STUDENTS HANDBOOK

2011 AR 408 HUMAN SETTLEMENTS & STUDY OF

SOCIOLOGY, ECONOMICS AND CULTURE
-Ar.Asha Sreenivas
Asst.Professor ,SCMS SOA,Karukkutty

2011 AR 408 HUMAN SETTLEMENTS & STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY,

ECONOMICS AND CULTURE
M.G UNIVERSITY
Course objective: This course covers topics on settlements in the development
of human civilization,the architecture of settlement in development of human
civilization, development concepts and human settlement planning; and approaches in analyzing human settlement problems.
Module I
Introduction to sociology
Primary concepts- society, family, community, Association, Institution, Religion
etc. Social process cooperation, conflict, competition, Accommodation, Assimilation, Progress and evolution - Relating these concepts to architecture - Relevance of study of sociology for architects.
Principles of human settlements: ancient, medieval, modern.. Ancient text, treatise on settlement and area planning.
Module II
Culture and society, cultural lag, Deviant sub culture, Culture and civilization, Society and environment, Social change, Factors of social change, Social stratification, rural & Urban, class & cast,social change in Kerala-structural, occupational,
rural, religious, housing and Urbanization Man Environment and Society. Unity
and diversity in India. Rural society, Village community, traditional patterns and
trends of change. Society, architecture and settlement pattern of Kerala.
Cultural anthropology, Culture and architecture. Concept of social structure. Relation between social structure and spatial structure. Social aspects of housing.
Social problems of slums
Module III
Economics
Definition and scope of economics-basic terms and concepts -goods, utility,
value-wealth-factors of production-law of diminishing marginal utility indifference curve analysis law of demand -law of supply Production possibility curve
and technological choice

MODULE -I
SOCIOLOGY AND ITS BASIC CONCEPTS.
Introduction to sociology
Primary concepts- society, family, community, Association, Institution, Religion
etc. Social process cooperation, conflict, competition, Accommodation, Assimilation, Progress and evolution - Relating these concepts to architecture - Relevance of study of sociology for architects.
Principles of human settlements: ancient, medieval, modern.. Ancient text, treatise on settlement and area planning.

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is the youngest of all the social sciences.The word sociology is derived
from Latin word.Societus means society and Greek word logos means study or
science.
In short sociology is thus the science of society.
The most distinctive feature of human life is
its social character. All human beings have to
interact with other human beings in order to
survive.
As Aristotle said Man is a social animal
Both Nature and necessity impel man to live in
a society.Mans behaviour in society is determined by two forces.Social and physical.
In the early stages man carried out study not of society but of different aspects
of society gave rise to different social sciences.
HISTORY-History is the record of unique events related to man
ECONOMICS- Economics is concerned with his activities related to production
and consumption of wealth
POLITICAL SCIENCE-Political science deals with his political activities and institutions.
ANTHROPOLOGY-Anthropology studies activities and institutions as they existed
in time long past.
PSYCOLOGY is interested in the spring of human action, impulses and motives
that sustain mental and bodily activity and regulate human conduct.
These social sciences do not give us complete picture of society, they may give
snapshot view of society from various angles of vision but never a view of society its comprehensive totality and utility.
So there was a need for a general science which should purview the society as a
whole. And sociology was designed to achieve this end.
Thus sociology appeared when it was felt that other fields of human knowledge
do not fully explain mans social behaviour.

DEFINE SOCIOLOGY

These are some of the definitions of sociology given by some important

sociologist :
Sociology is the science of society or of social phenomena.

L.F. Ward
(Lester F. Ward was an American botanist, palaeontologist, and sociologist. He
served as the first president of the American Sociological Association)

Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social

action

Max Weber
(Karl Emil Maximilian Max Weber was a German sociologist, philosopher, jurist, and political economist whose ideas profoundly influenced social theory and
social research.)
Sociology is a body of learning about society. It is a description of way to make
society better. It is social ethics, a social philosophy. Generally, however, it is defined as a science of society.

W.F Ogburn
(William Fielding Ogburn was an American sociologist.)
These definitions shows that sociologists differ in their opinions about the subject-matter of sociology.
Still sociology is
A science of society
A science of social relationships
The study of social life
The study of human behaviour in groups
The study of social action
The study of forms of social relationships
The study of social groups or social systems

ORIGIN OF SOCIOLOGY

It was in 1839,that Auguste comte,the French philosopher and sociologist had

coined the term sociology and defined the scope of this social science and methods which it should employ.
Auguste comte is for this reason, traditionally considered to be the father of
sociology
Auguste Comte-(side Auguste Marie Franois Xavier Comte, better known as
Auguste Comte, was a French philosopher. He was a founder of the discipline of
sociology and of the doctrine of positivism)
Sociology is not only a science with its own subject matter but the mother of all
social sciences.It has been said surprisingly enough by some critics that sociology
does not have a subject matter of its own and that it is hotch-potch of different
social sciences.
Social sciences are sciences of associational forms of life and therefore can never
ascend the throne reserved for sociology

CONCEPTS OF SOCIOLOGY

Society,family,Community,Association,Institution,Religion

SOCIETY

In common parlance the word society is usually used to designate the members
of specific in group rather than the social relationship of those persons.
In sociology;The term society refers not to a group of people but to complex pattern of the norms of interaction that arise among them.
Derived from Latin- Socio- Companionship or friendship
A society is intangible; it is a process rather than a thing, motion rather than
structure.
Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behaviour which mark them off from others. Who do not enter into these relations
or who differ from them in behaviour


-Ginsberg
Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal relations in which
associating individuals are bound together

-Gidding

(Franklin Henry Giddings, was an American sociologist and economist)
Society is not a group of people, it is the system of relationship that exists between the individuals of the group.

-Prof. Wright
Society is the larger group to which any individual belongs

-Green
Two types of definitions of society
Functional definition
Structural definition
From functional point of view society is defined as a complex of groups in reciprocal relationship, interacting upon one another, enabling human organisms to
carry on their life-activities and helping each person to fulfil his wishes and accomplish his interest in association with his fellows.
From structural point of view society is the total social heritage of folkways, mores and institutions of habits, sentiments and ideals
Thus society is both a structural and functional organisation.it consists in the
mutual interactions and mutual interrelations of the individuals but it is also a
structure formed by these relations. It is a pattern , a system and not the people.

Characteristic of Society:-

1.Society consists of people

2.Mutual interaction society is a process by which man interpolate into the
mind of others
3.There must be some similarities or likeness (life will be monotones if there is
no difference
4.Society implies differences
5.Depends on co-operation and division of labour
6.Sharing a common task
7.Refer to mutual working together to attain a common goal
8.Society is dynamic (change is an inherent quality no society can exist without
change)
9.Social control society have its own way to control.
10.Culture- every society is different related to the culture of people.
11.It all happen due to the gregarious nature of man (gregarious- tendency to
live in a group)

Two types of society :

Traditional Society
Modern Society
Characteristics of Traditional society and Modern Society. Discuss?

Traditional Society:-

-Govern by Traditional institution- Religion and culture.

-Status of person is described by hereditary.
-Social mobility is lacking.
-Social behaviour is predominated by primary institution.
-Primary institutions- family,neighbourhood,community.
-Isolated from normal society.
-Less technological advancement.
-No mass scale production and specialisation.
-Homogeneous in nature.
-Intimate and personal intimacy.
-Prominence of primary control-family, cast, religion.
-Social structure is rigid according to tradition and custom.

Modern Society:-

-Social mobility is fast or dynamic.

-Flexible in nature.
-Individual achievement plays vital role.
-Class and caste is based on the income of people.
-Stability is less.
-Lack of community living.
-Primary control with secondary institution,association and trade union.
-Competition.
-Less importance to religion.
-Have scientific outlook.

COMMUNITY
Maclver defines community as an area of social living marked by some degree of
social coherence.
Whenever the member of any group, small or large, live together in such a way
that they share, not this or that particular interest but basic conditions of a common life we call that group a community
Community is a human population living within a limited geographic area and
carrying a common inter-dependent life.

