Exercise Program Design

for Structural Firefighters

Mark G. Abel, PhD, CSCS*D, TSAC-F*D, USAW,1 Thomas G. Palmer, CSCS, ATC,2 and Nick Trubee, MS, CSCS1
Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky; and 2School of Human
Services, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio

ABSTRACT
STRUCTURAL FIREFIGHTING IS A
PHYSICALLY DEMANDING AND
HAZARDOUS PROFESSION THAT
REQUIRES SUFFICIENT LEVELS OF
PHYSICAL FITNESS TO ENHANCE
OCCUPATIONAL PREPAREDNESS,
SAFETY, AND HEALTH. A COMPREHENSIVE EXERCISE PROGRAM
SHOULD BE IMPLEMENTED TO
ACHIEVE THE REQUISITE PHYSICAL
FITNESS. A NEEDS ANALYSIS IS
PRESENTED TO ENSURE THAT AN
EXERCISE PROGRAM ADDRESSES
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOMECHANICAL DEMANDS OF OCCUPATIONAL TASKS. IDENTIFYING
SPECIFIC NEEDS WILL PROMOTE
ENHANCED WORK EFFICIENCY
AND A DECREASED RISK OF
FIRE GROUND INJURIES AND
CHRONIC DISEASE. IN ADDITION,
THE FIREFIGHTING OCCUPATION
PRESENTS INHERENT CHALLENGES TO DEVELOPING AN
APPROPRIATE TRAINING PROGRAM. PROGRAMMATIC TRAINING
STRATEGIES ARE PRESENTED TO
OVERCOME THESE CHALLENGES.

irefighting is a physically demanding and hazardous profession. To

effectively prepare firefighters for
occupational demands, an appropriate exercise program must be designed.
The exercise program parameters should
be based on information generated from
a needs analysis. A needs analysis provides the practitioner with critical information regarding physiological and
biomechanical demands of job tasks,

commonly incurred injuries, chronic diseases, and an assessment of the firefighters physical ability. This article
provides a description of a needs analysis
and presents training strategies to
improve work efficiency and reduce the
prevalence of injuries and chronic disease
among structural firefighters.
NEEDS ANALYSIS

A needs analysis evaluates the physiological and biomechanical requirements

of occupational tasks, common injuries
incurred, and an assessment of each firefighters ability to meet these diverse
physical requirements. Collectively, this
information provides feedback, which
can be used to implement assessment
and training practices specific to the
needs of a fire department. Furthermore,
practitioners can use the needs analysis
data to track trends in individual work
efficiency, injury and disease occurrence,
employment lost time, and training performance outcomes.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

A physiological analysis involves identification of occupational tasks (i.e., job

task analysis) performed and the primary energy system(s) that these tasks
use. Figure 1 provides a sample of a physiological analysis for structural firefighters. In brief, firefighters perform
a variety of fire ground tasks that use
each energy system. These tasks may
involve advancing a charged hose line
toward a burning structure (i.e., phosphagen energy system), dragging a victim from a burning structure (glycolytic
energy system), and performing salvage
tactics to reduce water damage (oxidative energy system). An effective training

VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015

program must strategically apply exercise

stimuli to address these varied metabolic
demands. A discussion of appropriate
training strategies to enhance work efficiency is presented in the Periodization
section.
BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS

A biomechanical analysis is used to evaluate the primary movement patterns

critical to occupational tasks. The practitioner must identify the primary planes
of motion, the muscles, joints, and types
of muscle contraction used to complete
a given task. A sample biomechanical
analysis and appropriate training exercises are provided in Table 1. It is important to note the similarities and novelties
of movement patterns across fire ground
tasks. For instance, many fire ground
tasks are performed in the sagittal plane
and require isometric contractions to stabilize the torso while performing unilateral extension of the ankle, knee, and hip.
Per the specificity training principle,
exercises should mimic movement patterns specific to those of fire ground tasks.
Specificity practices will assist in the promotion of enhanced task performance
and decrease risk of injury (29).
INJURY ANALYSIS

Because of impending occupational

hazards, firefighters are at risk for
a vast number of musculoskeletal injuries.
Annually, firefighters incur approximately 80,000 injuries, which cost billions
of dollars in treatment and lost time from
employment (19,40). Researchers are
KEY WORDS:

exercise; resistance training; strength and

conditioning; tactical

Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association

ground are classified as a sprain or

strain (19). Strains and sprains predominately occur to the lower extremity,
trunk/lumbar spine, and the shoulder
(32). Recently, Poplin et al. (32) reported that lifting efforts (e.g., patient
transport, physical exercise, and training drills) were among the primary
contributors to 76% of all sprains and
strains, which occurred exclusively to
the lower leg and lumbar spine. Additional research has reported similar
findings, which indicate that the lumbopelvic region is a primary area of
interest when preparing firefighters
for work related stressors (29).

