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Cell reproduc4on
- each cell ospring inherits DNA from parent cell
- has enough cytoplasm to start opera4on
Life of a cell
DNA replica4on a cell makes copies of its DNA
before it divides, usually happens during interphase
stage
Interphase stage where a cell increases its mass
and doubles its cell components
G2
G1
Interval of cell growth before
DNA replication (chromosomes
unduplicated)
G1
lo
Te
ph
as
cytoplasmic
division; each
descendant cell
enters interphase
Anaphas
G2
Metaphase
P ro p h a s e
Figure 9.4 Animated Eukaryotic cell cycle. The length of each interval differs among cells.
144 UNIT II
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE
G2
Interval after DNA
replication; the cell
prepares to divide
Individual cells or organisms produce offspring by the proG1 Interval (Gap) of cell growth and activity
cess of reproduction.
!
S
Time of Synthesis (DNA replication)
When a cell reproduces, each of its cellular offspring
G2 Second interval (Gap), after DNA replication
hanisms
inherits information encoded in parental DNA along
when the cell prepares for division
with enough cytoplasm to start up its own operation.
one chromatid
proDNA contains protein-building instructions. Some of
its sister chromatid
the proteins are structural materials; others are enzymes
one chromosome
that speed construction
of organic molecules. If a new
S
G1
one chromosome
(unduplicated)
cell
does
not
inherit
all
of
the
information
required
to
Interval
of
cell
growth when
Interval of cell growth before
(duplicated)
the DNA is replicated (all
pring
DNA
replication
build
proteins,(chromosomes
it will not grow or function properly.
chromosomes duplicated)
unduplicated)
long A parent cells cytoplasm contains all the enzymes,
Figure 9.2 A eukaryotic chromosome in the unduplicated
state and duplicated state. Eukaryotic cells duplicate their
tion.
organelles, and
other metabolic machinery necessary
one chromatid
chromosomes before mitosis or meiosis begins. After duplicame of
for life. A descendant cell that inherits a blob of cytotion, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids.
sister chromatid
plasm is its
getting
start-up metabolic machinery that will
ymes
keep it running until it can make its own.
new
one chromosome
ed to
(duplicated)
Meiosis is a nuclear division mechanism that prey. Mitosis, Meiosis, and the Prokaryotes
Figure 9.2 A eukaryotic chromosome in the unduplicatedcedes the formation of gametes or spores, and it is the
mes,
G2
statea and
duplicated
Eukaryotic
In general,
eukaryotic
cellstate.
cannot
simplycells
splitduplicate
in two, their basis of sexual reproduction. In humans and all other
cytoplasmic
ssary
before
mitosis
meiosis
begins.
division;
each
mammals, the gametes called sperm and
becausechromosomes
only one of its
descendant
would
getAfter
the duplicaG2 eggs develop Interval after DNA
A n a p hora scells
cytoe
tion,cell
each chromosome consists
of two sister chromatids.
descendant
from immature
reproductive cells. Spores, which pro- replication; the cell
nucleusand thus, the DNA. A cells cytoplasm
M esplits
taphase
t will
P ro p h a s e
prepares to divide
enters interphase
tect and disperse new generations, form during the life
only after its DNA has been packaged into more than
cycle of fungi, plants, and many
kindsends
of protists.
one nucleus by way of mitosis or meiosis.
Interphase
for parent cell
As you will discover in this chapter and the next,
Mitosis is a nuclear division mechanism that occurs
Meiosis is a nuclear division mechanism that premeiosis and mitosis have much in common. Even so,
in the somatic cells (body cells) of multicelled eukarycedesFigure
the formation
of gametes
or spores,
and The
it islength
the of each interval differs among cells.
9.4 Animated
Eukaryotic
cell cycle.
their outcomes differ.
otes. Mitosis and cytoplasmic division are the basis of
basis of sexual reproduction. In humans and all other
two,
What about prokaryotesbacteria and archaeans?
increases in body size during development, and ongomammals, the gametes called sperm and eggs develop
t the
144 UNIT
II PRINCIPLES
OFcells.
INHERITANCE
Such cells reproduce asexually by prokaryotic fission,
ing replacements
of damaged
or dead
Many spefrom immature reproductive cells. Spores, which prosplits
which is an entirely different mechanism. We consider
cies of plants, animals, fungi, and single-celled protists
tect and disperse new generations, form during the life
than
prokaryotic fission later, in Section 21.5.
also make copies of themselves, or reproduce asexucycle of fungi, plants, and many kinds of protists.
ally, by mitosis (Table 9.1).
As you will discover in this chapter and the next,
ccurs
meiosis and mitosis have much in common. EvenKey
so, Points About Chromosome Structure
kary-
G1
lo
Te
ph
as
B When a chromosome
chromosome
is at its most
most condensed,
condensed,
the DNA is packed
packed into
into
tightly coiled
coiled coils.
coils.
centromere
d human
in its
its most
most
in
rm. If
If this
this
rm.
were
actually
were actually
n in
in the
the micromicron
DNA
strands
DNA strands
out about
about 800
800
out
iles).
iles).