-Lundberg
Community is a social group with some degree of we feeling and living in given
area

-Bogardus
Community is a total organisation of social life with a limited area

-ogburb and Nimkoff
Community is a cluster of people, living within a contiguous small area, who
share a common way of life

-Green Arnold

Elements of community

1.Group of people: Community is a geographical area which have common interest.It includes a number of organization
Community is a total organization of social life within a specific area.
Ex: Village, City, District
2.Locality:Community is a territorial group. Some geographical location having a
boundary.It helps the members to fulfil their needs or common interest.
3.Community sentiments feeling of belonging together
Members should be aware of togetherness.It is a kind of identification within the
group.With the sense of identification.Without sense of awareness
With giving and sharing same interest.
4.Permanency: A Community is not transitory like a crowd. It essentially includes a permanent life in a definite place.
5.Naturality: Communities are not made or created by an act of will but are
natural. An individual is born in a community.
6.Likeness : In a community there is a likeness in language,customs,morals etc.
7.Wider ends : in communities the people associate not for fulfilment of a particular end. They have wider ends which are natural and not artificial.
8. A particular name: ex: punjabis, kashmiris, keralites
9. No legal status- A community is not a legal person.in the eye of law it has no
rights and duties

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNITY AND SOCIETY

-In a community , presence of sentiment among the members is necessary. Sentiments is not so necessary in a society
-Society has no definite boundary or assignable limits. Community is group living
together in a particular locality
-Community is a species of society.it exists within the society. Society have more
than one community
-Society is an abstract but community is rigid/Concrete.
-Society have likeness and difference in community likeness is more prominent
-Society is self sufficient. Community cannot be self sufficient

ASSOCIATION

An association is a group of person organised for a particular purpose or a limited number of purpose.
According to Maclver an association is an organisation deliberately formed for
the collective pursuit of some interest or set of interest, which its members
share
According to Ginsberg an association is a group of social beings related to one
another by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an organisation with a view to securing a specific end or specific ends
To constitute an association there must be
Firstly, a group of people
Secondly, these people must be organized ones i.e. there must be certain rules
for their conduct in the group
Thirdly they must have a common purpose of specific nature to pursue

Difference between Community and Association

-An association is partial while the community is a whole

-Association exists within community. Community is integral can have several association.
-Association is an artificial creation. Community
is a natural growth.
-Membership in association is voluntary but in community it is compulsory.
-Community is not so organised but association is well organised
-Community dont have specific but general needs. Association have specific
needs.
-Community is relatively stable. Association is long lasting or temporary.
-No legal status for community Association have legal status.
-Social control through tradition and custom and not through rules and regulations. Association have their own rules and regulation.

INSTITUTION

Sociology is a study of social institution.

Institution have been defined by Maclver as the established forms or conditions
of procedure characteristic of group activity.
Social institutions are the social structures and machinery through which human
society organizes, directs and executes the multi-farious ( having many aspects)
activities required for human need.

Characteristic of institution:

1.Institutions are means of controlling individuals.

2.Institutions depend upon the collective activities of men.
3.Institution is more stable than any other means of control( family, religion).
they are relatively permanent changes takes place slowly or gradually.
4.Some institutions are very rigid in nature ( superstructure changes but foundation remains same)
5.Not visible/intangible
6.Every institutions has some rules which must be compulsorily obeyed by the
individuals.(standardised norms and procedure)
7.Institution has got a symbol which may be material or non material
8.Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of men.it has social recognition behind it.
Two types of institutions
Primary- found in primitive communities evolved or developed naturally or unconsciously Ex-Religion, Marriage etc.
Secondary- those support primary association
Law, constitution.

FAMILY

In the context of human society, a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity (blood relation, from the Latin consanguinitas), affinity, or co-residence and/or shared consumption.
Family is a group of persons united by the ties of marriage, blood or adoption;
consisting of a single household, interacting and inter-communicating with each
other in their respective social roles of husband and wife, mother and father, son
and daughter, brother and sister creating a common culture.

burgess and locke

Nature of family

1.Universality : universal in nature. First institution in the history of man.

2.Emotional Basis : Fundamental unit. Close-knit group which fortifies emotions
3.Limited Size
4.Formative influence : family exercises the most profound influence over its
members.

5.Nuclear position
6.Responsibility of the members : in family the child learn the meaning of social
responsibility
7.Social regulation :family is guarded by customs and legal regulation
8.Permanent and temporary : when one member marries he/she will start a new
family

SOCIAL PROCESS

Social interaction usually takes place in the form of cooperation, competition,

conflict, accommodation and assimilation. These forms of social interaction are
also designated as social processes.
These may therefore be described as the fundamental way in which men interact
and establish relationship.
These are repetitive forms of behaviours found in social life.

Social process includes:

Co-operation,Conflict,Competition,Accommodation,Assimilation,Progress and
evolution.

CO-OPERATION

Co operation is the most pervasive and continuous of the social processes. It is

an integrating activity and is believed to be the opposite of competition.
Co-operation generally means working together in the pursuit of like or common interest.

Cooperation is brought about several circumstances which are

i)Desired for individual benefits
ii)Desire to give
iii)Devotion to common purpose
Situational necessity and
iv)Desire to achieve larger goals.

Types of Co-operation

1.Direct cooperation doing things together

2.Indirect cooperation people do different task to attain a common end. Division of labour
3.Primary cooperation found in primary groups such as family
Secondary cooperation- found in secondary groups like government,industry,chu
rch,trade union etc.
4.Tertiary Co-operation interaction between various big and small group to
meet particular situation (purely opportunistic)

COMPETITION

Competition is an impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between individual or groups for satisfaction which, because of their limited supply all may
not have.

Woodward and Maxwell

Characteristics of competition

1.Competition is impersonal struggle.

2.Competition is an unconscious activity. When there is a shift in interest from
the object of competition to the competitors themselves, it is call rivalry or personal competition.
3.Competition is universal.
On a social level individuals compete with one another, when
i)They are striving to achieve the same goal that is scarce.
ii)They are prevented by the roles of the situation from achieving this goal in
equal amounts.
iii)They perform better when the goal can be achieved in unequal terms.
They have relatively few psychologically affiliative contacts with one another.

CONFLICT

Conflict is the social process in which individuals or group seek their ends by
directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence as a process,
it is an anti thesis of co-operation.
Any human action is likely to thwart(prevent (someone) from accomplishing
something.) the hopes or interfere with the plans of someone else such a action
becomes conflict.
i)Conflict is a conscious action.it is a deliberate intent to oppose.
ii)Conflict is a personal activity.
iii)Conflict lacks continuity.
iv)Conflict is universal.

Types of Conflict

1.Personal conflict
2.Racial conflict
3.Class conflict
4.Political conflict
5.International conflict

Conflict can be also of these types

1.Latent and overt conflict

Latent(hidden or concealed) conflict becomes overt (done or shown openly)
conflict when an issue is declared and hostile action is taken, the overt conflict
occurs when one side or the other feels strong and wishes to take advantage of
this fact.
2.Corporate and personal conflict

corporate conflict occurs among the groups within a society or between
two societies. Personal conflict occur within a group.

ACCOMODATION

Accommodation is resolution of conflicts which generally means adjusting oneself

to the new environment. Adjusting may be to the physical or social environment.
Adjusting to the former takes place trough organic or structural modification
transmitted by heredity and is termed adaptation, while adjusting to the latter is
achieved by an individual through the acquisition of behaviour patterns transmitted to him socially and through the adoption of the new ways of behaving and is
termed accommodation.

Characteristics of accommodation

1.Accommodation is the natural result of conflict. If there is no conflict. There

would be no need of accommodation
2.Accommodation is mainly deliberate and it can be an unconscious activity.
3.Accommodation is universal
4.Accommodation is a continuous process
5.Accommodation is a mixture of both love and hatred.

Forms/Methods of accommodation

1.Yielding to coercion or admitting ones defeat.

2.Compromise
3.Arbitration and conciliation
4.Toleration
5.Conversion
6.Rationalisation
7.Super ordination and subordination

ASSIMILATION

Assimilation is the process whereby persons and group acquire the culture of
other group in which they come to live by adopting its attitudes and values, its
patterns of thinking and behaving in short its way of life.
Factors favouring assimilation
Tolerance, equal economic opportunity, sympathetic attitude on the part of the
dominating group towards the minority group, exposure to the dominant culture,
similarity between the cultures of the minority and dominant groups and amalgamation or intermarriage
Factors hindering assimilation
Isolated conditions of life attitudes of superiority on the part of dominant group.
Excessive physiological, cultural and social difference between the groups and
persecution of the minority group by the majority group.
Difference between Assimilation and Accomodation
-Assimilation is permanent. Accommodation is non permanent
-Accommodation is a sudden and even sometimes a radical process. Assimilation
is a slow process
-Assimilation is unconscious. Accommodation is deliberate

EVOLUTION

Evolution is a process of differentiation and integration the term evolution comes

from the Latin word evolvere which means to develop or to unfold.it is equivalent
to the Sanskrit word vikas it means more than growth.
It is a process in which hidden or latent characters of a thing reveal themselves.it
is an order of change which unfolds the variety of aspects belonging to the nature
of the changing object.
Principles of evolution:
1.Social evolution is one cultural or human aspect of the law of cosmic evolution.
2.Social evolution takes place in the same way in which cosmic evolution takes
place.
3.Social evolution is gradual,
4.Social evolution is progression.

IDEA OF PROGRESS

1.Progress is change A change in some direction.

2.Change can be called progress only when it fulfils the desired aim.
3.Progress is communal i.e.. Related to social system
4.Progress is volitional it requires desire and volition(will).
5.The concept of progress is variable. What is considered today the symbol of
6.progress may tomorrow be regarded as sign of regress
There is no limits to human progress.

WHAT IS HUMAN SETTLEMENT?