Figure 1. Physiological analysis for structural firefighters.

focusing on evaluating intrinsic physical

fitness characteristics to understand how
firefighters should prepare for the often
unpredictable extrinsic environment of
fire operations (33). As a result, research
has analyzed common risk factors of
musculoskeletal injuries and proposed
occupational safety recommendations
and exercise training practices focused
on the prevention of musculoskeletal injuries (2,32). For instance, greater aerobic
capacity has been found to be associated
with a reduced risk of injury in firefighters (33).
Firefighters perform physically demanding tasks in often unusual and hazardous
environments, which challenge both the
cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems. Performing high-intensity tasks
under load while breathing through a respirator is a common practice for a firefighter. Fire ground operations are often
accompanied with slippery and/or
unstable surfaces, space limitations, and
limited visibility. Firefighters must be
reactive and prepared to exert unpredictable degrees of strength, power, agility,
and mobility at any time. Many tasks
require whole-body-kinetic chain movements, which result in unpredictable
loads and load transfers, resulting in musculoskeletal injury. Such circumstances

leave firefighters prone to overuse and

traumatic musculoskeletal injuries.
INJURY MECHANISMS AND TYPE

Because of the impending risks and

potential hazardous work environments,
musculoskeletal injuries are often associated with mechanisms related to 1 or
a combination of the following: direct
trauma, falling episodes, being struck
by an object, carrying heavy objects/
patient transport, overexertion, physical
training, fire operations, or idiopathic
(19,40). These indirect barriers increase
the potential for compromised movement patterns, which result in potential
overload to the musculoskeletal system.
Volunteer versus full-time employment,
age, obesity, and years of experience have
also been linked to an increase in musculoskeletal injuries (18,19,32). Younger firefighters and those with less experience
typically suffer ailments related to exhaustion, whereas older firefighters suffer
musculoskeletal injuries (40). Thus, it
seems appropriate for fire departments
to provide specific strength, conditioning,
and mobility components in a program
to address the needs of diverse demographics within a fire department.
Thirty-four percent of moderate-tosevere injuries incurred on the fire

Deficits in muscular strength, mobility,

and neuromuscular control have been
reported to contribute to musculoskeletal injury risk (20,24,29). Deficits are
often linked to a lack of regular exercise
and specificity of training routines (29).
Research has demonstrated that achieving an adequate physical fitness level has
been associated with a decreased injury
occurrence (33). Although the efforts to
improve musculoskeletal deficits are
well documented in the literature, these
efforts are often limited in a practical
setting due to lack of monetary resources
to support the hiring of qualified fitness
professionals and availability of adequate
training facilities (32). In a recent report
among firefighters, a majority of the
musculoskeletal injuries resulted from
physical training (32). Although not
explicitly stated by the authors, these
findings are likely attributed to the
potential deficits in the management of
fitness training programs. The impending threat for musculoskeletal injury and
reported cases of training injuries calls for
the need of professional guidance and
well-managed programs by qualified
strength and conditioning professionals.
It has been reported that faulty movement patterns may predispose individuals to injury and are the result of poor
neuromuscular control, muscle weakness, and/or muscle imbalances (20,29).
Improper movement patterns have been
surmised to create unnatural stressors on
the kinetic chain resulting in poor biomechanics and inefficient load transfers
(24,29). Furthermore, occupational tasks

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Program Design for Firefighters

Table 1
Biomechanical analysis of fire ground tasks
Taska

Muscle and joint action

Stair climb with

hose pack

Plane of motion

Exercise

 Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, obliques, and  Sagittal

transversus abdominis

 Lunge with unilateral

kettle bell

 Static scapular retraction

 Step-up with unilateral

kettle bell

 Static shoulder abduction and elbow flexion

 Unilateral hip/knee/ankle extension
Hose hoist

 Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, obliques, and  Sagittal

transversus abdominis

 Upright unilateral cable/

kettle bell row

 Hip/trunk flexion and extension

 Frontal

 Good morning

 Scapular protraction and retraction

 Transverse

 Glut-ham

 Unilateral horizontal shoulder abduction and elbow flexion

Walking hose pull  Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, obliques, and  Sagittal
transversus abdominis