C
C When
When the
the coiled
coiled
coils
coils unwind,
unwind, aa molmolecule
ecule of
of chromosomal
chromosomal
DNA
DNA and
and its
its associated
associated
proteins
proteins are
are organized
organized
as
as aa cylindrical
cylindrical fifiber.
ber.
fiber
fiber
D
D A
A loosened
loosened fifiber
ber
shows
shows aa beads-on-abeads-on-astring
string organization.
organization.
The
The string
string is
is the
the DNA
DNA
molecule;
molecule; each
each bead
bead
is
is one
one nucleosome.
nucleosome.
beads
beads on
on
aa string
string
DNA
DNA
double
double
MITOSIS
- cell division that occurs in the body cells of
eukaryotes
- basis in increase of body size in development
- basis of ongoing replacement of damaged or dead
cells
G2
G1
Interval of cell growth before
DNA replication (chromosomes
unduplicated)
G1
lo
Te
ph
as
cytoplasmic
division; each
descendant cell
enters interphase
Anaphas
G2
Metaphase
P ro p h a s e
Figure 9.4 Animated Eukaryotic cell cycle. The length of each interval differs among cells.
144 UNIT II
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE
G2
Interval after DNA
replication; the cell
prepares to divide
PROPHASE STAGE
- nucleus appears grainy and condenses
- centrioles become duplicated
PLASMODESMA
Communication junction
between adjoining cells
PLASMA MEMBRANE
SMOOTH ER
nuclear envelope
nucleolus
CYTOSKELETON
Structurally
supports, imparts
shape to cell;
moves cell and
its components
microtubules
microfilaments
intermediate
filaments
DNA in
nucleoplasm
NUCLEUS
(attached to rough
ER and free in cytoplasm)
Sites of protein synthesis
ROUGH ER
MITOCHONDRION
Early Prophase
Early Prophase
Mitosis
begins. In the nucleus, the
B Prophase
chromatin begins to appear grainy
The
chromosomes
become visible
as
it organizes
and condenses.
Theas
discrete structures
as they condense
centrosome
is duplicated.
further. Microtubules assemble and
move one of the two centrosomes to
the opposite side of the nucleus, and
the nuclear envelope breaks up.
B Prophase
The chromosomes become visible as
discrete structures as they condense
further. Microtubules assemble and
C Transition to Metaphase
move one of the two centrosomes to
Theopposite
nuclear side
envelope
gone, and
the
of theisnucleus,
and
the chromosomes
are atup.
their
the
nuclear
envelope breaks
most condensed. Microtubules of
the bipolar spindle assemble and
attach sister chromatids to opposite
spindle poles.
C Transition to Metaphase
The nuclear envelope is gone,
and the chromosomes are at their
METAPHASE STAGE
- Nuclear membrane has broken up
- microtubules form from the centrioles and aQach
at the centromere of the chromosomes
- the chromosomes are now lined up at the center of
the cell
as
it organizes
The
move
one of theand
twocondenses.
centrosomes
to
centrosome
duplicated.
the oppositeisside
of the nucleus, and
the nuclear envelope breaks up.
Prophase
C Transition
to become
Metaphase
The
chromosomes
visible as
discrete
structures
as
they
condense
The nuclear envelope is gone,
further.
assemble
and
and theMicrotubules
chromosomes
are at their
move
one
of
the
two
centrosomes
most condensed. Microtubules of to
the
side ofassemble
the nucleus,
the opposite
bipolar spindle
andand
the
nuclear
envelope
breaks
up.
attach sister chromatids to opposite
spindle poles.
Transition to Metaphase
The
nuclear envelope is gone,
D Metaphase
and the chromosomes are at their
All of condensed.
the chromosomes
are aligned
most
Microtubules
of
midway
between
spindle poles.
the
bipolar
spindlethe
assemble
and
Microtubules
attach eachtochromatid
attach
sister chromatids
opposite
to
one
of
the
spindle
poles, and its
spindle poles.
sister to the opposite pole.
D Metaphase
E Anaphase
All of the chromosomes are aligned
Motor proteins
moving
along poles.
midway
between
the spindle
spindle
microtubules
drag
the
Microtubules attach each chromatid
chromatids
spindle
to
one of thetoward
spindlethe
poles,
and its
poles,
and
the
sister
chromatids
sister to the opposite pole.
separate. Each sister chromatid
is now a separate chromosome.
Anaphase
Motor
proteins moving along
F Telophase
ANAPHASE STAGE
- the microtubules aQached to the chroma4d begin
to shorten
- the chroma4ds are pulled apart to opposite poles
C
Transition to Metaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Metaphase
TELOPHASE STAGE
- begins when split chromosomes are at their
opposite poles
- nucleus forms over the new chromosomes
All of the chromosomes are aligned
midway between the spindle poles.
Microtubules attach each chromatid
to one of the spindle poles, and its
sister to the opposite pole.
