient across the cell was observed. The temperature difference between
the front and rear reading was generally less than
K at each experimental temperature.
In a typical experiment, temperatures at 22.0, 35.0, 50.0, 62.0, 75.0 and 88.0 C were
115
Cylindrical cell
4
To ion source
To amplifier
Thermocouple (front)
Thermocouple (rear)
Temperature readout (front)
Temperature controller (rear)
Figure 5-1. Schematic of temperature control setup. Temperature controller controls the
temperature at the rear of the cell; the front temperature controller is used as a readout
only.
116
employed. No temperatures higher than
88
C were used in this experiment, but
temperatures as high as 95 C were observed when the vacuum chamber was outside the
high magnetic field region (with the temperature controller set to 100 C).
The chiral ligand employed in the experiment was dimethyldiketopyridino-18-crown6
, and its synthesis has been described. 7 l 8 -crown- 6 was purchased form Sigma.
Cyclohexylamine (97.9%) and triethylamine (regent grade) were purchased from Fisher,
and (S)-naphthylethylamine (>99%) and (D)-methylbenzylamine (>98%) were purchased
from
Fluka.
Trimethylamine
(anhydrous)
was
purchased
from
Eastman.
1.4-
diaminobutane (99%) was purchased from Aldrich, and diethylamine (99%) was
purchased from Spectrum Chemical. All compounds were used as supplied without
further purification, with the exception that the amines were degassed through several
freeze-pump-thaw cycles prior to being introduced into the vacuum system.
The total pressure in the cell was typically 1 x 10' 7 mbar. The pressure ratio of the two
amines was carefully adjusted so that equilibrium could be reached in reasonable time.
Once the pressure was stabilized, the equilibrium experiment was started. Temperatures
were set using the rear temperature controller. Approximately 2 h were required to
stabilize the instrument at a new temperature. At all experimental temperatures, the same
pressure ratio was used, which was the pressure ratio set at the beginning of the
experiment.
In chiral recognition experiments, one enantiomer of the chiral host molecule [either
(5 ,5 ) - 1 or (/?,/?)-!] was micro-electrosprayed and the resulting ions were guided into the
trapping cell and captured. Typically, concentrations of 0.1 mg/mL in 80:18:2
117
methanol/water/acetic acid were electrosprayed. Details about the process have been
described elsewhere.6<a) When the experiment for one enantiomer was finished, the other
host enantiomer was electrosprayed. Two reactions were observed, as expressed in
Reactions (1) and (2). To obtain enthalpy and entropy information, the temperature
dependences of the equilibrium constants of the two reactions were measured at several
temperature settings.
(5,5)-1PTCyclohexylamine + (5 )-NapEtNH2
(5 ,5 )-lH +(5 )-NapEtNH2 + Cyclohexylamine
(I)
(i?J?)-l^Cyclohexylamine + ( 5 )-NapEtNH2 *=*

(RJ?)-ltTh*(5 )-NapEtNH2 + Cyclohexylamine
(2)
For Reaction (I), the equilibrium constant, Kss, can be measured easily from the
mass spectrometrically measured ion intensities and pressure ratios. For Reaction (2), the
equilibrium constant, KRR, can be obtained in the same way, as is expressed in Equation
(4).
SSS
C yclohcxN H -
S S mC \c lo h tx N H i
R RS
(3)
S - S a p E tN H
C yclu h exN H
R R * C \x lo h e x N H z
(4)
1 S - N a p E iN H :
Here l ss.s and I RR.S are the mass spectrometrically measured ion intensities of the
complexes of (5,5)-IPT and (RJi)- IPT with 5-NapEtNH,, respectively, and
118
I S S ^ C v c lo h a N H ,
and / RgmCyHohexJVH, ^
t*ie complexes of (5,5)-1H* and (/U?)-1FT with cyclohexylamine,
respectively. PCvct,*rxNH, and Ps_SapEsNH, are the pressures of cyclohexylamine and 5NapEtNH,, respectively. It is obvious that only the pressure ratio is required in the
calculation of equilibrium constants.
The free energy change, AGa, for each reaction at a given temperature can be obtained
from the following equation:
(5)
AG = -RTlnK
R is the gas constant, T is the temperature and K is the equilibrium constant. By

subtracting Reaction (1) from Reaction (2), the following reaction can be obtained:
(/?,/?)-1 H>Cyclohexylamine + (5,5)-lH*(5)-NapEtNH, *-*
(R,R)-lH**(5)-NapEtNH, + (5,5)-IH~*Cyclohexytamine
(6 )
Therefore, the free energy change (which is taken as the measure of the degree of chiral
recognition) for Reaction (6 ) can be obtained:
AG AGz - AGi = -R T I tiK rr - (-RTlnKss)
(7)
At a given temperature T, the standard free energy change for Reaction (6 ) is:
AG = AH - TAS
(8)
Combining Equations (7) and (8 ), the following equation is obtained:

(9)
119
From Equation (9), a plot of A G !T vs 1/T should yield a line with slope AH and
intercept -AS . The determined AH and -AS correspond to the enthalpy and entropy
changes for Reaction (6 ).
5-3. Results
5-3-1. Test o f the temperature measurement system
In order to test whether the temperature measurement system actually reflects the real
temperature in the cell, test reactions were studied. 1 The two proton transfer reactions are
shown in Reactions (10) and (11). In both reactions, proton transfer equilibria were
measured. The temperature dependence of the equilibrium constants was measured using
the vant Hoff technique. Figure 5-2 shows the vant Hoff plots for the proton transfer
reactions between trimethylamine and diethyiamine, and between triethylamine and 1,4diaminobutane. The results are summarized in Table 5-1. The results from both reactions
are in good agreement with literature values,' giving us confidence in the method.
(CH3 )3NH* + (C 2 H5)2NH
[NH2(CH2 XdSrH2]fT + (C 2 H5)3N
(CH3)3N
+ (C2 H5 )2 NH2"
(10)
NH2 (CH2)4NH 2 + (C 2 H5)3NFT
(11)
5-3-2. Variable temperature experiments on chiral recognition of organic amines

Variable
temperature
experiments
examined
chiral
recognition
of
S-
naphthylethylamine (S-NapEtNH2) and R-phenylethylamine (R-PhEtNH2). Figure 5-3

shows the structures of the crown ethers and amines. The reactions for S-NapEtNH2
120
Reaction I
* Reaction 2
2c
H -2 -O
o
<
-12
2.8
2.9
3.2
3.1
1000/T, KTl
3.3
3.4
3.5
Figure 5-2. vant Hoff plot for test reactions. Reaction 1: proton transfer reaction between
trimethylamine and diethylamine, AH0 = -4.2 0.9 kJ mol'1, AS = -5.9 2.9 J mol*1 K '1.
(CH3)3NH~ + (C2H5)2 NH - (C H ^N
+ (C2H5)2NH2'
(Reaction 1)
Reaction 2: proton transfer reaction between triethylamine and 1,4-diaminobutane, AH =
28.3 3.0 kJ mol*1, AS = 86.9 9.3 J mol*1 K*1.
j
H2N-(CH2)4-NH2----- 1+ (C2H5)3N H2N-(CH2)4-NH2 + (CzHsbNH* (Reaction 2)
H~
121
Table 5-1. Comparison of test reaction results with literature.