Vancouver Declaration defined human settlements as follows:

Human settlements means the totality of the human community - whether city,
town or village - with all the social, material, organizational, spiritual and cultural
elements that sustain it. The fabric of human settlements consists of physical elements and services to which these elements provide the material support. The
physical components comprise
Shelter, i.e. the superstructures of different shapes, size, type and materials erected by mankind for security, privacy and protection from the elements and for his
singularity within a community
Infrastructure, i.e. the complex networks designed to deliver to or remove from
the shelter people, goods, energy or information
Services cover those required by a community for the fulfilment of its functions
as a social body, such as education, health, culture, welfare, recreation and nutrition.
Doxiadis, Constantinos A. (1913-1975)
Born in Greece, Constantinos A. Doxiadis,
Graduated from the Athens Technical University and later obtained a
Doctorate at Charlottenburg University, Berlin.
Chief Town Planning Officer for the Greater Athens Area
Head of the Department of Regional and Town Planning in the Ministry of Public
Works.
After W.W.II he founded Doxiadis Associates, a private consulting firm that undertook architectural and engineering projects throughout the world. The firm
specialized in implementing the principles of ekistics ( The study of Human Settlements) that Doxiadis developed in numerous publications.
Design of Islamabad, the planned capital of Pakistan, and also contributed significantly to national master plans in Ghana, Iran, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and Greece.

ELEMENTS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Nature
Man
Society
Shells
Network

GROWTH OF SETTLEMENT

Energy model of the central settlement of

a system of villages. Daily per capita energy
consumption, 12,000 calories.

Energy model of the central

settlement of a system of villages during the era of the automobile. Daily
per capita energy consumption, 25,000
Calories

Energy models of the central settlement of a system of villages during

the era of the automobile and of Daily per capita energy
Consumption (left) 45,000 calories; (right) 100,000 calories.

SHAPING OF SETTLEMENTS
-maximization of mans potential contacts with the elements of nature
-minimization of the effort required for the achievement of mans actual and potential contacts
-optimization of mans protective space, which means the selection of such a distance from other persons, animals, or objects that he can keep his contacts with
them (first principle) without any kind of sensory or psychological discomfort.
-optimization of the quality of mans relationship with his environment, which consists of nature, society, shells (buildings and houses of all sorts), and networks
man organizes his settlements in an attempt to achieve an optimum synthesis of
the other four principles, and this optimization is dependent on time and space, on
actual conditions, and on mans ability to create a synthesis.

ECUMENOPOLIS: TOMMORROWS CITY

The cities of the future will be extra-human in dimension, therefore our task is
to create them as a web of many communities with human dimensions. Such
cities will finally be interconnected in
one continuous network, the Ecumenopolis, which will retain its human content
despite its size.
Ecumenopolis on the earth in the year
2120, by which time it is expected
that the population of the earth will
have Leveled off at a minimum of
20,000,000,000 people, and the population of the definitely urban areas at a
minimum of 18,000,000,000 people.

DEATH OF CITIES-STORY OF SQUARE

Cause for the decay

Three big events are responsible for
these changes.
An unprecedented increase of population,
The socialization encompassing all political systems and social classes and
The emergence of the machine in our
lives

Expected questions from module I

short answer questions(5 marks)
1.Explain the characteristics of society
2.Describe the term accommodation.
3.Briefly trace the origin of settlement.
4.explain the functions of family
5.distinguish between progress and evolution
6.discuss the need for settlement
7.Explain the term sociology of architects
8.describe the features of human settlements in ancient society
Essays (10 and 20 marks)
9..Describe the changing trend in human settlement.
10Discuss the relevance of studying sociology for architects
11.explain the term social change and discuss the factor of social change.

MODULE -II
SOCIETY CULTURE AND ARCHITECTURE
Culture and society, cultural lag, Deviant sub culture, Culture and civilization, Society and environment, Social change, Factors of social change, Social stratification, rural & Urban, class & cast,social change in Kerala-structural, occupational,
rural, religious, housing and Urbanization Man Environment and Society. Unity
and diversity in India. Rural society, Village community, traditional patterns and
trends of change. Society, architecture and settlement pattern of Kerala.
Cultural anthropology, Culture and architecture. Concept of social structure. Relation between social structure and spatial structure. Social aspects of housing.
Social problems of slums

WHAT IS CULTURE

The English word Culture is derived from the Latin term cult or cultus meaning tilling, or cultivating or refining and worship. In sum it means cultivating and
refining a thing to such an extent that its end product evokes our admiration and
respect. This is practically the same as Sanskriti of the Sanskrit language. The
term Sanskriti has been derived from the root Kri (to do) of Sanskrit language.
Three words came from this root Kri; prakriti (basic matter or condition), Sanskriti (refined matter or condition) and vikriti (modified or decayed matter or
condition) when prakriti or a raw material is refined it becomes Sanskriti and
when broken or damaged it becomes vikriti.

CONCEPT OF CULTURE

Culture is a way of life. The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the language
you speak in and the God you worship all are aspects of culture. In very simple
terms, we can say that culture is the embodiment of the way in which we think
and do things.
It is also the things that we have inherited as members of society. All the
achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be called culture. Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion and
science can be seen as aspects of culture. However, culture also includes the
customs, traditions, festivals, ways of living and ones outlook on various issues
of life. Culture thus refers to a human-made environment which includes all the
material and nonmaterial products of group life that are transmitted from one
generation to the next.
There is a general agreement among social scientists that culture consists of
explicit and implicit patterns of behaviour acquired by human beings. These may
be transmitted through symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of
human groups, including their embodiment as artefacts. The essential core of
culture thus lies in those finer ideas which are transmitted within a group-both
historically derived as well as selected with their attached value. More recently,
culture denotes historically transmitted patterns of meanings embodied in symbols, by means of which people communicate, perpetuate and develop their
knowledge about and express their attitudes toward life. Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and thinking. It may be seen in our
literature, in religious practices, in recreation and enjoyment.
Culture has two distinctive components, namely, material and non-material.
Material culture consists of objects that are related to the material aspect of our
life such as our dress, food, and household goods. Non-material culture refers to
ideas, ideals, thoughts and belief. Culture varies from place to place and country
to country. Its development is based on the historical process operating in a local, regional or national context. For example, we differ in our ways of greeting
others, our clothing, food habits, social and religious customs and practices from
the West. In other words, the people of any country are characterised by their
distinctive cultural traditions.

CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

The word culture and civilization are often used synonymously. However, they
have clearly defined meanings differentiating them. Civilization means having
better ways of living and sometimes making nature bend to fulfil their needs.
It also includes organizing societies into politically well-defined groups working
collectively for improved conditions of life in matters of food, dress, communication, and so on.
Thus some groups consider themselves as civilized and look down upon others.
This disposition of certain groups has even led to wars and holocausts, resulting
in mass destruction of human beings. On the other hand culture refers to the
inner being, a refinement of head and heart. This includes arts and sciences, music and dance and various higher pursuits of human life which are also classified
as cultural activities.
One who may be poor and wearing cheap clothes may be considered uncivilized, but still he or she may be the most cultured person. One possessing ostentatious wealth may be considered as civilized but he may not be cultured
therefore, when we think of culture, we have to understand that it is different
from civilization. As we have seen, culture is the higher levels of inner refinement of a human being. Humans are not merely physical beings. They live and
act at three levels: physical, mental and spiritual. While better ways of living
socially and politically and better utilization of nature around us may be termed
as civilization. This is not enough to be cultured. Only when the deeper levels of
a persons intellect and consciousness are brought into expression can we call
him/her cultured.
More. This is how culture is transmitted and carried forward from generation
to next generation. The culture we inherit from our predecessors is called our
cultural heritage. This heritage exists at various levels. Humanity as a whole has
inherited a culture which may be called human heritage. A nation also inherits
a culture which may be termed as national cultural heritage. Cultural heritage
includes all those aspects or values of culture transmitted to human beings by
their ancestors from generation to generation. They are cherished, protected
and maintained by them with unbroken continuity and they feel proud of it.
A few examples would be helpful in clarifying the concept of heritage. The Taj
Mahal, Swami Narayan Temple of Gandhinagar and Delhi, Red Fort of Agra, Delhis Qutub Minar, Mysore Palace, Jain Temple of Dilwara (Rajasthan) Nizamuddin
Aulias Dargah, Golden Temple of Amritsar, Gurudwara Sisganj of Delhi, Sanchi
Stupa, Christian Church in Goa, India Gate etc., are all important places of our
heritage and are to be protected by all means. Besides the architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectual achievements, philosophy,
treasures of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries are also the part of
heritage.
In Indian context the contributions of Baudhayan, Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya
in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology; Kanad and Varahmihir in
the field of Physics; Nagarjuna in the field of Chemistry, Susruta and Charak in
the field of Medicines and Patanjali in the field of Yoga are profound treasures of
Indian Cultural heritage.