Kneeling hose
pull

 Sled pull

 Static scapular retraction and elbow flexion

 Split squat

 Unilateral hip/knee/ankle extension

 Plank

 Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis and transversus  Transverse

abdominis

 Kneeling unilateral cable

row

 Scapular protraction and retraction

 Hip hinge

 Horizontal shoulder abduction and elbow flexion

 Back extension

 Isometric contractions of the hip and knee

Equipment lift
and carry

 Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis and transversus  Sagittal

abdominis

 Farmers carry

 Static scapular retraction

 Deadlift

 Unilateral hip/knee/ankle extension

Ladder raise

 Hip flexion and extension

 Sagittal

 Static scapular retraction

 Turkish get-up
 Lunge with unilateral DB
shoulder press

 Shoulder flexion with elbow extension

Forcible entry

 Dynamic contractions of rectus abdominis, obliques, and  Transverse

transversus abdominis

 Wood chop

 Static scapular retraction

 Sledge hammer swing on

tire

 Sagittal

 Hip and shoulder rotation with elbow extension

Search

 Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis and transversus  Sagittal

abdominis
 Contralateral shoulder/hip flexion/extension

10

VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015

 Frontal

 Quadruped progression

Table 1
(continued )
Victim drag

Breach and pull

 Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, transversus

abdominis, and erector spinae

 Sagittal

 Tire drag

 Static: scapular retraction, shoulder flexion, elbow flexion

 Split squat

 Unilateral hip/knee/ankle extension

 Reverse lunge with kettle

bell

 Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, transversus

abdominis, and erector spinae

 Sagittal

 Lat pulldown

 Shoulder flexion/extension

 Frontal

 DB front raise

 Extension and flexion of ankle/knee/hip

 Back squat

DB 5 dumbbell.
a

Photographs of these tasks can be found in Abel et al. (3).

often require detailed movement characteristics, which facilitate potential overuse

mechanisms and/or temporary faulty
patterns predisposing firefighters to injury
(20,29,32). In addition, firefighters may be
required to perform fire ground tasks in
awkward positions, which compromises
movement efficiency and potentially increases the risk of injury. In theory, efforts
to balance muscle deficits and mimic
proper occupational movement patterns
may reduce the risk of injury and promote better management practices. For
instance, Peate et al. (29) reported a 42%
reduction of injury and 62% decrease in
time lost due to injury in firefighters after
an intervention that targeted flexibility
and strength exercises for the proximal
muscles that support the pelvis, spine,
and trunk. The authors concluded that
improving mobility and strength at these
proximal segments likely improved the
firefighters ability to function and adapt
to awkward and unpredictable body positions associated with occupational hazards (29). Table 2 summarizes exercise
selection to reduce injury risk. Given
the importance of functional movement
for firefighters, it seems logical to use
functional movement tests for prescreening or monitoring occupational preparedness. These tests are discussed in the
Firefighter Assessments section below.
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE RISK

Although not considered an acute occupational injury, cardiovascular disease

(CVD) is a significant concern that produces fatalities within the Fire Service.
Approximately, 100 deaths occur among
on-duty firefighters each year (10). Fortyfive percent of these deaths were due to
CVD (10). Most of the reported cardiac
events were associated with a clustering
of CVD risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, obesity, and
a sedentary lifestyle (4,8,9,34). A comprehensive list of CVD risk factors and associated thresholds is provided elsewhere
(30). Many firefighters possess elevated
CVD risk profiles leading to on-duty
cardiac events and in some cases,
early retirement (4). Although there
are numerous wellness strategies to
decrease the risk of CVD (e.g., smoking
cessation, dietary modification, etc.), the
focus of this section is on the relationship
between firefighter physical fitness and
CVD risk, and the physical activity recommendations for health benefits.
CARDIORESPIRATORY FITNESS
AND CARDIOVASCULAR
DISEASE RISK

Sufficient levels of cardiorespiratory fitness are necessary to safely perform fire

ground tasks and maintain cardiovascular
health (4). Specifically, several essential
fire ground tasks require an energy expenditure of at least 42 mL$kg21$min21 (i.e.,
12 metabolic equivalents [METs])
(25,41). Interestingly, Baur et al. (4) examined the cardiorespiratory fitness levels
among a cohort of over 900 firefighters

and found that only 44% exceeded a 12MET aerobic capacity. Furthermore,
Baur et al. (4) evaluated the relationship
between cardiorespiratory fitness and
CVD profiles among firefighters. The researchers reported that firefighters who
had an aerobic capacity greater than 12
METs possessed favorable triglyceride,
cholesterol, and fasting glucose levels
compared with firefighters who did not
achieve 12 METs. Moreover, epidemiological research in the general population
suggests that improving maximal aerobic
capacity by 1 MET is associated with
a 15% reduction in CVD risk (21). Thus,
it is important to enhance firefighters
cardiorespiratory fitness to improve occupational physical ability and reduce the
risk of cardiovascular disease.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
RECOMMENDATIONS

Physical activity recommendations to

reduce CVD risk consist of accumulating (.10 minutes bouts) 30 minutes
per day of moderate-intensity (.64%
of maximum heart rate) physical activity on at least 5 days per$week (5).
Durand et al. (9) investigated the physical activity in a sample of over 500
firefighters. Greater than 75% of the
firefighters engaged in less than the
recommended amount of physical
activity (9). In addition, this investigation demonstrated that an increase in
exercise frequency had the most beneficial effect on reducing CVD risk (9).