Reactions
AH (kJ mol'1)
AS (J mol' 1 K'1)
Trimethylamine and
Diethylamine (a)
This work
Literature(b)
Theoretical(b)
-4.2 0.9
-3.7
- 5.9 2.9
- 6 .8
- 6 .0
28.3 3.0
86.9 9.3
69.3 5.0
Triethylamine and
1,4-Diaminobutane(c)
This work
Literature (b)
2 2 .6
(a) proton transfer reaction between trimethylamine and diethylamine:

(CH3 )3NH* + (C2 H 5)2 NH ^
(CH3)3N
+ (C2 H5 )2 NH2~
(b) Wren, A. G.; Gilbert, P. T.; Bowers, M. T. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 1978, 49, 531- 536.
(c) proton transfer reaction between triethylamine and 1,4-diaminobutane:
H2N-(CH2 )4 -NH2----- + (C 2 H5)3N ^ H2N-(CH2 )4 -NH2 + (C2 H 5 )3 NH*
H~-
122
Chiral pbenyietbylamine
Chiral naphtbylethylamine
CH3
CH,
18-Crown-6
(5,5)-Dimethy Idiketopyridino-18-C-6
Figure 5-3. Structures of crown ethers and chiral amines.
123
are shown as Reactions (1) and (2). Similar reactions for R-PhEtNH2 can be obtained
[Reaction (12)]. The equilibrium reaction is observed in both the forward and reverse
directions, as has been described. 6 In our current experiment, the equilibrium reactions
were done at several temperature settings so that enthalpy and entropy information can be
obtained to understand the underlying thermodynamic factors that govern chiral
recognition. Figure 5-4 shows the vant Hoff plots for chiral recognition of S-N'apEtNH2
and /?-PhEtNH2. Table 5-2 summarizes the enthalpy and entropy changes in the chiral
recognition of S-NapEtNH2 and fl-PhEtNH2. The enthalpy change for chiral recognition
of S-NapEtNH 2 [Reaction (6 )] is -10.0 1.2 kJ mol-1, while the entropy change is
unfavorable: -20 3.9 J mol-1 K-1. The enthalpy change for the chiral recognition of RPhEtNH 2 [Reaction (12)] is -7.7 0.7 kJ mol-1, while the entropy change is -17.8 2.2 J
mol-1 K-1. The AS values for the two chiral amines are similar: only a slightly higher
enthalpy change is observed for ^-NapEtNH? than for #-PhetNH2. The contributions of
enthalpy and entropy in the recognition of the two amines are similar; that is, entropy
opposes chiral recognition and enthalpy favors recognition in both cases. The good
linearity of the vant Hoff plots shown in Figure 5-4 results from the excellent
temperature measurement system and the minimized errors from pressure fluctuations as
has been described.6 The correlation coefficients (R) for the linear fit in Figure 5-4 are
0.965 and 0.994 for S-NapEtNH2 and /?-PhEtNH2, respectively. The error for the enthalpy
measurement shown in Table 5-2 is the error of the slope of the vant Hoff plot, and the
error for the entropy measurement is the error of the intercept of the plot, with a 95%
confidence level.
124
AG/ T, J mol
-6.5 "
-10.5 - -12.5
-14.5 --16.5
2.65
2.75
2.85
2 .95
3.15
3.05
3.25
3.35
3 .4 5
3 .55
1000/T . IC
Figure 5-4. vant Hoff plots for chiral recognition of 5 -NapEtNFl2 and /?-PhEtNFl2 For
/?-PhEtNH2 , the reaction is:
(R.R)-1 FT**/?-PhEtNH2 + (5,5)-1 H*CyclohexyINH2 ^
(5,5) - 1 FT/^-PhEtNFk + (^)-lFTC yclohexylN H 2
For S-NapEtNH2, the reaction is.
(R ft)-1FTCyclohexylNFk + (5,5) - 1 FT*5-NapEtNH2 (5,5) - 1 FT CyclohexylNFl2 + (/?,/?)-1H~5 -NapEtNH 2
125
Table 5-2. Enthalpy (kJ mol-1) and entropy (J mol 1 K-1) changes for chiral recognition
of 5-naphthylethylamine (5-NapEtNH2) and /?-phenylethylamine (/?-PhEtNH2)
Guest
5-NapEtNH2
K-PhEtNH2
Value
(* * )-!
(5,5)-1
A H <a)
- 18.9 2.0
-8.9 0.9
A S (a)
-39.1 6.2
-19 1 2.6
A ( A H ) (b)
- 10.0 1.2
A ( A S ) (b>
-20.0 3 .9
18C6 (e)
A H (c)
2.5 0.2
-5.2 0.7
0.2 0.2
A S (c)
2.7 0.5
-15.1 2.3
- 3.7 0.7
A (A H ) (d)
- 7.7 0.7
A ( A S ) (d)
- 17.8 2.2
(a) AH and AS are the enthalpy and entropy changes for the reaction:
[(/tft)-lH ~or(5,5)-lH >CyclohexylN H 2 + 5-NapEtNH2
[(i^ )-lH " or (5,5)-lH~]5-NapEtNH2 + CyclohexylNH2
(b) A(AH) and A(AS) are enthalpy and entropy change differences between the two
enantiomers, which correspond to the following reaction:
(R,K)-\YT CyclohexylNH2 + (5,5)-1H*5-NapEtNH2 (R,R)-1FT5-NapEtNH2 + (5,5>lH**CyclohexylNH 2
(c) AH and AS are the enthalpy and entropy changes for the reaction:
[(i?^)-lH~ or (5,5)-1FT]CycIohexylNH2 + /?-PhEtNH2 ^
[(RJZ)-1H~ or (5,5)-1 H~]*7?-PhEtNH2 + CyclohexylNH2
(d) A(AH) and A(AS) are enthalpy and entropy change differences between the two
enantiomers, which correspond to the following reaction:
(5,5)-1H~CyclohexylNH2 + (/U?)-lH~tf-PhEtNH 2
(5,5) - 1 FT*7?-PhEtNH2 + (K R )- 1 H*CyclohexylNH2
(e) For the reaction of 18C6 with /?-PhEtNH2, AH and AS are for the reaction:
18C6FTCyclohexylNH2 + Z?-PhEtNH2 ^ 18C6/?-PhEtNH2 + CyclohexylNH2
126
(5,5)-1H*Cyclohexylamine + (RM)-1H+-(/?)-PhEtNH2
(5,5)-IFF (R)-PhEtNH2 + (RJt)-1H 1"Cyclohexylamine
(12)
5-3-3. Variable temperature experiment for reactions of 18-crown-6 with amines