Culture is liable to change, but our heritage does not. We individuals, belonging
to a culture or a particular group, may acquire or borrow certain cultural traits
of other communities/cultures, but our belongingness to Indian cultural heritage
will remain unchanged.
Our Indian cultural heritage will bind us together e.g. Indian literature and scriptures namely Vedas, Upanishads Gita and Yoga System etc. have contributed a
lot by way of providing right knowledge, right action, behaviour and practices as
complementary to the development of civilization.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

Now let us discuss some general characteristics, which are common to different
cultures throughout the world.
1. Culture is learned and acquired: Culture is acquired in the sense that there
are certain behaviours which are acquired through heredity. Individuals inherit
certain qualities from their parents but socio-cultural patterns are not inherited.
These are learnt from family members, from the group and the society in which
they live. It is thus apparent that the culture of human beings is influenced by
the physical and social environment through which they operate.
2. Culture is shared by a group of people: A thought or action may be called culture if it is shared and believed or practiced by a group of people.
3. Culture is cumulative: Different knowledge embodied in culture can be passed
from one generation to another generation. More and more knowledge is added
in the particular culture as the time passes by. Each may work out solution to
problems in life that passes from one generation to another. This cycle remains
as the particular culture goes with time.
4. Culture changes: There is knowledge, thoughts or traditions that are lost as
new cultural traits are added. There are possibilities of cultural changes within
the particular culture as time passes.
5. Culture is dynamic: No culture remains on the permanent state. Culture is
changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes
modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristics of culture that
stems from the cultures cumulative quality.
6. Culture gives us a range of permissible behaviour patterns: It involves how an
activity should be conducted, how an individual should act appropriately.
7. Culture is diverse: It is a system that has several mutually interdependent
parts. Although these parts are separate, they are interdependent with one another forming culture as whole.
8. Culture is ideational: Often it lays down an ideal pattern of behaviour that is
expected to be followed by individuals so as to gain social acceptance from the
people with the same culture.

IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN HUMAN LIFE

Culture is closely linked with life. It is not an add-on, an ornament that we as

human beings can use. It is not merely a touch of colour. It is what makes us human. Without culture, there would be no humans. Culture is made up of traditions, beliefs, way of life, from the most spiritual to the most material. It gives us
meaning, a way of leading our lives.

Human beings are creators of culture and, at the same time, culture is what
makes us human.
A fundamental element of culture is the issue of religious belief and its symbolic
expression. We must value religious identity and be aware of current efforts to
make progress in terms of interfaith dialogue, which is actually an intercultural
dialogue. As the world is becoming more and more global and we coexist on a
more global level we cant just think theres only one right way of living or that
any one is valid.
The need for coexistence makes the coexistence of cultures and beliefs necessary. In order to not make such mistakes, the best thing we can do is get to know
other cultures, while also getting to know our own. How can we dialogue with
other cultures, if we dont really know what our own culture is? The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty and Goodness are closely linked with
culture.
It is culture that brings us closer to truth through philosophy and religion; it
brings beauty in our lives through the Arts and makes us aesthetic beings; and it
is culture that makes us ethical beings by bringing us closer to other human beings and teaching us the values of love, tolerance and peace.

CULTURE LAG

The termcultural lagrefers to the notion thatculturetakes time to catch up with

technological innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are caused by
thislag.
when the material conditions change, changes are occasioned in the
adaptive(Non material) culture, but these changes in the adaptive(Non material)
culture do not synchronize exactly with the change in the material culture, this
delay is the culture lag.
o
The term cultural lag refers to the notion that culture takes time to catch
up with technological innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are
caused by thislag.
o
Cultural lag is not only a concept, as it also relates to a theory and explanation in sociology.
o
Cultural lag helps to identify and explain social problems and to predict
future problems.
o
This delay is the cultural lag.
o
Cultural lag creates problems for a society in different ways.
o
The term cultural lag refers to the fact that culture takes time to catch
up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems.

Ogburns Theory

o
Thus, his theory is often associated with technological determinism, a reductionist theory that presumes a societys technology drives the development
of its social structure and cultural values.
o
Ogburn, in fact, proposed a slightly different variant of soft determinism,
in which society must adjust to the consequences of major inventions, but often
does so only after a period of cultural lag.

o
Cultural lag, a term coined by Ogburn, refers to a period of maladjustment, which occurs when the non-material culture is struggling to adapt to new
material conditions.
o
Diffusion is the spread of an idea from one cultural group to another, or
from one field of activity to another.
o
Any retardation of this adjustment process causes cultural lag.

DEVIANT CULTURE CULTURE

While small societies tend to be culturally uniform, large industrial societies are
culturally diverse and involve numerous subcultures.Subculturesare values and
norms distinct from those of the majority and are held by a group within a wider
society.
Adeviant subcultureis asubculture, which has values and norms that differ substantially from the majority of people in a society.

SOCIETY AND ENVIRONMENT

WHAT IS ENVIRONMENT?
Environment is made of those things which though distinct from us affect our life
or activity in some way.it consist of all surroundings and influences whatsoever,
that are present whenever an event occurs.it refers to those forces situations or
stimuli that affect the environment from outside.
Environment thus consist of various forms;
FORMS OF ENVIRONMENT?
Physical environment-geographical, climatic and controlled geographical environment
Biological environment-plants and animals found all around man
Social environment- 3 types(economic, culture and psycho-social environment)
Supra-social environment- notion regarding god or supernatural power.
What is PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT?
Physical environment composed of those conditions that nature provides for
man.it includes all its physical features and natural resources, distribution of land
and water, mountain and plains,minerals,plants etc
Further divided into controllable and uncontrollable
Uncontrollable- suns and stars the winds and rain
Controllable-plains, rivers and streams
INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT?
Physical environment plays a predominant role in determining the behaviour of
the individuals and groups.
Mans surroundings closely influence his activities
Relationship between social development and physical environment:
Population,Economic life,Means of communication,Social Life
Political Life

POPULATION
The physical conditions of a country profoundly influence the distribution , size
and density of its population.
Plains are most densely populated and the mountains sparsely populated, density of population is small in desert areas and in those places which suffer from
lack of rainfall. Temperature, humidity and rainfall are the factors which determine the density of population.
PHYSICAL NECESSITIES
Topography of a country effects the human habitation, diet, dress and animal
husbandry
Habitation and geography have close relation.
ex: eskimo tribe lives in snow house use animal skin for garments and utilize fish
and seal for food
Houses in the mountains are made of wood and stone while those in the plain
are built of brick and cement.
DIET
Dietary habits are affected by the topography
In Kerala rice is our staple food.
In Punjab they use wheat.
Same manner the dress habits are also related to the geography.
Animal husbandry is also related to the specified areas. Camels are found in Rajasthan, goats and sheeps in the hills ,cows and buffaloes in the plains.
OCCUPATION
Mans occupation also are largely influenced by the geographical factors.
Coastal area fishing is a main occupation
Oil wells are found in Assam
There are more sugar mills in UP because of sugarcane crop.
ECONOMIC LIFE
Greater density of population is found on plains, hence major industries are
found here. economic life of the people living in the plains is more prosperous
and active.
In hilly areas the industrial growth is difficult terrain is uneven and rocky, occupation of people are animal husbandry, cultivation of dry fruits, tea and wood
works.
In deserts the lack of transport and communication, hence the economic life is
naturally backward.no agriculture.
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
In the plains there is a wide network of roads and railways. Transport is easier.
Generally there are fewer means of transport and communication in hilly area
which makes industrial growth difficult.
In desert the means of communication and transport is poor. Hence there is little
contact with the civilized world. No education

POLITICAL LIFE
Social environment consist of three kinds of environment, Economic, Cultural
and Psycho-social environments
Economic environment- economic goods. Houses and roads, lands and gardens,
domestic animals, machines, in short all the comfort and conveniences which
man has made to deliver him out of the state of nature
Economic environment determines the life and character of society.
Ex- industrial revolution was followed by remarkable transformation in law
and government ,structure of classes, distribution of population, in customs,
thoughts and beliefs
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
Cultural environment includes the customs , traditions, laws, modes of thought
and forms of knowledge which form mans cultural inheritance.
Every aspects of social life, relationship, ownership etc are controlled by elaborated system known as tradition, these tradition express the culture of group to
which they belong.
Psycho-social environment is the most pervasive of all environment and is so
necessary to the life of a man. Life of the individual can be totally explained in
terms of it. (it relates to ones psychological development in and interaction with
social environment.individuals need not be fully aware of this relationship with
their environment)

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

WHAT IS SOCIAL STRATIFICATION?

The process by which individual and group are ranked in a more or less enduring
hierarchy of status is known as stratification.
Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher and lower social
units.
Stratification tends to restrict interaction, so that there is more interaction of
given sort within strata than between strata
STRATIFICATION?
Derives from the geological concept of strata-rock layers created by natural processes
The term most commonly relates to the socio-economic concept of class, involving the classification of persons into groups based on shared socio-economic
conditions a relational set of inequalities with economic,social,political and
ideological dimensions
ORIGIN OFSTRATIFICATION?
Origin is to be found in the conquest of one group by another.
Conquering group set themselves upper class
Conquered group- lower class
Social stratification during different time period
Slave and Master
Guild system, Feudal lord and worker
Rise of middle class(industrialization)
- lower middle class -upper middle class

WHAT IS CLASS?
Is large set of people regarded by themselves or others as sharing similar status
with regard to wealth, power and prestige
MAJOR FORMS OF STRATIFICATION
Primitive communalism Characterized by a high degree of sharing and minimal
social inequality
Slavery- involving great social inequality and the ownership of some persons by
others.
Caste- in which an individual is permanently assigned to a status based on his or
her parents status
Estate- in which peasants are required by law to land owned by the noble class
in exchange for food and protection from outside attacks.
CRITERIA OF CLASS DISTRIBUTION
By birth-early medieval period status was fixed by birth
By wealth emergence of middle class in industrial period.
By occupation- profession directly reflect on the wealth
Polity (political system)-(democratic and aristocratic political systems )
Education those with higher degree of education to illiterate
WEBERS THREE DIMENSIONS OF STRATIFICATION (THREE COMPONENT
THEORY OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION)
Class A persons economic position in a society

-(group)set of people with similar amounts of income and wealth.
Party(Power)- A persons ability to get their way despite the

resistance of others
A set of people with similar amounts of power
Status - A persons prestige ,social honour or popularity in
a society.-(group)a set of people with similar social prestige or positive regard
from members of a society.