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11

Program Design for Firefighters

Table 2
General injury prevention exercise summary
Exercise category

Purpose

 General kinetic chain flexibility  Posterior kinetic chain flexibility

Exercise

 Ankle dorsiflexion, hip flexion/extension, rotation,

shoulder overhead, and thoracic spine mobility

 Shoulder/hip, upper/lower
extremity mobility
 Dynamic mobility

 Isolated muscular endurance

of the proximal segments

 Promote kinetic chain

intersegmental dependency/
synergy

 Overhead squat

 Lumbopelvic control

 Walking in-line lunge

 Promote kinetic chain stability/

synergy

 Lateral/prone/supine planks

 Lumbopelvic isometric muscular

endurance

 Isometric postures; tall kneeling, in-line lunge

 Postural stability
 Total body strength

 Promote muscular strength

 Isotonic exercises

 Rotational uniplanar strength

 Olympic-style lifts
 Kettlebell lifts
 Elastic band resistance

 Perturbation/neuromuscular
control

 Kinetic chain intersegmental

 Sling training
dependency, lumbopelvic control
 Rotational incremental stability

 BOSUTM/swiss ball

 Kinesthetic awareness

 Wobble board
 Eyes open/closed

 Plyometrics for strength and

power

 Promote explosive power in

multiple planes

 Ball toss/upper extremity

 Jump training
 Chop and lift

Other studies have also demonstrated

that enhanced physical fitness and
physical activity levels facilitate a reduction in CVD risk factors (4,9,21,34).
Obesity, a positive risk factor for CVD, is
of particular concern in the Fire Service.
Obesity is often assessed using body mass
index (BMI). However, it is important for
practitioners to understand that BMI is
limited by its ability to identify the composition of tissues and the distribution of
fat mass. Therefore, alternative assessments are recommended to evaluate
body composition and fat distribution,
such as skinfold and waist circumference
measures, respectively. Regarding obesity

12

in the Fire Service, Durand et al. (9) reported that nearly 90% of the participating firefighters in the study were classified
as overweight or obese. Increasing fat loss
through exercise and dietary behaviors is
important to reduce the risk of CVD
because some research seems to refute
the notion that individuals can be fit,
but fat. Specifically, Farrell et al. (11)
demonstrated that possessing a high cardiorespiratory fitness level did not
decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease
mortality among overweight and obese
individuals. Therefore, the physical activity recommendations to manage body
weight and prevent gradual unhealthy

VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015

body weight gain in adulthood include

performing at least 150 minutes per week
of moderate-intensity physical activity
(7). Performing greater than 250 minutes
per week of moderate-intensity physical
activity is associated with clinically significant weight loss (7). In summary, 1 effective strategy for improving CVD risk
factors among firefighters is through regular participation in a comprehensive
exercise program.
FIREFIGHTER ASSESSMENTS

It is important to regularly assess the

physical fitness, functional movement,
and occupational physical ability of

the United States. However, it is recommended that structural firefighters

possess a minimum aerobic capacity
of 42 mL$kg21$min21 (25). Data collected in assessments should be used to
evaluate physical fitness levels across
the fire department, establish personal
goals, design an appropriate exercise
prescription, and evaluate progress for
each firefighter.

each firefighter. These assessments

provide critical information regarding
occupational preparedness, potential
for injury, efficacy of current training
practices, and evaluation of training
objectives. The physical fitness assessments should include valid, yet practical measurements of occupationally
relevant physiological outcomes. For
structural firefighters, these measurements should include tests for strength,
power, muscular endurance, anaerobic
threshold, and aerobic capacity. Table 3
provides a summary of suggested tests
to evaluate these outcomes. Currently,
there are no physical fitness standards
for incumbent structural firefighters in

Functional movement assessments

should be performed to identify muscular
imbalances, muscular weakness, and
faulty movement patterns. The functional
assessments should be multifactorial to
encompass static, dynamic, linear, and
multiplanar movement patterns that are

specific to the occupational demands of

firefighters. Establishing a baseline performance before being assigned duty
responsibilities will enable practitioners
to monitor overall, developing, and/or
declining performance variables pertinent
to the safety of firefighters. Examples of
commonly used assessment tools are
provided in Table 3.
An assessment of occupational physical
ability should also be conducted. Testing
should be developed in collaboration
with subject matter experts (e.g., fire
department training officer) and composed of simulated fire ground tasks
commonly performed by a given fire
department (see sample of tasks listed