The enthalpy and entropy changes for the reaction of 18-crown-6 with /?-PhEtNH2
were measured. Figure 5-5 is the vant Hoff plot for the exchange reactions. The results
are summarized in Table 5-2. The data are relevant for the direction of the formation of
18-crown-6 and phenylethylamine complex, as is expressed in Reaction (13). The
enthalpy change is 0.2 0.2 kJ mol-1, and the entropy change is -3.7 0.7 J mol 1 K!.
The results are as expected, based on Meot-Ners work on proton transfer reactions
between different amines. 8'9 Because both ammonium ions interact with the crown
through similar hydrogen bonds, the binding strength is expected to be similar. The
entropy difference is also reasonable, and can be understood qualitatively; compared with
the cyclohexyl group, the more bulky phenylethyl group causes l 8 -crown - 6 to lose more
degrees of freedom in order to achieve optimum hydrogen bonding geometry.
18C6FTCyclohexylNH2 + PhEtNH 2 ! 8 C 6 H+*PhEtNH2 + CyclohexylNH 2
(13)
5-4. Discussion
5-4-1. Temperature measurement
To measure the temperature dependence of equilibrium constants in variable
temperature experiments, accurate temperature measurement is essential. Since errors in
127
5.5
y
1 4 .5
^
4
3.5
3
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.4
3.6
1000/T, K'1
Figure 5-5. vant Hoff plot for the exchange reaction of 18-crown-6 with cyclohexyl
amine (CyclohexylNFb) and phenylethylamine (PhEtNH 2 ). AH0 = 0.2 0.2 kJ mol1, AS0
= -3 .7 0.7 J mol' 1 K' 1 for the following reaction:
1 8 C 6 H~CyclohexylNH2 + PhEtNH 2 ^
18C6H~*PhEtNH2 + CyclohexylNH2
128
pressure measurement are eliminated
in our experimental
setup ,6
temperature
measurement is probably the largest remaining source of error. In preliminary

experiments, I used the bake-out system to control the temperature, but the temperature
gradient across the cell was found to be as high as 20 C. The situation is compounded
because the pressure fluctuates with fluctuations in temperature. These factors cause
unacceptable uncertainty in the results. Therefore, a separate temperature controller was
used to control the cell temperature. Such an experimental setup minimizes the
temperature fluctuations to typically less than 0.5 C and makes the temperature
gradient across the cell very small. The latter is generally less than 2 C. Junction
potentials pose a possible problem in the temperature measurement, because the
thermocouples are connected through feedthrough pins into the high vacuum region. To
check whether junction potentials lead to significant errors, we calibrated the temperature
reading of the thermocouples through the feedthrough with a third temperature controller
connected directly to a thermocouple mounted on the cell. This was done with the cell
removed from the vacuum chamber. We found that the temperature readings for both
sides of the cell are in agreement with the reading from the third temperature controller.
Therefore, junction potentials arising from the feedthrough connection do not appear to
be significant.
5-4-2. Comparison of the test reaction results with literature values

The first test reaction is a proton transfer reaction between trimethylamine and
diethylamine. The enthalpy and entropy changes for this proton transfer agree very well
129
with Bowers experimental results and with theoretical calculations. 1 The results are
shown in Table 5-1. The second proton transfer reaction is between triethylamine and 1.4diaminobutane. In this reaction, a large entropy change is expected because the diamine
cyclizes upon protonation . 1 The entropy and enthalpy changes are in good agreement with
both Bowers results from the same r e a c t i o n a n d Kebarles results from similar
reactions.1" However, in our experiments the measurements were complicated by slow
formation of proton-bound 1.4-diaminobutane dimer, making the observation of true
equilibrium difficult. Problems from dimer formation were particularly evident at lower
temperatures. It has been pointed out that the way to judge whether or not the reaction
reaches equilibrium is by judging whether or not the forward and reverse reactions have
the same product ion/reactant ion ratio.6 However, in this reaction, only
1,4-
diaminobutane forms a proton-bound dimer. This perturbs the apparent equilibrium.

Fortunately, dimer formation is slow and the rate is strongly pressure-dependent. We
therefore adjusted the pressure ratio of the two amines to obtain satisfactory results.
Although the pressure ratio does not directly affect the equilibrium measurement, 1 careful
pressure ratio adjustment is essential when a second reaction competes with the desired
equilibrium reaction. The good agreement between the current experimental results and
the literature results, as well as with calculations, gives us confidence in the temperature
measurement system and the results of the chiral recognition experiment.
5-4-3. 18-crown-6 - amine exchange experiment
130
The results from achiral ligand-amine exchange experiments are shown in Table 5-2.
Cyclohexylamine and /?-phenylethylamine are the amines that were exchanged. Since
chiral molecules do not show chirality when reacting with an achiral molecule, no chiral
effect is expected when R-phenylethylamine reacts with l 8 -crown-6 . A very small
enthalpy change is observed for this achiral ligand-amine exchange reaction [Reaction
(13)], which is consistent with a previous complexation study of crown ethers with
amines.9 In the case of complexation with acyclic diethers, cyclohexylamine and
methylamine have almost identical enthalpy changes when experimental error is
considered. In the current study, cyclohexylamine and phenylethylamine both have -NTT
groups, so similar binding energy is expected. Our experimental results are consistent
with this. The slope of the vant Hoff plot is almost zero as shown in Figure 5-5. No
enthalpy change is observed for the amine exchange reaction.
The entropy change for the amine exchange reaction is - 3.7 0.7 J mol 1 K'1. which
is reasonable when the relative disorders of the two complexes are considered. Molecular
models suggest that the steric bulk of the cyclohexyl and phenyl groups is roughly the
same, 6 but in phenylethylamine, the phenylethyl group is more bulky than the cyclohexyl
group in cyclohexylamine.
Therefore,
more
steric
hindrance
is expected for
phenylethylamine. When l 8 -crown- 6 reacts with the two amines, more conformation
adjustment is required for it to have optimum hydrogen bonding with phenylethylamine;
therefore, more entropy loss is expected.
5-4-4. Chiral recognition experiments