CLASS AND CASTE

A principle difference between class and caste is that class in open for all and
social mobility is possible.
In the caste system the vertical mobility is not possible.
Caste in India has religious background and everybody tries to fulfil the caste duties, but in class system of social stratification religion has place. There the physical and mental qualities are more important
Caste and Class jointly determine the position of an individual in social strain.
Particularly in rural communities where caste system has maintained its rigidity.
It forms the basis for economic and special life. In a single village there may be as
many as 24 castes and of these are interdependent. Even in the urban society a
constant tendency to make caste distinction is observed in the upper and middle classes. Thus the castes have maintained their importance in class system of
social stratification.

CASTE

CLASS

Membership of a cast is hereditary

and no amount or struggle and
change it.

A person is placed class by virtue of

his acquisition of education, wealth
or other achievement.

There is no social mobility.

Social mobility is possible, i.e. it is

possible to improve social status

Members are normally not conscious Members are generally conscious of

of their social status
their social status.
Caste system expects members of
follow certain customs, folkways,
rituals etc.

Social class has no prescribed

customs rituals and folkways

Inter-caste marriage is not possible,

CASTE
because it will earn wrath of society

Marriage between two individuals

CLASS
belonging to different classes is
possible without earning displeasure
of the society

Caste system is based on inferiority

or superiority of human beings.
Therefore, does not promote
democracy.

Social classes are based on

superiority or inferiority of social
status of an individual. Social
classes help in working of
democracy.

In caste system the members must

follow a particular religion.

Members of social classes may

follow any religion

Caste system is a closed class

system in which hereditary status is
the life time status.

Social classes are open class

system in which movement from one
class to another is completely
unrestricted.

In caste system, there is no

CASTE
occupational mobility,
i.e. one has to
follow occupation of ancestors and it
cannot be changed

As a member of social class one can

CLASSand change it
adopt any occupation
at will.

Social gap between members of

different castes is too wide.

Social gap is not as wide as in caste

system.

Caste system is supported on

religious grounds

Social classes have no such

religious a support.

SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change refers to any modification in established patterns of inter human

relationship and standards of conduct.Change is a law of nature shall be different
from what it would be tomorrow.The word change denotes a difference in anything observed over some period of time. Social change therefore would mean,
observable difference in any social phenomenon over any period of time.Social
change can be referred to modifications which take place in the life pattern of
people. It does not refer to all the changes going on in the society. Example Art,
Language, Technology, Philosophy etcSocial change will mean, variations of any
aspect of social process, social patterns, social interactions, or social organisations. It is a change in the institutional and normative structure of a society.
NATURE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change is a universal phenomenon. Social change occur in all societies.
Population changes, technologies expand, materials, equipment changes, institutional structure and functions undergo reshaping. The speed and extent of
change may differ from society to society. Some change rapidly other change
slowly.
Social change is community change. Social change does not refer to the change
in the life of an individual or life patterns of several individuals. It is a change
which occurs in the life of the entire community. Change can be called social
change whose influence can be felt in a community form. Social change is social
and not individual.
Speed of social change is not uniform. In most societies it occurs slowly that it is
often not noticed by those who live in them. Social change in urban area is faster
than in rural areas.
Nature and speed of social change is affected by and related to time factor. The
speed of social change is not uniform in each age in the same society. Example
before and after industrial revolution
Social change occur as an essential law. It may occur either in the natural course,
or as a result of planned efforts. To satisfy our desire for change and our changing needs social change become a necessity.
Definite prediction of social change is not possible. It is difficult to make any prediction about the exact form of social change.
Social change shows chain reaction sequence. A societies pattern of living is a
dynamic system of interrelated parts. Therefore change in one of these part
usually reacts on other. Until they bring a change in whole mode of life of many
people.
Social change results from the interactions of a number of factors. A special factor may trigger a change but it always associated with other factors, that make
the triggering possible, the reason is that social phenomenon are mutually interdependent. Modifications of one part influences the other part. And these
influences the rest until the whole is involved.
Social changes are chiefly those of modification or of replacement. Modification:
of physical goods or social relationships. Replacement of old technology to new
technology. Aristocracy to democracy.

FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Demographic,Technology,Cultural,Political,Economic,Education
DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Change in population, both in number have a far reaching effect on society.
When population increases or decreases, size and composition of a population
changes.
Change in the size of a population may bring about a change in the economic life
of the people, which may further bring about a change in various other aspects
of human life like social, cultural and political
Increase in population resulted in an increase in unemployment, in poverty, in
urbanisation, in the number of slums and an increase in the burden on infrastructural facilities. These in turn , have resulted in the absence of adequate
facilities, rice in nuclear families and overtime have altered social relationship in
a perceptible manner
TECHNOLOGY AS A FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Development and change in human societies have been linked with development and change in technology.
From the viewpoint of technology, the production organisation developed some
specific features.
Economy started to be based on differentiation, complex division of labour, huge
production and a mechanised system of production. Large companies and corporations came into being some of which with the passage of time have acquires a
multinational character.
CULTURAL FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
By cultural factors we refer mainly to ideas, knowledge, values, beliefs, inventions and exchange. Culture provides the base for inventions and discoveries.
Social system create cultural values. Any changes in values or belief can affect
social institution.
Social change occurs through cultural contact between different societies. Diffusion is an important mechanism of social change. One society adopts the cultural
traits of another through prolonged contact as in travel, trade , commerce or
even war.
While cultural diffusion quickly change the material life of people, non material
aspects like religion, ideology and beliefs are slow to change. This phenomenon
is known as cultural lag.
POLITICAL FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
State and legislation bring about social changes.
Laws ensure uniformity of behaviours among diverse group of individual,
Laws mitigate social evils and uplift lower sections
Law alter age old customs which are considered a hindrance to social stability
and progress. Example ban of sati, child marriage, untouchability. Etc.
Beside law the right to vote and role of election are also important factor of social change.

Elections are a form of political communication between the government and

the governed. They are a means by which the rulers become sensitive to the
demands of the people,- this way of communication between the electorate and
the elected leads to social change
ECONOMICAL FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Changes that happened due to industrial revolutions had a dramatic influence
on social relationship and brought a lasting social change.
Role of women changed with their economic independence.
Production relationship changed to employer and employee
Caste structure weakened
Urbanisation- dependence on family decreased
Emergence of middle class in society it also influences political discourse idea
of democracy
EDUCATION AS A FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Education plays an important role in social change. It is responsible for handing
down tradition, culture , knowledge and skills from one generation to another.
It acts as a agent of social change, new ideas and values are initiated by it and
become the goals for the young generation to pursue and achieve
Society thus achieves two goals through education
To socialise, shape and develop the individual according to the social needs
To fulfil societys needs concerning human resources such as training for the specialised skills in industry and technology of the modern economy.

VILLAGE COMMUNITY

Village generally means a small area with small population which follows agriculture not only as an occupation but also as a way of life.
Village is the oldest permanent community of man
EVOLUTION OF VILLAGE COMMUNITY
Primitive village community ancient village community was very small group of
ten or twenty families. Owing to smallness of size everybody know each other.
Due to lack of means of communication and transport the members of the village community were separated from other community. Land was a common
property.it was a group trust.
Medieval village community - the primitive village community underwent a fundamental change by the time of middle ages. Feudal system came to existence.
Land belong to lord of some sort.land was tilled by tenants whose relation was
that of slave and master
Modern village community with the rise of industrialism in modern times the
rural group began to lose its importance. Now urban group began to dominate
civilization.in spite of growth of urbanism it is a fact that even at the present
time a large proportion of population lives in villages. In india, about 75 percent
of the population live in villages.

FEATURES OF VILLAGE COMMUNITY

Community consciousness village dwellers have a sense of unity. Relation
between the village people are intimate. They know each other. common rituals
and culture. structurally and functionally the village is a unit.
Role of neighbourhood in a village neighbourhood is of great importance.in
village people assist each other and thus they have closest neighbourhood relations
Joint family
Faith in Religion
Simplicity

URBAN

By 2007 or 2008, half of the worlds population will live in urban areas.