Table 3
Summary of general needs assessments
Performance construct

Targeted measure

Assessment

 General mobility/
flexibility

 Posterior kinetic chain flexibility

 Sit and reach

 Shoulder/upper-extremity mobility

 Shoulder internal/external rotation

 Dynamic movement

 Kinetic chain balance

 Functional movement screen

 Intersegmental dependency

 Y-balance test

 Lumbopelvic control
 Muscular power

 Dynamic upper- and lower-body power

 Overhead medicine ball toss

 Vertical jump
 Standing long jump

 General muscular
strength

 Dynamic upper- and lower-extremity strength

capabilities

 1 or multiple RM bench press, squat

 General muscular
endurance

 Dynamic kinetic chain muscular endurance

 Push-up, curl-up tests

 Isometric lumbopelvic muscular endurance

 Lateral, prone, supine planks

 Anaerobic threshold

 Lactate threshold

 400-m run
 Blood lactate test

 Cardiorespiratory
endurance

 Aerobic capacity

 Graded exercise test

 12-min test
 Beep test

 Body composition

 Percent body fat

 Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)

 Fat-free mass

 Skinfold

 Fat mass
 Occupational
performance

 Work efficiency

 Occupational physical ability test (composed of

critical job tasks)

RM 5 repetition maximum.

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Program Design for Firefighters

in Figure 1 and Table 1). These tasks may

be timed and performed continuously or
discontinuously in the order for which
they are typically performed on the fire
ground. It is important to note that the
occupational assessment described herein
is not intended to be used for punitive or
promotional purposes, but strictly to estimate firefighters ability to perform common fire ground tasks.
PROGRAM DESIGN FOR
FIREFIGHTERS

Firefighting is a dangerous profession

that requires maximal physical exertion
to complete occupational tasks. Specifically, performance of fire ground tasks
requires sufficient levels of several fitness
attributes, including power, strength,
muscle endurance, anaerobic endurance,
and aerobic endurance (13,36). As a practitioner, it is important to design strength
and conditioning programs that enhance
these attributes as well as any deficiencies
identified for a given firefighter by the
needs analysis assessments.
There are numerous variables that serve
as a foundation to designing strength and
conditioning programs for firefighters.
These variables include exercise selection
and order, training frequency, and exercise session parameters. Exercises should
be selected based on task-specific movement patterns identified in the biomechanical analysis (Table 1). In general,
exercises that are functional and use
major muscle groups and multiple joints
should take precedence in the training
program (i.e., core exercises). Examples
of core exercises for firefighters include
the deadlift, lunge progressions, unilateral
row, and shoulder press. It is generally
recommended that power and other core
exercises are typically performed before
assistance exercises (26).
From an injury reduction standpoint,
recent literature has identified the
muscles that support the spine, pelvis,
and trunk to be critical in preventing
injury and improving performance
outcomes (23). The incremental stability provided by the spinal musculature
is said to provide a proximal base of
support, which allows the hips and pelvis to absorb, transfer, and develop

14

forces (23). The adjacent segments of

the spine, pelvis, and trunk are intersegmentally dependent on 1 another and
should be trained synergistically to
mimic the mobility and stability needs
of common ground fire tasks (23). The
spinal stabilizers are traditionally trained
with low-load isometric muscular endurance tasks, such as planks. However,
more recent literature suggests that additional strength and power training
should be incorporated for the muscles
supporting the proximal segments to the
specific needs of ones activities (23).
Combining low-load static stability exercises targets the spinal stabilizers,
whereas heavier loads will prompt increases in strength and power of all
the muscles that support the spine, pelvis
and trunk. Thus, training kinetic chain
mobility in sequence with endurance,
strength, and power movements specific
to occupational demands seems necessary. Adding unstable surfaces, such as
foot discs or stability platforms will cause
perturbation moments, which can help
enhance the muscular control for the
lumbopelvic region and trunk necessary
when completing fire ground tasks
(20,23). Strength and power movements
with plyometric and/or multiplanar
stimuli at low and high speeds will assist
in promoting strength/power gains necessary for completing rotational demands. At a minimum, performing
mobility, strength, and neuromuscular
control training exercises that mimic
occupational requirements seems to be
appropriate in maintaining preparedness and reducing risk of injury (29).
Training frequency depends on numerous factors including the firefighters
training status and the periodization
scheme. It is recommended that beginners perform 23 resistance training sessions per week, intermediate lifters
perform 34 sessions per week, and
advanced lifters perform 47 sessions
per week (26). The training frequency
of some firefighters may be dictated by
a given fire departments policy for onduty physical training and the departments work schedule (e.g., on-duty
every 3 days). This may mean that firefighters may only be on-duty 23 days

VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015

per week. A practitioner must consider

how to make efficient use of this time
and whether to assign exercise during
off-duty days.
Improvements in select fitness attributes
(e.g., power, strength, endurance) are
achieved based on the composition of
the exercise stimulus. The exercise stimulus is produced by the combination of
the training intensity, volume, and
recovery parameters used in an exercise
session. These parameters are summarized in Table 4. Training intensity is critical as it dictates which fitness attributes
will be improved. Training volume is the
product of load, repetitions, and sets.
Periodization of training intensity and
volume should be systematically manipulated over a macrocycle to achieve the
desired fitness and functional outcomes
(see Periodization Strategies section).
PROGRAMMATIC CHALLENGES

There are several challenges that practitioners face when designing appropriate exercise programs for structural
firefighters. First, unlike many athletes,
firefighters do not have the luxury of
training within the framework of designated seasons (e.g., off-/in-season),
and therefore must continuously be
prepared to perform at sufficient levels.
Second, the practitioner is responsible for
maximizing the capacity of competing
fitness attributes required for the performance of fire ground tasks (e.g., muscular
strength versus aerobic endurance). This
presents a challenge because research
demonstrates that concurrent training
of competing fitness attributes may produce an interference effect, thus reducing improvements in 1 or both of these
fitness attributes (12). Third, it is important to understand how to appropriately
train firefighters on- and off-duty to
maximize occupationally specific physiological adaptations, while minimizing
residual fatigue that may negatively affect
subsequent fire ground performance and
risk of injury. This article reviews theoretical concepts and empirical data to
elucidate appropriate training strategies
to overcome the inherent challenges of
developing effective training programs
for structural firefighters.

Table 4
Resistance training parameters based on training goals and corresponding fire ground tasks
Parameter

Power

Strength

Hypertrophy

Muscle Endurance

Intensity (% 1RM)

75100

$85

6785

#67

Repetitions

15

16

612

$12

Sets

35

26

36

23

Recovery period

25 min

25 min

30 s-1.5 min

# 30 s

Fire ground tasks

 Hose line advance

 Lifting/lowering objects

 Ladder raise

 Load carriage

 Forcible entry

 Victim rescue

 Victim rescue

 Stair climb
 Confined space maneuver
 Salvage
 Overhaul

Data from reference 26.

RM 5 repetition maximum.

PERIODIZATION STRATEGIES

Periodization is a methodological strategy used to manipulate training intensity, volume, and specificity within
defined cycles of a training program to
optimize performance and minimize
the risk of overtraining (26). Periodized
training programs have been shown to
be superior to nonperiodized programs
to improve strength and power in a wide
variety of populations (35). There are
many periodization strategies available.
A brief review is provided of commonly
used periodization strategies and a discussion of which strategies may be most
appropriate for structural firefighters.
These training strategies include linear,
nonlinear, block, conjugate, circuit, and
concurrent.
Linear periodization is characterized by
a progressive change (increase or
decrease) in training intensity and volume throughout a macrocycle or
annual cycle (duration: 1 year) and is
generally considered most appropriate
for lesser trained individuals. Although
there are different interpretations of microcycle construction (e.g., heavy day
versus light day) within the framework
of linear periodization, the overall trend
typically represents an increase in training intensity and decrease in volume

for targeting strength/power and

decreased intensity and increased volume for targeting endurance outcomes
(37). Empirical data indicate that concurrent linear periodization of aerobic
and resistance training is effective at
improving firefighter aerobic capacity
and muscle endurance after 16 weeks
of training (38).
Nonlinear periodization (i.e., undulating) is characterized by large daily or
weekly fluctuations in training intensity
and volume (26) and may be more
appropriate for trained individuals
given that the training stress is typically
greater than linear periodization. Nonlinear periodization may include training
the upper body for strength/power and
lower body for muscle endurance during
the first exercise session of a microcycle
(duration: ;1 week); followed by training, the upper body for muscle endurance and lower body for strength/
power during the second exercise session. One investigation compared the
effects of linear versus nonlinear periodized programs on simulated fire ground
performance (31). This study demonstrated that although both training
groups improved simulated fire ground
performance compared with baseline,
the nonlinear periodized program

yielded superior performance on the

simulated fire ground test.
Block periodization has been used for
decades to train Olympic athletes in
European countries. Block periodization
is characterized by a high concentration
of training workloads with a focus on
a minimal number of fitness outcomes
within a single training phase. The training phases or Blocks (i.e., mesocycles)
are classified as accumulation, transmutation, and realization. The entire cycle of
these blocks lasts about 510 weeks. The
accumulation phase (26 weeks) serves
as a general preparatory period and is
characterized by moderate training intensity, high volume, and moderate movement/metabolic specificity. The focus is
typically on improving aerobic endurance and/or basic strength because these
outcomes may have longer training residuals (16). The transmutation phase (2
4 weeks) is similar to the specific preparatory period and represented by high
training intensity, moderate/high volume, and high movement/metabolic
specificity. The focus is on anaerobic
and muscular endurance, which possess
slightly shorter training residuals (16).
The realization phase (12 weeks) is similar to the competition period and is characterized by high training intensity, low