131
The experimental results are in agreement
Enthalpy and entropy contributions.
with our previous results;6 that is, the host with absolute configuration opposite that of
the guest amines is bound in preference to the guest with the same absolute configuration
as the host stereocenters. In other words, the binding energy for the complex of (RJl)IHVS-NapEtNHj is larger than that for the complex of (5,5) - 1 FTVS-NapEtNHj. The
degree of chiral recognition for 5 -NapEtNH 2 is 3.5
0 .6
kJ mol-1 in terms of free energy
change, and that for 5 -PhEtNH2 is 2.4 0.5 kJ mol- 1 . 6 However, no information about the
enthalpy and entropy of recognition was available from our previous experiments. Is
chiral recognition in our system entropically driven or enthalpically driven? Based on
Meot-Ners earlier studies on the complexation of polyethers with various guests and
various proton transfer reactions, 2'8' 14 we proposed that chiral discrimination may be
largely entropic in the current chiral host-guest system. With increasing guest substituent
bulk, it is likely that it is not particularly more difficult for the host-guest complexes to
achieve favorable hydrogen-bonding geometry, but it is also likely that this occurs at the
expense of entropically unfavorable partial locking of the methyl rotors at the
stereocenters. The degree to which this occurs should be different for enantiomers. 6
Surprisingly, the vant Hoff experiment reveals that chiral discrimination is enthalpically
driven, while the entropy change opposes chiral recognition, as can be seen from the data
shown in Table 5-2. In the exchange of 5 -NapEtNH 2 from (5,5)-l to (/?,/?)-! [Reaction
(6 )], the enthalpy change is -1 0 1.2 kJ m ol'1. Since the interactions of (RJZ)-1 and
(5,5)-1 with achiral cyclohexylamine are the same, the enthalpy difference must be from
the differences in the binding energies of (/?,/?)-lHVS-NapEtNH 2 and (5,5)-lH+5132
NapEtNH2 - As can be seen from Table 5-2, the enthalpy change for the exchange reaction
leading to the formation of
(/? ,/? )-1
HVS-NapEtNH2 and (5 ,5 )-lHVS-NapEtNH 2 are
-18.9 2.0 kJ mol-1 and -8.9 0.9 kJ mol1, respectively. These data suggest that the
chiral ammonium ions bind to the host more strongly than cyclohexylammonium ion.
Both the n-n interaction between the pyridine moiety of the host and the naphthyl group
of the guest and multiple hydrogen bonding contribute to the stability of the complex. The
stability of the complex will be at maximum when both the multiple-hydrogen bonding
and k-k interactions are at their full strength. Molecular models show6 that optimum
hydrogen bonding could be achieved in the complexes of both (7?,/?)-lH+S-NapEtNH:
and (S,5 )-lH +5 -NapEtNH 2 . However, the upward-pointing methyl group interferes with
the complexation process and the interference is different for the two enantiomers. In the
complex of (S,5 )-IH+/?-NapEtNH2 , the degree of interference is less than it is in the
complex of (5 ,5 )-lHVS-NapEtNH 2 , since in the former complex, the methyl groups
interact with the smallest substituent (hydrogen) at the stereocenter of the guest, while in
the latter complex, the methyl groups interact with a bigger substituent (methyl), as has
been described.6 These different steric interactions result in different tc-tc interaction
strengths, and it is expected that the n-n interaction strength should be stronger for the
complex of (5,5)-1 FT/?-NapEtNH2 than for (5,5)-I l f 5 -NapEtNH 2 . These different n-n
interaction strengths may account for the different enthalpies of guest exchange, as the
data show in Table 5-2. The same trend is observed in the study of /?-PhEtNH2 . As can be
133
seen from Table 5-2, the AH of exchange for (5,5)-1H"*" complexing with /?-PhEtNH2 is
7.7 kJ mol-1 more favorable than that of (5,5)-Hf1"complexing with 5 -PhEtNH 2 While the recognition is enthalpically favorable in the direction of the formation of
the favorable complex [such as Reactions (6 ) and (12)], it is entropically unfavorable in
both the recognition of NapEtNH2 and PhEtNfK As can be seen from Table 5-2, the
entropy change for the recognition of
-NapEtNH2 is -20 3.9 J mol-1 KT1. and that for
the recognition of #-PhEtNH? is -17.8 2.2 J mol-1 K-1. These results are in contrast
with our previous hypothesis, in which we proposed that the degree of partial locking of
the methyl rotors at the stereocenters of the host is different for enantiomers and hence
chiral recognition is likely to be entropically driven. In previous complexation studies of
crown ethers with various guests, entropy changes were determined from vant Hoff
experiments.811 For example, the entropy changes for the complexation of 18-crown-6
with FT and HsO* 8 1 0 are -200.6 and -233.2 J mol-1 K '1, respectively. This big entropy
loss is not surprising, since the formation of the complex will cause loss of translational
entropy and considerable stiffening of the crown ring. The difference in entropy change
between IT" and HsCT is reasonable, because hydronium ion is more bulky and three
hydrogen bonds are formed. The entropy changes for the complexation of l 8 -crown- 6
with cyclohexylamine and pyridine are -158.8 J mol- 1 K- 1 and -183.9 J mol
respectively. 9 The difference is reasonable because l 8 -crown - 6 needs to adjust its