POPULATION AND URBANIZATION

Urbanization:Process in which people increasingly move from rural areas to
densely population cities
Jobs define urban vs. rural, not populations
Rural area occupations involve harvesting natural resources
Urban area occupations involve jobs not connected with natural resources
People are moving to cities due to decrease in employment opportunities in
rural areas
Characteristics of Urban Population
Basic characteristics of city populations:

-Diverse population in terms of race, ethnicity, religion and

socioeconomic status

-Younger population than local rural area
Urbanization Trends
Urbanization is increasing rapidly

-Especially in developing countries
Worlds 10 largest cities are in developing countries

Urbanization Trends
Urban Agglomeration
Urbanized core region that consists of several adjunct cities or megacities and
their surrounding developed suburbs
Substandard Housing
-Typically occupied by squatters
-Illegally occupy unsafe housing
-No city services
-Water, sewage, garbage collection, police and fire protection
-1/3 of urban population in developing countries are squatters
-Homelessness is present in lower numbers in developed countries.
City as an Ecosystem
POET

Population

Number of people

Organization

Social structure of city

Environment

City infrastructure and natural environment

Technology
Human intervention that directly affects the urban environment
Four variables are dependent on each other and interact like parts of a natural
ecosystem
Environmental Problems in Urban Areas
Growing urban areas affect land use patterns

Fragment wildlife

Encroach wetlands, forests, desert, etc.
Brownfields

Urban areas of abandoned industrial or residential sites that may be

contaminated from past use
Impermeable surfaces and urban runoff discharged into waterways
Motor oil, lawn fertilizers, heavy metals.

Environmental Problems in Urban Areas

Long commutes

-Traffic congested streets

-Buildup of airborne emissions due to cars and industry
Noise pollution
Urban heat island

-Local heat buildup in an area of high population density

-Affect local air currents and weather conditions

-Contribute to buildup of pollutants- dust domes
Urban Heat Island

Temperature variations on a summer afternoon

Environmental Benefits of Urbanization

Well-planned city can benefit the environment

Reduces pollution

Preserves rural areas
Compact Development

Design of cities where residential buildings are close to shopping, jobs

and public transportationEx: Portland, Oregon
Urban Land Use Planning
Land use based on economic concerns From center of city outwards:

City center- Central Business District (highest taxes)

Residential properties (lower taxes than city center)

Land intensive businesses (even lower taxes)

Suburbs (lowest taxes)
Parks and green space are interspersed
Land Use Planning

Process of deciding the best use for undeveloped land in a given area
Influenced by political and economic factors
Regulated through zoning

Cities divided into use zones

Commercial

Residential

Industrial
Property owners must meet zoning ordinances
Suburban Sprawl
Patchwork of vacant and developed tracts around the edges of cities
Problems

Loss of wetlands

Air pollution

Water pollution

Loss of biological habitat

TYPES OF URBAN PLACES

TRANSPORTATION HUBS where ship, train, and truck routes connect. While
acts as an link between two placesEx:Calcutta, Siliguri(gateway to north east)
TOURIST CITIES Where people spent their vacation as a result of its unique
physical or human feature. Ex: Kashmir, Darjeeling
RESOURCE BASED COMMUNITIES Where there is a presence of a rich natural
resource. And major economy is related to work in those natural resources Ex:
kolar-goldmines,
RESOURCE BASED COMMUNITIES Where there is a presence of a rich natural
resource. And major economy is related to work in those natural resources Ex:
kolar-goldmines,
GOVERNMENT CENTRES Where local, regional and national government services are provided. Administrative centers of the state/country. Eg: Delhi,
Thiruvananthapuram

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Is a social science that studies cultures around the world

Cultural anthropologists have to remain objective and discourage generalizations
The goal of cultural anthropology is to prevent ethnocentrism and instead to
promote cultural relativism.
ETHNOCENTRISM
Ethnocentrism is the belief that ones cultural group is centrally important and
superior to others
We are ethnocentric when we use our cultural norms to make generalizations
about other peoples cultures and customs.
Ethnocentrism leads to cultural misinterpretation and it often distorts communication between human beings.
CAN YOU THINK OF EXAMPLES?
Some very simple examples of ethnocentric thinking. .. ..
We often talk about British drivers driving on the wrong side of the road. Why
not just say opposite side or even left hand side?
We talk about written Hebrew or Arabic as reading backward. Why not just say
from right to left or in the opposite direction from English.
We consider certain types of art naive or primitive
While ethnocentric views are not necessarily intended, they have led to major
human disasters throughout history causing
Bullying, Discrimination, Intolerance, War, Genocide.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Anthropologists promote cultural relativism to help understand diversity.
Cultural relativism - the principle that a persons beliefs and activities make
sense in terms of his or her own culture.
Cultural relativism explains human diversity as a logical outcome of the diverse
environments in which humans live.
Therefore, everything is relative. Nothing is right or wrong.
FEMALE BEAUTY: is it a cultural universal?
Why or Why not?

FOOD?

SOME AIMS OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:

-To provide objective insight into other cultures
-To help preserve valuable knowledge, cultural practices and languages around
the world
-To foster cross-cultural empathy, understanding and collaboration
-To emphasize similarities among human cultures and help bridge their differences and misunderstandings.

CONCEPT OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE

In the social science, social structure is the patterned social arrangements in

society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of the individuals.
On the macro scale social structure is the system of socio economic stratification
(class structure), social institutions or other patterned relation between large
social group.
On the meso scale, it is the structure of social network ties between individuals
or organizations.
Social structure has been identified as
The relationship of definite entities or group to each other.
Enduring(long lasting) patterns of behaviour by participants in a social system in
relation to each other and
Institutionalised norms or cognitive frameworks that structure the actions of actors in the social system
Social structure has been identified as
The relationship of definite entities or group to each other.
Enduring(long lasting) patterns of behaviour by participants in a social system in
relation to each other and Institutionalised norms or cognitive frameworks that
structure the actions of actors in the social system
Social structure can also be divided into
Microstructure and macrostructure.
Microstructure is the pattern of relations between most basic elements of social
life, that cannot be further divided and have no social structure of their own(
for example: pattern of relations between individuals in a group composed of
individuals-where individuals have no social structure, or a structure of organisations as a pattern of relations between social positions or social roles, where
those positions and roles have no structure by themselves)

Macrostructure is thus a kind of second level structure a pattern of relations

between objects that have their own structure (for example , a political social
structure between political parties , as political parties have their own social
structure)

RELATION BETWEEN SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND SPATIAL

STRUCTURE.

Macrostructure is thus a kind of second level structure a pattern of relations

between objects that have their own structure (for example , a political social
structure between political parties , as political parties have their own social
structure)
Many of the factors contributing to social exclusion can be addressed by better
planning in relation to land use, transport and services infrastructure, and urban
design.
All these areas often are grouped under the term spatial planning, an umbrella
term for all planning that involves physical space.
Given the magnitude of the task of combating social exclusion, and the
Potential that good spatial planning holds for addressing some of the most basic
issues underpinning social exclusion.
THERE ARE MANY THINGS THAT SPATIAL PLANNERS CAN DO TO:
1. Prioritise social inclusion
2. Incorporate good governance for social inclusion.
3. Assess all spatial planning against diverse needs
4. Consider the social impact of development
5. Promote joined-up thinking across agencies and levels of government
6. Remove barriers to, and where possible promote, affordable housing
7. Promote good health and wellbeing for all
8. Provide the infrastructure for, and arrange development around, affordable
And accessible transport
9. Bring basic services closer to people
10. Help socially excluded people to access employment
11. Encourage the activities of community service organisations.
The objective of spatial planning is to create the greatest good for the greatest
number.
In addressing this challenge, planners have historically worked with models of
average citizens. In recent years, however, planners have become increasingly
attuned to the different needs of different social subgroups.
These include different age groups (children, young people, older people), the
Different genders and people facing physical or intellectual disability.

Example of spatial planning:

MAKING SHOPPING CENTRES WORK FOR ALL AGES.
Shopping areas are a basic service for all to purchase daily needs. But for young
people, shopping centres are also important places to congregate and socialise
away from parents and schools. Coercive approaches to young people gathering
in shopping centres provoke conflict. Provision of flexible spaces
In shopping centres specifically designed for young people to congregate without interfering with other pedestrian traffic, the provision of youth centres within shopping centres, including the placement of a youth
Worker; and clustering youth orientated businesses to create a youth precinct
can help reduce conflict and meet younger peoples needs.
AFFORDABLE HOUSING DESERVES GOOD DESIGN
All too frequently, affordable housingwhether social housing or private stock
has been built for quantity, not quality.
1. In designing new mixed-tenancy development, seamless tenurewhere tenure is not readily identifiable by housing type, design or locationis critical to
overcoming the stigma associated with public housing and to maintaining diversity in a community.
2. Private developments of smaller, higher density housing also have to be held
to high design standards if neighbourhood opposition to their construction is to
be overcome and if they are to be seen as a safe investment by prospective purchasers, especially owner occupiers.
3, however, the smaller-scale builders involved in small-scale redevelopments
often have even greater trouble than larger companies in dealing with complex and uncertain planning processes, and find it harder to adopt new designs,
technologies and processes to cut costs and improve quality; as a consequence,
they will require assistance, whether through less complex planning processes or
through design and technology advice, to develop good-quality complexes.
THE HEALTHY SPACES AND PLACES CHECKLIST
Healthy Spaces and Places, an Australian National guide to designing places for
healthy Living, identifies a number of key design Principles to plan for healthy
communities, Including:
Active transport: travel modes that Involve physical activity, such as walking
And cycling, including the use of public Transport that is accessed via walking or
cycling.
Aesthetics: the attractiveness of a place or Area, which affects the overall experience and use of a place (e.g. walking, cycling, Viewing and talking).
Connectivity: the directness of links and The number of connections in a path,
Street or road network, and the ease with Which people can walk and cycle
around a Neighbourhood and between places.
Environments for all people: places that Are safe and easily accessible for everyone, regardless of age, ability, culture or income, with a suitable range of facilities and Services that is available to all.