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Program Design for Firefighters

volume, adequate recovery between

exercise sessions, and high movement/
metabolic specificity. The focus is typically on power and speed, given their
short training residuals (16). Although
limited, empirical evidence seems to support the use of block periodization to
improve anaerobic and aerobic outcomes
in athletic populations (28,39). Its effectiveness has not been evaluated among
firefighter populations. The use of block
periodization for firefighters may be beneficial because unlike nonlinear periodization, it tends to focus on minimal target
outcomes during a training block, thus
reducing an interference effect. In addition, the utilization of short training
cycles facilitates the maintenance of nontargeted fitness attributes and allows for
frequent evaluation of occupationally relevant physiological adaptations.
The conjugate sequence system was
developed for power lifters as a method
to enhance strength and power. The
conjugate system is a training strategy
centered on 3 distinct methods, including maximal effort method, dynamic
effort method, and repetition method.
The goal of the maximal effort method
is to enhance basic strength and is characterized by high training intensity (load
$90% 1 repetition maximum [RM]) and
low training volume with adequate
recovery. The goal of the dynamic effort
method is to improve power output
using high contraction velocities, which
are facilitated by low/moderate training
intensities (5060% 1RM) and high volumes. Finally, the repetition method is
used to enhance metabolic efficiency
through circuit-based training. These
methods are typically combined within
a microcycle. Although frequently used
in athletic and power lifting populations, there is limited published research
on the effectiveness of the conjugate
sequence system.
Circuit training is typically composed
of performing 1 set of multiple exercises in sequential order. The training
parameters commonly include the use
of submaximal loads (e.g., #85% 1RM),
multiple repetitions per set (e.g., $6
repetitions), and brief interexercise
recovery periods (e.g., #60 seconds).

16

Circuit training seems to be a viable

training strategy for structural firefighters given that it simulates the aerobic and anaerobic demands of fire
ground tasks (1).
Concurrent training is characterized by
the simultaneous development of
strength and endurance outcomes. This
method of training seems beneficial for
firefighters given that fire ground tasks
require these fitness attributes. However, research has demonstrated that
concurrent training for strength and
endurance may inhibit the development
of either outcome (15,22,27). This unfavorable training effect is commonly
referred to as the interference phenomenon (12). The presence of an interference effect is supported by applied
concurrent training interventions and
basic research indicating that there
may be incompatible cellular responses
that produce muscular hypertrophy (i.e.,
peripheral strength adaptations) versus
mitochondrial biogenesis (i.e., peripheral aerobic adaptations; (14)). GarciaPallares and Izquierdo (12) presented
several empirically based training strategies to minimize the interference effect.
A brief description of these strategies is
provided. First, use highly concentrated
training loads focusing on 1 strength
and 1 endurance outcome per micro/
mesocycle. Second, to minimize an
interference effect of concurrent training
on strength/power adaptations, do not
perform more than 3 resistance training
sessions per week. Third, avoid performing concurrent resistance training focused
on hypertrophy/local muscular endurance (i.e., 7580% 1RM) with highintensity aerobic training (i.e., 95100%
V O2max), as these noncompatible stimuli produce conflicting peripheral
muscular adaptations. Alternatively,
it is recommended to incorporate
compatible training stimuli, such as
strength/power training with lowor high-intensity aerobic training; or
hypertrophy/muscle endurance resistance training with low-intensity aerobic
training. Fourth, performing aerobic and
resistance exercises on the same day may
produce residual fatigue that will negatively affect strength performance. Thus,

VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015

it is recommended to perform the resistance training exercises first, followed

by aerobic exercise or separate the
exercise sessions by at least 8 hours.
Finally, during concurrent training, it
may be more effective to not perform
resistance training exercises to failure to
improve strength and muscular power
compared with training to failure (17).
Consistently performing resistance
training exercises to failure increases
training intensity and volume and may
induce greater muscle damage and residual fatigue that negatively affects the
quality of subsequent resistance and aerobic training sessions. More research is
necessary to more clearly understand the
effects of these concurrent training strategies for firefighters.
APPLICATIONS OF TRAINING
STRATEGIES FOR FIREFIGHTERS

Periodized training strategies designed for intermediate-to-advanced

firefighters should be directed at (a)
optimizing occupational preparedness
throughout the year, (b) minimizing
the interference effect of (essential)
competing fitness attributes, and (c)
prescribing training parameters (onand off-duty) to maximize physiological
adaptations while minimizing acute
residual muscular fatigue that may
impair subsequent fire ground physical
ability and increased injury risk.
To optimize occupational preparedness
throughout the year, it would seem that
block periodization would be effective
given the repeated short training cycles
(510 weeks) and focus on a minimal
number of fitness attributes during each
training block. Thus, proper sequencing
of training targets will enhance the targeted attributes during stimulation,
while not spending extensive time away
from stimulating any single fitness attribute. A sample block periodization
scheme is presented in Figure 2. Note
that the training targets focus on fitness
attributes proposed to have longer training residuals during the accumulation
block (i.e., strength and aerobic endurance), attributes with moderate training
residuals during the transmutation
block (i.e., anaerobic endurance), and
attributes with short training residuals