conformation much more when complexing with pyridine than with cyclohexylamine.
The same principles should apply to the chiral system. As the data show in Table 5-2, in
the reaction of (R ^ -IF T with 5 -NapEtNH 2 to form (/?,/?)-lHVS-NapEtNH 2 (Reaction
134
2), the corresponding entropy loss is -39.1 6.2 J mol-1 K '1; while in the reaction of
(5,5) - 1 with /?-PhEtNH2 to form (5,5) - 1 FT/?-PhEtNH2 (Reaction
12
), the entropy change
is -15.1 2.3 J mol-1 K '1. The large difference in entropy for these two reactions could
be attributed to the difference in the bulkiness of the substituents. Every substituent is the
same for the two guest amines except that 5 -NapEtNH2 has a more bulky naphthyl group
while )?-PhEtNH2 has a relatively less bulky phenyl group. Therefore it is likely that the
formation of (R.R)- IHVS-NapEtNTk requires the host to adjust its conformation more
heavily than the formation of (5 ,5 )-lH +R-PhEtNH2 . In our previous study, we pointed
out that it is not difficult for the host-guest complex to have optimum tripodal hydrogen
bonding in the complex . 6 The entropy data suggest that this occurs at the loss of degrees
of freedom in the complex, and the loss increases with increasing buikiness of the guest.
Comparison of the entropy change for the formation of (/?,/?)-1 FT5 -NapEtNFF2 and (5,5)1
FT*5 -NapEtNFi2 suggests that the former complex is more compact than the latter one.
More entropy loss (-39.1 6.2 J mol-1 K '1) is observed for the former complex, while
the entropy loss for the latter is just -19.1 2.6 J mol- 1 K"1. This difference could be
accounted for if the degree of steric interaction between the upward-pointing methyl rotor
at the stereocenter of the host and the substituent of the guest is different for the
enantiomeric pairs. As has been described, more steric interference is expected for the
homo-chiral complex. The same trend is observed for recognition of /J-PhEtNFK As the
data show in Table 5-2, the entropy changes for exchange to yield (5,5)-IF f R-PhEtNFF?
are -15.1 2.3 J mol' 1 K" 1 and 2.7 0.5 J mol" 1 K" 1 for that which yields (RJi)-UF*R-
135
PhEtNH2 . Examining the entropic difference between diastereomers, the entropy change
for the chiral recognition of
-NapEtNH 2 [Reaction (6 )] is -20.0 3.9 J mol-1 K1, and
that for the chiral recognition of /?-PhEtNH2 [Reaction (12)] is -17.8 2.2 J mol-1 K1.
Although there is a large difference in the entropy change for the cyclohexylamine/chiral
amine exchange [Reaction (1), Reaction (2) and its equivalent], the difference between
the two sets of diastereomers [Reactions (6 ) and (12)] is much smaller.
Effect of n-n interaction on enthalpy and entropy change.
In our earlier studies
we found that n-n interaction between host and guest is essential to have good chiral
recognition. 6 For example, the degree of chiral recognition for cyclohexylethylamine and
phenylethylamine is quite different; the measured free energy differences between
diastereomers is 0.9 kJ mol- 1
for cyclohexylethylamine and 2.4 kJ mol-1 for
phenylethylamine. Although the cyclohexyl group is roughly as bulky as the phenyl

group, the lack of a 7t system in the cyclohexyl group results in a smaller degree of
recognition. The importance of n-n interactions is also reflected in the current enthalpy
and entropy results. When the amine exchange reaction occurs in the direction for the
formation of (RJi)-lH*5 -NapEtNH 2 and (5,5)-lH+R-PhEtNHi [Reactions (6 ) and (12)],
both reactions are enthalpically favorable, with AH = -10.0 1.2 kJ mol-1 for the
recognition of S-NapEtNH 2 and AH = -7.7 0.7 kJ mol 1 for the recognition of RPhEtNFT. The effect of n-n interactions can be seen even more clearly from the
cyclohexylamine exchange reactions: AH = -18.9 kJ mol 1 for exchange to yield (RJl)lH+S-NapEtNH2 [Reaction (2)], and AH = -5.2 kJ mol 1 for exchange to yield (5,5)-
136
H*/?-PhEtNH2 , most probably because the former has a larger n system. This argument
on the effect of n-n interactions is further supported by the exchange reaction of

cyclohexylamine and phenylethylamine with 18-crown-6, in which no enthalpy change is
observed, as the data show in Table 5-2. This is also consistent with Meot-Ners
observation.9 On the other hand, the entropy changes for the recognition of the two
amines are similar. It is interesting to point out that the formation of
PhEtNH2 in the exchange reaction is entropy driven, while the formation of (5,5)- 1H*/?PhEtNH2 in the amine exchange reaction is enthalpy driven. This means that steric
interactions in the formation of the former complex are stronger than in the latter one, and
the n-n interactions are weaker in the former, therefore a floppy complex is formed and
the host loses less freedom. In other words, formation of the homo-chiral complex [(RJi)lH+*/?-PhEtNH2 ] benefits more from steric interactions than from n-n interactions. The
complexing energy in (K ^H H ^fl-P hE tN H i is even smaller than in the cyclohexylamine
complex, which suggests that the n-n interaction is not strong enough to overcome the
methyl rotor barrier for formation of a complex as stable as that of cyclohexylamine.
Comparison with solution studies.
It is well known that solvents affect the degree
of chiral recognition. This has been proven both in solution 15' 17 and in gas phase
studies. 6 1 8 These studies show that the degree of chiral recognition in the gas phase is
much higher than that in methanol solution. For example, the degree of chiral recognition
(free energy difference between diastereomers) of 5 -NapEtNH 2 by (RJ?)-l and (5,5) - 1 in
the gas phase is about 1.5 times higher than that in solution. 6 1 6 Perhaps the most
distinguishing advantage of the gas phase studies is that there are no solvent effects, and
137
recognition occurs in an isolated system. Therefore the intrinsic factors contributing to