 Mixed density and land use: complementary Uses, such as houses catering to
every Stage of life, shops, schools, offices, Libraries, open space and cafes, co-located to promote active transport to and between different activities. People are
more likely to walk, cycle or take public transport when they can conveniently
undertake multiple activities at one destination.
Parks and open space: land reserved for passive recreation, sport and recreation, preservation of natural environments, green space and/or urban storm
water Management.
Safety and surveillance: perceptions of safety that influence the nature and
extent that people use spaces and places. Design that aims to reduce crime can
enhance the physical, mental and social wellbeing of a community.
Supporting infrastructure: facilities that encourage regular and safe physical
Activity, such as walking (footpaths, lighting, water fountains and signs),
Cycling (bike paths, bike lockers, signs and showers), public transport (safe shelter, lighting and signs), social interaction (seating, shade, shelter and toilets) and
recreation (seating, play equipment and facilities).
INCLUSIVE PUBLIC SPACES WHERE PEOPLE AND COMMUNITIES CAN CONNECT
One of the key factors differentiating social exclusion from simple poverty is
social isolation, which consistently has been linked to poor mental and physical
outcomes.
For instance, a range of studies have shown strong correlations between social
Isolation and depression, mental illness and dementia; another series of studies
have found significant correlations between social isolation and mortality from
almost every cause of death. In both of these instances, it is vital that people
have places in which to connect, as well as the ability to reach them. Spatial
planners can help create the conditions for social interaction by ensuring that
communities have facilities for socialising and community connectioncommunity halls, libraries with open spaces for socialising, facilities for communitybased organisations, spaces for co-location of Government and community
sector services and cafes, indoor sports areasand that these are connected to
transport routes and are centrally located where possible.Protection may also be
necessary for spaces currently performing social functions, such as school buildings or churches.
ASPECTS OF SOCIAL HOUSING
Social housing is affordable housing. A key function of social housing is to provide accommodation that is affordable to people on low incomes. Limits to rent
increases set by law mean that rents are kept affordable.

Expected questions from module II

short answer questions(5 marks)
1.write a brief note on settlement pattern of kerala
2.briefly discuss the problems of slums
3.what do you mean by the term village community
4.define cultural anthropology
Essays (10 and 20 marks)
5.discuss the socio-economic and cultural changes in kerala society
6.explain the term social change and discuss the factors of social change
7.Define culture and discuss the relationship between culture and architecture.
8.discuss the major forms of social stratification
9.Explain civilization and its influence on settlement pattern
10.Describe the relationship between social structure and spatial structure
11.explain human settlements and its effect on environment and also discuss
Eco friendly settlements
12Explain the importance of culture and discuss the cultural diversity in india.

MODULE -III
ECONOMICS
Definition and scope of economics-basic terms and concepts -goods, utility,
value-wealth-factors of production-law of diminishing marginal utility indifference curve analysis law of demand -law of supply Production possibility curve
and technological choice

Sociology and Economics

Sociology and economics both study industry but do so differently. Economics
would study economic factors of industry, productivity, labour, industrial policy,
marketing, etc., whereas a sociologist would study the impact of industrialisation
on society.
Economists study economic institutions such as factories, banks, trade and transportation but are not concerned with religion, family or politics. Sociology is interested in interaction between the economic institutions and other institutions
in society, namely, political and religious.
Social life, in modern times, is very complex and no discipline by itself can study
all of it in depth. While each social discipline focuses on a particular aspect of
the society, there is need to keep in mind the inter-relations of institutions of
society. Only some social sciences have been discussed so as to give a feel of
relationships among social sciences. Similar analysis of the relation of sociology
can be made to philosophy, history, public administration, etc.
Economics
DEFINITION OF ECONOMICS
It is very difficult to define economics because economics is very dynamic
subject. Its scope keeps on changing rather expanding. Still for proper
understanding of any subject, it becomes necessary to define it as close as
possible.
Economics is the social science that is concerned with the production,
distribution and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes
from the Ancient Greekoikonomia, management of household, administration from oikos, house + nomos, customor law, hence rules of the house
(hold). Current economic models developed out of the broader field of political
economy in the late 19th century, owing to a desire to use of an empirical approach more akin to the physical science.
Economics aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact. Economic analysis is applied throughout society, in business, finance and
government, but also in crime, education, the family, health, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, and science. The expanding domain of economics in
the social science has been described as economic imperialism.
The above description of economics shows the nature of economics in modern
context. It tells that economics can be used for raising the living standard of people and their welfare. However, it also wants that economic issues or economic
objectives might become a tool in the hands of people,who want to exploit it for
ulterior motive like separation from others.
However, now we can discuss some formal definitions given by the
economists over a period of time.

INITIAL DEFINITION OF ECONOMICS THAT RELATES TO WEALTH

Adam Smith is considered to be the first to provide a formal definition of
economics contained in his book, An enquiry into the nature and causes
of wealth of nation published in 1776. Because of this great contribution
of Adam Smith, he is regarded as the father of economics. He defined
economics as the science of wealth, that is, he regarded economics as the
science that studies the production and consumption of wealth. However,
another great economist J.S. Mill defines economics as the practical science
of the production and the distribution of wealth. This definition of J.S. Mill
Nature and Scope of Economics 3 was mentioned in the concise Oxford dictionary. J.B. Say is a French economist who is a well known classical economist. He
defined economics as the science which treats of wealth, that is, economics
studies about the wealth.
All the above classical economists assign greater importance to the
wealth as the centre of economic studies. If this definition is taken narrowly,
it creates a problem. However if the concept of wealth is defined in broader
perspective to take into account scarce goods and services used to satisfy
wants, etc. In that case, the definition becomes more acceptable. But it
appears that these economists have defined wealth in a very narrow sense.
Therefore, the definition of economics becomes quite narrow. Such limited
definition of economics focussing around the wealth seems to restrict the
scope of economics as such.
Economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute them among different people.
Behind this definition are two key ideas in economics: that goods are scarce and
that society must use its resources efficiently. Indeed, economics is an important
subject because of the fact of scarcity and the desire of scarcity.
SCOPE OF ECONOMICS
The horizon of economics is gradually expanding. It is no more a branch
of knowledge that deals only with the production and consumption.However,
the basic thrust still remains on using the available resources efficiently while
giving the maximum satisfaction or welfare to the people on a sustainable basis.
Given this, we can list some of the major branches of economics as under:
1. Microeconomics: This is considered to be the basic economics. Microeconomics may be defined as that branch of economic analysis which studies the economic behaviour of the individual unit, may be a person, a particular household,
or a particular firm. It is a study of one particular unit rather than all the units
combined together. The microeconomics is also described as price and value
theory, the theory of the household, the firm and the industry. Most production
and welfare theories are of the microeconomics variety.

2. Macroeconomics: Macroeconomics may be defined as that branch of economic analysis which studies behaviour of not one particular unit, but of all the units
combined together. Macroeconomics is a study in aggregates. Hence it is often
called Aggregative Economics.
It is, indeed, a realistic method of economic analysis, though it is complicated
and involves the use of higher mathematics. In this method, we study how the
equilibrium in the economy is reached consequent upon changes in the macrovariables and aggregates.
The publication of Keynes General Theory, in 1936, gave a strong impetus to the
growth and development of modern macroeconomics.
3. International economics: As the countries of the modern world are realising
the significance of trade with other countries, the role of international economics is getting more and more significant nowadays.
4. Public finance: The great depression of the 1930s led to the realisation of the
role of government in stabilising the economic growth besides other objectives
like growth, redistribution of income, etc. Therefore, a full branch of economics
known as Public Finance or the fiscal economics has emerged to analyse the role
of government in the economy. Earlier the classical economists believed in the
laissez faire economy ruling out role of the government in economic issues.
5. Development economics: As after the second world war many countries got
freedom from the colonial rule, their economics required different treatment for
growth and development. This branch developed as development economics.
6. Health economics: A new realisation has emerged from human development
for economic growth. Therefore, branches like health economics are gaining momentum. Similarly, educational economics is also coming up.
7. Environmental economics: Unchecked emphasis on economic growth without
caring for natural resources and ecological balance, now, economic growth is
facing a new challenge from the environmental side. Therefore, Environmental
Economics has emerged as one of the major branches of economics that is considered significant for sustainable development.
8. Urban and rural economics: Role of location is quite important for economic
attainments. There is also much debate on urban-rural divide. Therefore, economists have realised that there should be specific focus on urban areas and rural
areas. Therefore, there is expansion of branches like urban economics and rural
economics. Similarly, regional economics is also being emphasised to meet the
challenge of geographical inequalities.