Figure 2. Sample of a periodized training program for structural firefighters who are classified as intermediate or advanced lifters.

in the realization block (i.e., speed/

power). Furthermore, the conjugate
method was selected to develop
strength and power during the accumulation block to provide a maximal effort
day to focus on strength development
and a dynamic effort day to reduce the
training stress and focus on power
development (note: the repetition
method was omitted during this training phase to minimize the number of
targeted fitness attributes). During the
transmutation block, a circuit-based
resistance training strategy was selected
to improve anaerobic and muscular
endurance. An example of specific recommendations for circuit training parameters for firefighters is provided
elsewhere (3). Finally, during the realization block, task-specific tactical
training would be performed using
firefighter equipment. This exercise
training may take the form of an obstacle course composed of simulated fire
ground tasks.
Given that muscular strength and aerobic endurance are essential to firefighter
performance, we chose to concurrently
train these outcomes during the accumulation and transmutation blocks.
To minimize the interference effect of

simultaneously improving strength and

endurance outcomes, it is recommended to perform resistance exercises first
during an exercise session. Furthermore,
it is recommended to use compatible
resistance and endurance training loads.
Therefore, during the accumulation
phase, we combined high-intensity
resistance training with moderate- and
high-intensity endurance training. During the transmutation block, the
resistance training focus is on local
muscular endurance; therefore, the
compatible endurance training intensity is below anaerobic threshold.
The strength and conditioning program
described above assumes that the firefighter has some resistance training experience (i.e., intermediate or advanced)
and a requisite physical fitness level.
However, the reality is that many firefighters are unfit and/or overweight or
obese, thus not prepared for the physical
demands of this type of training program. Therefore, in these cases, practitioners should use the progression
principle regarding resistance and aerobic training exercises and focus on
weight management. Thus, it may be
more appropriate to initially implement
a linear periodized training program to

develop a physiological foundation

and focus on improving body composition. Individual firefighters performance and health needs, as identified
by the needs analysis assessments,
should be addressed on a case by case
basis. For example, specific mobility
deficiencies may be addressed after
the exercise session, whereas additional aerobic exercise may be prescribed during off-duty days.
Finally, although the goal of exercise
training is to produce specific physiological adaptations to enhance work
efficiency, it is important to understand how acute muscle fatigue
induced by on- and off-duty training
may impair subsequent fire ground
physical ability and risk of injury. For
instance, Dennison et al. (6) demonstrated that simulated fire ground work
efficiency decreased by 10% immediately after a circuit training exercise
session. At this time, it is unknown
how other modes and intensities of
training may affect subsequent fire
ground performance. However, it is
logical to suggest that firefighters train
on-duty during low-volume emergency call times or at the end of a shift
to reduce the probability of responding

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com

17

Program Design for Firefighters

to a call while substantial fatigue has

accumulated. Likewise, when exercising
off-duty, consideration should be given
to how the exercise session may produce muscle soreness and residual
fatigue that could negatively affect onduty physical ability. Exercising at an
appropriate intensity to produce physiological adaptations without excessive
soreness and fatigue requires that firefighters use the progression principle for
training intensity and volume, and conservatively introduce novel exercises.
Regardless of when training is performed,
it is paramount that the practitioner communicates with each firefighter to determine how they responded to a given
exercise stimulus and modify the program parameters accordingly.

Thomas G.
Palmer is an
Assistant Professor in the
Athletic Training Education
Program in the
School of
Human Services
at the University
of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH.
Nick Trubee is
a PhD student in
Exercise Physiology in the
Department of
Kinesiology and
Health Promotion
at the University
of Kentucky,
Lexington, KY.

SUMMARY

Practitioners face inherent challenges

in developing appropriate exercise
programs for structural firefighters.
Conducting a needs analysis and implementing appropriate periodization
strategies may help to overcome these
challenges and improve firefighter
preparedness, safety, and health. General training recommendations should
target movement patterns and energy
systems, which mimic specific fire
ground tasks, and additional aerobic
endurance training may be necessary
to reduce the risk of chronic disease.
Applying these programmatic strategies will protect the most valuable
piece of equipment in the Fire Service,
the firefighter.
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
The authors report no conflicts of interest
and no source of funding.
Mark G. Abel is
a former firefighter and currently an
Associate Professor and Director
of the Exercise
Physiology Laboratory in the
Department of
Kinesiology and Health Promotion at the
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY.

18

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