chiral recognition can be determined. As has been described above, chiral recognition in
our system in the gas phase is mainly enthalpic, while entropy opposes chiral recognition.
The situation is different in solution. A comparison of gas phase and solution results is
summarized in Table 5-3. In solution, chiral recognition of R- or S-NapEtNHi is
favorably driven by both enthalpy and entropy,16 while the thermodynamic origin for the
recognition of ft-PhEtNHi is entropic. The reasons for the similarities and differences
between the gas phase and solution results will be discussed below.
The data exhibit clear trends as solvent polarity decreases to the ultimate nonpolar
solvent, vacuum. For example, the magnitude of the enthalpic differences between the
diastereomeric NapEtNF^ complexes increases from 1.2 kJ mol-1 in methanol to 3.2 kJ
mol-1 in dicholoroethane/methanol, to 10.0 kJ m o f1 in the gas phase. Entropy changes
show the opposite trend: 4.0 J mol-1 fC1 in methanol, favoring the more stable complex,
decreasing to 0.7 J mol-1 KT1 in dichloroethane/methanol, to -20 J mol-1 K_l in vacuum,
favoring the less stable complex. The data for the PhEtNH2 guest are also consistent.
The enthalpy data can be interpreted in a straightforward way. To the extent that
solvent interacts with either host or guest, it competes with the host-guest binding. The
host-guest interaction must be strong for good anchoring of the guest in the host, enabling
good enantiomeric discrimination to occur. Thus, solvation interferes with anchoring of
the guest, and hinders recognition. Recognition is therefore less as solvation increases.
The entropy data are also consistent with this model. Intrinsically, the favored
complex is more organized than the disfavored one; because the host-guest interactions
138
R eproduced
with perm ission
T a b le 5-3.
C o m p a ris o n o f A l l (kJ m o l 1) an d A S (J m ol 1 K ') c h a n g e s for chiral re c o g n itio n o f .Y -N aplitN Il2 and
P h l i t N I I 2 b y chiral d i m e t h y ld ik e to p y r id in o - l8-cro\vn-(> in the g as p h a s e and in so lutio n
ir0
AS
A! 1
M e th a n o l (2 5 C ) (b)
A1I
A ll
AS
-3.2
0.7
-7 .7 1 0 .7
-1 7 .8 1 2 . 2
3.5
20.1
NA
- 2 0 . 0 1 3.9
-u
- 1 0 . 0 1 1.2
to
N a p h th y le th y l-
C hiral g u e s t
(1 :1 ) 1 ,2 -D ic h lo ro e th a n e /m e th a n o l ( 2 5 C ) (c^
>
G a s ph ase<n)
a m in e
P h e n y le th y l-
prohibited without p e rm is sio n .
U>
VO
NA
a m in e
(a ) F o r .S-N a p fitN H 2> A ll and A S 0 a re m e a su re d fio m re actio n :

(/f,/< )-l H* C y c lo h e x y la m in e
(.S', S')-111 *A -N apl.it N 1 12 ^
(/i, / 0 - l l l #5'-Napl7.tN ll 2 t (.V .A ^ lll'^ C y c lo h e x y lam in e
F o r P h l2 tN II2, A ll and A S a re m e a su re d fro m re actio n :

(.S',.S')- I I I ' C y c lo h e x y la m in e
I (/^, /^ )-111 */^ -P h lll N 1 12
(.V,.S')-Ill, * /M ,h litN I I 2 * 18
C y c lo h e x y la m in e
(b), (c ) F ro m re fe re n c e 43. A ll and A S a ie th e e n th a lp y an d e n tro p y d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e fo rm a tio n o f th e c o m p le x e s o f

(.S,.S) - 1 /C N a p litN I 12 and (.S,.S)- I.S '-N aplitN l l2
F o r N a p h th y le lh y la m in e , th e re a ctio n is
(.S '.V )-l.S '-N aplitN Ili'
I /i-N a p litN llj1
(.V..S*)-1/^-NaplIlNII.*'
.S- N a p litN I li'
F o r P h litN H 2l th e re a c tio n is:

(.S'l.S>l.S-IM litN llj t /M M d itN I l,'
NA: N o t a v a ila b le
(.S,.S ')-lW U h litN II2'
t .S- P h litN I I ,'
R-
are stronger, the favored complex is less floppy, as is reflected by the gas-phase data. In a
strongly solvating solvent such as methanol, solvent is highly organized around the
complexes, more so around the less stable diastereomer. As the degree of solvation
decreases in going from methanol through the dichloroethane/methanol mixture to the gas
phase, the host-guest interaction becomes stronger and more degrees of freedom are lost
in the more stable complex relative to the less stable one, while the entropy from
organization of the solvent becomes less important because the templating effect of the
complex on the surrounding solvent decreases as solvation weakens. The net result is that
the entropic difference between the two diastereomers increasingly opposes the more
stable complex as solvation decreases.
The data for the PhEtNH2 guest are consistent with this interpretation, and are
interesting in that recognition in solution is entropically-driven, while in the gas phase
recognition is primarily enthalpic. The smaller 7t system in this guest results in both
weaker k -k interaction and less ability to simultaneously overlap the host and guest
systems
In
and
form
strong hydrogen
dichloroethane/methanol, evidently the
bonds
k -ti
between
the host and guest.
interactions are not strong enough to
effectively compete with solvation. The less stable (S.5)-lS-PhEtNH3 + complex is