There are many other branches of economics that form the scope of economics.
There are welfare economics, monetary economics, energy economics, transport
economics, demography, labour economics, agricultural economics, gender economics, economic planning, economics of Infrastructure, etc.
Supply And Demand, Definitions.
In the context of supply and demand discussions, demand refers to the quantity
of a good that is desired by buyers. An important distinction to make is the difference between demand and the quantity demanded. The quantity demanded
refers to the specific amount of that product that buyers are willing to buy at
a given price. This relationship between price and the quantity of product demanded at that price is defined as the demand relationship.
Supply is defined as the total quantity of a product or service that the marketplace can offer. The quantity supplied is the amount of a product/service that
suppliers are willing to supply at a given price. This relationship between price
and the amount of a good/service supplied is known as the supply relationship.
When thinking about demand and supply together, the supply relationship and
demand relationship basically mirror each other at equilibrium. At equilibrium,
the quantity supplied and quantity demanded intersect and are equal.
In the diagram below, supply is illustrated by the upward sloping blue line and
demand is illustrated by the downward sloping green line. At a price of P* and
a quantity of Q*, the quantity demanded and the supply demanded intersect at
the Equilibrium Price. At equilibrium price, suppliers are selling all the goods that
they have produced and consumers are getting all the goods that they are demanding.

This is the optimal economic condition, where both consumers and producers
of goods and services are satisfied.

The Law of Demand

Very simply, the law of demand states that if all other factors remain constant, if a goods price is higher, fewer people will demand it. As the price of
that good goes down, the quantity of that good that the market will demand
will increase. In the diagram below, you see this relationship. At price P1, the
quantity of that good demanded is Q1. If the price of this good were to be decreased to P2, the quantity of that good demanded would increase to Q2. The
same is true for P3 and Q3. When prices move up or down (assuming all else
is constant), the quantity demanded will move up or down the demand curve
and define the new quantity demanded.

The Law of Supply

After understanding the law of demand, the law of supply is simple; its effectively the inverse of the law of demand. The law of supply states that as the
price rises for a given product/service, suppliers are willing to supply more.
Selling more goods/services at a higher price means more revenue. In the
diagram below, you can see that as the price shifts from P1 to P2, the quantity supplied of that good shifts from Q1 to Q2. The movement in price (up or
down) causes movement along the supply curve and the quantity demanded
will change accordingly.

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECONOMICS

Introduction
In Economics, there are certain concepts and terms. Their knowledge is indispensable prior to the start of study of principles of economics. There is a set
of divergence in the meaning of these terms as used in normal life and in economics. To make the study of economics unambiguous, it is practical to comprehend these basic concepts or terms. Some major concepts are discussed in
this chapter.
Goods
Goods mean material merchandise which can be witnessed felt and shifted.
Goods are classified into material and non-material goods. Material goods
are tangible; they can be noticed, handled and relocated. On the contra, nonmaterial goods are intangible and they do not possess any character or power
and cannot be observed, fingered or transmitted. Services of all types of goods
such as doctors, engineers, lawyers, teachers etc., are non-material goods. But
both the types have values in monetary terms.
Economic goods are those which have price and value. Their supply is generally
lesser than the demand. Non-Economic goods are price free goods such as free
gifts which have no price and are unlimited in supply. Air, water, light and heat
are some examples of non-economic goods.
Consumer goods are those which are readily being consumed and satisfy the
needs to the customers directly. Whereas Producers goods such as machinery,
plants etc., serves the customers directly or indirectly. They help in production
of other goods.

Utility
The needs fulfilling power of a product is called utility. It is a quality possessed
by a product or service to satisfy human requirements. Utility is based on the
following types. They are
i.
Forms Utility - When utility is created by changing its shape or form and
consumed is termed as form utility. For instance, a wood is turned into a shape
of furniture.
iv. Service Utility - When the professionals does service according to the
needs of the customers forms the service utility.
v.
Possession Utility - If for instance, an Economics book on principles is
been possessed by an economic student, then it creates possession utility.
Measuring Utility
Economist Marshall states that the utility of a commodity is measured in monetary terms. For instance, if the utility of a stool is equal to $ 50 and that of a
chair is $ 100, then the utility of one chair is equal to twice of stool utility.
Value
Value and Value-in-use are divergent meanings. Value in general means price
value. For instance, if we are hungry and need food and nearby is a fruit tree
which is easy accessible, then eating a fruit from the tree quenches hunger.
This is known as Value-in-use. In economics value means value in exchange,
where goods and services are exchanged for some consideration.
Value in Price
In general, the meanings of value and price are the same, which is money.
In economics, value and price are two different terminologies. Price is value
articulated in terms of money. Value is uttered in terms of other goods. Value is
virtual concept in association to the concept of price. It means there cannot be
a general rise or fall in values but prices can have rise or fall.
Wealth
Wealth means money, property, gold etc. But in economics it is used to portray
all things that have value. For a product to be called wealth, it must possess
utility, scarcity and transferability. In the event of lacking even one quality it
cannot be connoted as wealth.
Forms of Wealth
i.
Individual Wealth - Wealth owned by individuals is called private or individual wealth. Eg: House property, Gold, Vehicle Etc.
ii.
Social Wealth - Goods owned by the society as a whole such as Temples,
Roads, Forests Etc.
iii. National or Real Wealth - It includes individuals, society as a whole and
its wealth. It comprises of material assets possessed by the society. National
wealth is the real wealth.
iv. International Wealth - The UNO, UNESCO, WHO, IMF, World Bank consists of International wealth since all nations contribute towards the benefit of
these organisations.

v.
Financial Wealth - Financial wealth is holding of money, stocks, bonds, etc.
by individuals in the society. Financial wealth is expelled from national wealth.
This is because money, stocks are held by individuals as wealth are claims against
one another.

PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY CURVE

In economics, a productionpossibility frontier (PPF), sometimes called a productionpossibility curve, production-possibility boundary or product transformation curve, is a graph that shows the various combinations of amounts of two
commodities that could be produced using the same fixed total amount of each
of the factors of production. Graphically bounding the production set for fixed
input quantities, the PPF curve shows the maximum possible production level
of one commodity for any given production level of the other, given the existing
state of technology. By doing so, it defines productive efficiency in the context of
that production set: a point on the frontier indicates efficient use of the available
inputs, while a point beneath the curve indicates inefficiency. A period of time is
specified as well as the production technologies and amounts of inputs available.
The commodities compared can either be goods or services.
A PPC shows it takes the form of the curve
on the right. For an economy to increase
the quantity of one good produced, production of the other good must be sacrificed. Here, butter production must be
sacrificed in order to produce more guns.
PPC represent how much of the latter
must be sacrificed for a given increase in
production of the former.
Such a two-good world is a theoretical simplification, due to the difficulty of
graphical analysis of multiple goods. . If we
are interested in one good, a composite
composite score of the other goods can be generated using different techniques.
Furthermore, the production model can be generalised using higher-dimensional
techniques such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and others.
For example, assume that the supply of the economys factors of production
does not change over time, in order to produce more butter, producing guns
needs to be sacrificed. If production is efficient, the economy can choose between combinations (i.e. points) on the PPC: B if guns are of interest, C if more
butter is needed, D if an equal mix of butter and guns is required.
In the PPC, all points on the curve are points of maximum productive efficiency
(i.e., no more output can be achieved from the given inputs); all points inside the
frontier (such as A) can be produced but ,

productively inefficient; all points outside the curve (such as X) cannot be produced with the given, existing resources. Not all points on the curve are Pareto
efficient, however; only in the case where the marginal rate of transformation is
equal to all consumers marginal rate of substitution and hence equal to the ratio
of prices will it be impossible to find any trade that will make no consumer worse
off.

INDIFFERENCE CURVE ANALYSIS

In microeconomic theory, an indifference curve is a graph showing different bundles of goods between which a consumer is indifferent. That is, at each point on
the curve, the consumer has no preference for one bundle over another. One can
equivalently refer to each point on the indifference curve as rendering the same
level of utility (satisfaction) for the consumer. Utility is then a device to represent
preferences rather than something from which preferences come.
The main use of indifference curves is in the representation of potentially observable demand patterns for individual consumers over commodity bundles.
Examples of indifference curves
Figure 1: An example of an indifference map with three indifference curves represented
In Figure 1, the consumer would rather be on
I3 than I2, and would rather be on I2 than I1,
but does not care where he/she is on a given
indifference curve. The slope of an indifference
curve (in absolute value), known by economists
as the marginal rate of substitution, shows the
rate at which consumers are willing to give up
one good in exchange for more of the other
good. For most goods the marginal rate of substitution is not constant so their indifference
curves are curved. The curves are convex to
the origin, describing the negative substitution effect. As price rises for a fixed
money income, the consumer seeks less the expensive substitute at a lower indifference curve.
The negative slope of the indifference curve incorporates the willingness of the
consumer to make tradeoffs.
If two goods are perfect substitutes then the indifference curves will have a
constant slope since the consumer would be willing to switch between at a fixed
ratio. The marginal rate of substitution between perfect substitutes is likewise
constant. An example of a utility function that is associated with indifference
curves like these would be.
If two goods are perfect complements then the indifference curves will be Lshaped.

Examples of perfect complements include left shoes compared to right shoes:

the consumer is no better off having several right shoes if she has only one left
shoe - additional right shoes have zero marginal utility without more left shoes,
so bundles of goods differing only in the number of right shoes they includes however many - are equally preferred. The marginal rate of substitution is either
zero or infinite.

Expected questions from module III

short answer questions(5 marks)
1.Explain factors of production
2.what is the law of diminishing marginal utility
Essays (10 and 20 marks)
3.Explain law of demand and law of supply
4.Describe indifference curve analysis