slightly better solvated than the more stable (S,S)-1 /?-PhEtNH3" diastereomer, so solvent
is more organized around the less stable complex and entropy drives the recognition
process. In the gas phase, in the absence of competition from solvation, 7t~rc stacking is
stronger
for
(S,S)-l/?-PhEtNH3+, enthalpically
favoring this
diastereomer
140
but
entropically disfavoring it. It is also possible that solvation favors different conformations
than are present in the gas phase, accounting for the differences.16
5-5. Conclusions
A method has been developed to conduct variable temperature experiments in an FTICR
mass spectrometer. This makes the instrument much more powerful for studying the
structures and energetics of chemical reactions. The application of this technique to the
study of host-guest chiral recognition suggests that chiral recognition in the current hostguest system is enthalpically driven, while the entropy always opposes recognition. This
intrinsic observation also suggests that chiral systems with large n systems will have
good chiral recognition by this host, and guests with electron-donating groups will lead to
better n-n interaction.
A comparison with solution results suggests that a better solvating solvent leads to
more favorable entropy contributions and less favorable enthalpy contributions to chiral
recognition in the host-guest system. When no solvent is present, entropy will oppose
recognition and enthalpy becomes the driving force for chiral recognition. This suggests
that solvent will mask the internal factors influencing chiral recognition. Only gas phase
studies can provide unambiguous, straightforward results.
141
References
1. (a) Wren, A. G.; Gilbert, P. T.; Bowers, M. T. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 1978, 49. 531. (b)
Yamdagni, R.; Kebarle, P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1973, 95. 3504.
2. Meot-Ner, M.; Sieck, L. W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1983, 105, 2956.
3. Dobo. A.; Liptak, M.; Huszthy, P.; Vekey, K. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 1997.
11, 889.
4. Sawada, M. Mass Spectrom. Rev. 1997,16, 73.
5. Fales. H. M.; Wright, G. J.; J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1977, 99, 2339.
6. (a) Dearden. D. V.; Dejsupa, C.; Liang, Y.; Bradshaw, J. S.; Izatt, R. M. J. Am. Chem.
Soc. 1997,119, 353.; (b) Haskins, N. J.; Saunders, M. R.; Camilleri, P. Rapid.
Commun. Mass Spectrom. 1994, 8. 423; (c) Caravatti, P.; Allemann, M. Org. Mass
Spectrom. 1991, 26, 514-518.
7. Jones, B. A.; Bradshaw, J. S.; Izatt, R. M. J. Heterocycl. Chem. 1982,19, 551.
8. Sharma, R. B.; Kebarle, P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984,106, 3913.
9. Meot-Ner, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1983,105,4912.
10. Meot-Ner, M.; Sieck, L. W.; Scheiner, S.; Duan, X. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116,
7848.
11. Sharma, R. B.; Blades, A. T.; Kebarle, P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984,106, 510.
12. Meot-Ner, M.; Smith, S. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991,113, 862.
13. Meot-Ner, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1983,105, 4906.
14. Meot-Ner, M. Acc. Chem. Res. 1984,17, 186.
142
15. Izatt, R. M.; Wang, T.; Hathaway, J. K.; Zhang, X. X.; Curtis, J. C.; Bradshaw, J. S.:
Zhu, C. Y.: Huszthy, P. J. Inclu. Phenom. Mol. Recogn. Chem. 1994, 17. 157.
16. (a) Izatt, R. M.; Zhang, X. X.; Huszthy, P.; Zhu, C.; Hathaway, J. K.; Wang, T.;
Bradshaw, J. S. J. Inclu. Phenom. Mol. Recogn. Chem. 1994,18. 353. (b) Zhang, X.
X.; Izatt, R. M.; Bradshaw, J. S.; Huszthy, P. Anales de Quimica Int. Ed. 1996, 92,
64-69. (c) Zhang, X. X.; Izatt, R. M.; Zhu, C. Y.; Bradshaw. J. S. Supramolecular
Chem. 1996, 6, 267-274.
17. Izatt, R. M.; Zhu, C. Y.; Huszthy, P.; Bradshaw, J. S. In Crown Compounds: Toward
Future Applications', Cooper, S. R., Ed.; VCH Publishers, Inc. 1992.
18. Chu, I.; Dearden, D. V.; Bradshaw. J. S.; Huszthy, P.; Izatt, R. M.: J. Am. Chem. Soc.
1993, 7/5,4318.
Chapter 6. Summary and Recommendations for Future Work
A novel method has been developed to investigate and quantify the degree of chiral
recognition in a host-guest system by electrospray ionization-Fourier transform ion
cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (ESI-FTICR/MS). The relatively nonvolatile
chiral ligand is ionized by electrospray ionization to generate protonated chiral host ions,
while the volatile amines are introduced into the cell via precision leak valves.
Equilibrium constants were determined for amine exchange reactions, and the degree of
chiral recognition was determined from the free energy difference between the two
enantiomer reactions. Fast atom bombardment-double focusing mass spectrometry
(FABMS) was also employed to study host-guest chiral recognition via amine-exchange
equilibria. The degree of chiral recognition in this method is determined from the relative
peak intensity ratio (RPI) of the two enantiomer adducts. In order to probe the
thermodynamic driving forces in the current host-guest chiral recognition system, a
variable temperature technique was developed for FTICR/MS.
The experimental results show that n-n interactions enhance chiral recognition.
Future experiments using a chiral host with an electron donating group15 on the pyridine
will further prove the importance of the 7t-acid and Tt-base interactions between the
aromatic group of the guest and the pyridine moiety of the host. Solution studies of such
hosts observed enhanced host-guest complex stability, but no increased chiral recognition
was seen.3The situation in the gas phase might be different, so it will be interesting to do
the experiment using FTMS. A host with an electron donating group on the pyridine ring
144
and a bulky group, such as f-butyl or phenyl located at the stereocenters, may enhance
chiral recognition significantly. In the current chiral host-guest system, chiral recognition
benefits more from
k -tc
interactions than steric interactions, and chiral recognition is
enthalpically driven, while entropy opposes recognition. Experiments using hosts with tbutyl or phenyl groups at the stereocenters may show that steric interactions are more
important than te-tc interactions: partial locking of the functional groups at the
stereocenters might make a difference in chiral recognition, therefore, chiral recognition
may be entropically driven in these cases. In solution studies, enhanced chiral recognition
was observed when phenyl groups were substituted for the methyl groups at the
stereocenters, but no complex was observed when the substituent was f-butyl.1When the
two carbonyl oxygens are substituted by two sulfur atoms, solution studies reveal that
increased chiral recognition is observed only in less polar solvents. " It would be of
interest to compare solvent-free results with the results of the solution study. All these
experiments using different guests or hosts with different substituents may show
enthalpy-entropy compensation effects, while the degree of recognition in terms of free
energy difference may be similar. All these suggestions need to be tested experimentally.
Thermodynamic parameters reflect differences in the strength of the interactions,
while results from kinetic experiments reflect differences in the rates of the interactions. I
attempted rate constant measurements on chiral systems with amino acid guests and a
different chiral host, but no recognition was observed. It has been said that there is no
thermodynamic chiral recognition without kinetic chiral recognition, whereas the
145
opposite statement is not true.6 It will be interesting to examine chiral recognition by

measuring rate constants for the current chiral host-guest system.
Guest vapor pressure is required in the current experimental approach. I tried to put
amino acids and amino acid esters in the solid probe, but neither compound was
sufficiently volatile. Chiral recognition of these nonvolatile guests may be more easily
studied using Cooks kinetic method. 8 Vekey studied the chirality of amino acid
enantiomers in a sector instrument.' In our lab, electrospray of the mixture of the chiral
host and amino acid guest is quite easy, so the kinetic method may be a means to study
the chiral recognition of nonvolatile guests.
146
References
1. Izatt, R. M.; Wang, T.; Hathaway, J. K.: Zhang, X. X.; Curtis. J. C.; Bradshaw, J. S.;
Zhu, C. Y.; Huszthy, P. J. Inclusion Phenom. Mol. Recogn. Chem. 1994, 17, 157-175.
2. Zhang, X. X.; Izatt, R. M.; Zhu, C. Y.; Bradshaw, J. S. Supramolecular Chem. 1996.
6, 261-214.
3. Zhang, X. X.; Bradshaw, J. S.; Izatt, R. M. Chem. Rev. 1997, 97, 3313-3361.
4. Izatt, R. M.; Zhang, X. X.; Huszthy, P.: Zhu, C. Y.; Hathaway, J. K.: Wang. T.:
Bradshaw, J. S. J. Inclusion Phenom. Mol. Recogn. Chem. 1994, 18, 353-367.
5. Zhang, X. X.; Izatt, R. M.; Bradshaw, J. S.; Huszthy, P. Anales de Quimica Int. Ed.
1996, 92, 64-69.
6. Davankov, V. A. Chirality. 1997, 9, 99-102.
7. Cooks, R. G.; Kruger, T. L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1979, 99, 1279.
8. Patrick, J. S.; Kotiaho, T.; McLuckey, S. A.; Cooks, R. G. Mass Spectrom. Rev. 1994,
13, 287.
9. Vekey, K.; Gabor, C. Anal. Chem. 1997, 69, 1700-1705.
147
Appendix Publications and Presentations

1. Chadin Dejsupa; Yongjiang Liang; David V. Dearden, Study of lonMolecule Chiral Recognition by Amine Exchange Equilibria, Proc. o f the 43rd ASMS
Conference on Mass Spectrometry and Allied Topics, 1995, 94, Atlanta, Georgia.
2. Yongjiang Liang; Chadin Dejsupa; Marshall Pope; David V. Dearden, Transition
Metal Transfer Between Crown Ethers, Proc. o f the 44th ASMS Conference on Mass
Spectrometry and Allied Topics, 1996, 1222, Portland, Oregon.
3. David V. Dearden; Chadin Dejsupa; Yongjiang Liang; Jerald S. Bradshaw; Reed M.
Izatt, Intrinsic Contributions to Chiral recognition: Discrimination Between
Enantiomeric Amines by Dimethyldiketopyridino-18-crown-6 in the Gas Phase. J.
Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 353-359.
4. Yongjiang Liang; Chadin Dejsupa; David V. Dearden, Chiral Mixture Analysis by
Electrospray Ionization Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass
Spectrometry, The 45th ASMS Conference on Mass Spectrometry and Allied Topics.
June 1997, Palm Springs, California.
5. Yongjiang Liang; David V. Dearden, Chiral Recognition in the Gas Phase:
Enthalpically or Entropically Driven? The 46th ASMS Conference on Mass
Spectrometry and Allied Topics, June 1998, Orlando, Florida.
6. Yongjiang Liang; Chadin Dejsupa; David V. Dearden, Chiral Mixture Analysis and
Chiral Recognition by Mass Spectrometry, Int. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion Proc., to be
submitted.
7. Yongjiang Liang; David V. Dearden, Investigation of Entropy and Enthalpy
Contributions in a Host-Guest Chiral Recognition System. J. Am. Chem. Soc., to be
submitted.
148
Host-guest Chiral Recognition in the Gas Phase by Fourier Transform

Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry
Yongjiang Liang
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Ph. D. Degree, August 1998
ABSTRACT
F ourier transform ion cyclo tro n resonance (F T IC R ) m ass spectrom etry w as em ployed to
investigate and qu an tify th e recognition o f chiral am in es in the gas phase by (R,R)- and (S.S)d im e th y id ik e to p y rid in o -l8 -c ro w n -6 using a novel procedure. T he degree o f chiral recognition is
d eterm ined by m easu rin g th e equilibrium constants fo r ex ch an g e o f chiral and achiral am ine
guests. It w as found th a t binding o f the guest w ith ab so lu te configuration opposite those o f th e
host stereo cen ters is p referred. T he results illustrate th e intrinsic factors contributing to ch iral
recognition, in clu d in g steric b u lk and the im portance o f it-7i stack in g interactions to an ch o r the
guest. M easurem ent o f the tem p eratu re dependence o f th e eq u ilib riu m constant o f the a m in eex change reaction reveals th a t chiral recognition in th e system is enthalpically driven, w h ile
entropy opposes recognition.
The am in e-ex ch an g e m eth o d is also em ployed fo r studying ch ira l recognition using F A B M S.
A lthough the d eg ree o f ch iral recognition by FA B M S is low er th an that by FTIC R /M S. FA B M S
is suitable for fa st screen in g analysis. The analytical u tility o f th e chiral recognition m ethod by
FTM S w as also in v estig ated .
COMMITTEE APPROVAL:
David V. Dearden. Committee Chîr
<x
''U L
Milton II. Lee, Committee Member
S * '; * *
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ir
ngelsot^ Comjtnttee Member
Paul B. Savage, CommitteeMember
4'1{
Earl M. Woolley, Committee Member

Graduate Coordinator
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Host-guest Chiral Recognition in the Gas Phase by Fourier Transform

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Chapter 2. Principles of Electrospray Ionization-Fourier Transform Ion

2-2. Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry

2-2-1. FTICR/MS: How it works

2-2-2. Principles of FTMS

2-2-2-1. Ion motion

2-2-2-2. Excitation and detection

2-2-2-3. Mass resolution, massaccuracy and upper mass limit

2-3. Electrospray ionization

2-3-1. Electrospray ionization: a brief description

2-3-2. Mechanism of electrospray ionization

2-3-3. Influence of electric field on electrospray ionization

2-3-4. Dependence of ion signal on solution properties

2-3-5. Application of electrospray ionization

2-4. Fast atom bombardment-double focusing mass spectrometry

2-4-1. Fundamentals of fast atom bombardment

2-4-2. Magnetic-sector mass spectrometer

2-4-2-1. Single-focusing mass spectrometer

2-4-2-2. Double-focusing mass spectrometer

Chapter 3. Intrinsic Contributions to Chiral Recognition: Discrimination

in the Gas Phase

3-2. Experimental section

3-3-1. Adduct formation and proton transfer

3-3-2. Chiral recognition in the naphthylethylamine system

3-3-3. Cross-chiral recognition study in the naphthylethylamine system

3-3-4. Chiral recognition in other amine systems

3-4-1. Comparison with

ligand exchange experiments

3-4-2. Comparison with

3-4-3. Comparison with

3-4-4. Limitations to adduct formation

3-4-5. Intrinsic factors influencing chiral recognition

Chapter 4. Enantiomer Mixture Analysis and Chiral recognition by

Electrospray Ionization-Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance

4-2-1. Experimental setups for chiral-mixture analysis

4-2-2. Experimental procedures for FABMS experiments

4-3. Results and discussion

4-3-1. Results and discussion for chiral-mixture analysis

4-3-1-2. Reaction characteristics of enantiomer mixtures with amines

4-3-1-3. Features of experimental approach

4-3-2. Results and discussion for FABMS experiment

Chapter 5. Investigation of Enthalpy and Entropy Contributions to a

5-3-1. Test of the temperature measurement system

5-3-2. Variable temperature experiments on chiral recognition of

5-3-3. Variable temperature experiment for reactions of 18-crown-6 with

5-4-1. Temperature measurement

5-4-2. Comparison of the test reactions withliterature values

5-4-3. 18-crown-6 - amine exchange experiment

5-4-4. Chiral recognition experiments