Anaphase
Telophase
CHAPTER 9
MEIOSIS
ulticelled
that reproduce sexually. In animals, meiosis of germ
new
indicells results in mature reproductive structures called
Meiosis occurs in the immature reproduc4ve cells of
pairs of
gametes. (Plants have a slightly different process that
eukaryotes
chromowe will discuss later.) A sperm cell is a type of male
gamete; an egg is a type of female gamete. Gametes
and the
usually form inside special reproductive structures or
- Produces reproduc4ve structures called gametes
gene
of a
organs (Figure 10.3).
al repro(ex.: egg and sperm cells)
ones. Just
opulation
hich case
But the
not idenmutations
manently
ry. Thus,
ght say
anther (where
ovules inside an
sexual spores
ovary (where sexual
a particthat give rise to
spores that give rise
of a gene
sperm form)
to eggs form)
sperm form)
to eggs form)
a Flowering plant
testis
(where sperm
originate)
b Human male
ovary
(where eggs
develop)
c Human female
Interphase
Meiosis I
Meiosis II
DNA is
replicated
prior to
meiosis I
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Meiosis I
plasma
membrane
breakup
of nuclear
envelope
newly forming
microtubules of
the spindle
one pair of
homologous
chromosomes
centrosome with
a pair of centrioles,
moving to opposite
sides of nucleus
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
As spindle microtubules
Telophase I
How meiosis
Introduces
Varia4ons
In traits
A a
B b
crossover
B
B b
b
Crossing over a chromosome and its homologous
partner exchange corresponding segments
C Close contact between the
homologous chromosomes promotes crossing over between
nonsister chromatids, so paternal and maternal chromatids
exchange segments.
crossover
Fig
Blu
an
Fo
ho
ove
Meiosis II
There is
no DNA
replication
between the
two nuclear
divisions.
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
ructure of a mature
mete.
zoan, or mature
ploid, flagellated
6). A sperm uses
r tail, to swim
Mitochondria in
midpiece supply
uired for flagellar
perms head is
DNA and tipped
-containing cap.
an help a sperm
oocyte by partly
its outer layer.
ation takes about
m start to finish.
( )
f Elevated
level of
testosterone
in blood
inhibits
secretion
of GnRH.
Hypothalamus
( )
( )
g High sperm
count induces
Sertoli cells to
secrete inhibin,
which inhibits
secretion of
GnRH and LH.
Anterior Pituitary
b GnRH stimulates secretion of LH,
FSH from anterior lobe of pituitary.
(+ )
Testes
c LH prompts Leydig cells
d Sertoli cells bind FSH and
in testes to produce and
testosterone, and function in
release testosterone.
spermatogenesis at puberty.
e Testosterone and secretions from
Sertoli cells encourage sperm production.
urethra
penis
epididymis
seminiferous
tubule
testis
mitosis
meiosis I
meiosis II
lumen
wall of
seminiferous tubule
spermatogonium
(diploid)
Leydig cells
between tubules
primary
spermatocyte
Sertoli cell
early
spermatids
secondary spermatocyte
Figure 42.5 Animated Where and how sperm form. (a) Male reproductive tract, posterior view.
(b) Light micrograph of cells in three adjacent seminiferous tubules, cross-section. Testosteronesecreting Leydig cells, occupy spaces between the tubules. (c) Diploid germ cells (spermatogonia)
immature sperm
(haploid)
late spermatid
sperm (mature,
haploid male
gametes)
secondary
spermatocytes
(haploid)
diploid male
germ cell
primary
spermatocyte
(diploid)
spermatids (haploid)
A Growth
B Meiosis I and
cytoplasmic division
C Meiosis II and
cytoplasmic division
three polar
Mature Spermatozoa
head,
with DNA
and a cap
of enzymes
midpiece
with
mitochondria
tail, with
its core of
microtubules
A spermatozoan, or m
sperm, is a haploid, flagel
cell (Figure 42.6). A sperm
its flagellum, or tail, to s
toward an egg. Mitochondr
the adjacent midpiece su
the energy required for flag
movement. A sperms hea
packed full of DNA and ti
by an enzyme-containing
The enzymes can help a sp
penetrate an oocyte by p
digesting away its outer la
Sperm formation takes a
100 days, from start to fi
An adult male makes sper
an ongoing basis, so that m
millions of cells are in diff
stages of development on
C A fluid-filled cavity
starts to form in the
follicles cell layer.
ovary
secondary
oocyte
D Mature follicle.
Meiosis I is over.
A secondary oocyte
and the first polar
body have formed.
G If no pregnancy
occurs, the corpus
luteum breaks down.
F A corpus luteum
forms from remains
of ruptured follicle.
Figure 42.10 Animated Cyclic events in a human ovary, cross-section. The follicle does
not move around as in this diagram, which simply shows the sequence of events. All of these
structures form in the same place during one menstrual cycle. In the cycles first phase, a follicle
grows and matures. At ovulation, the second phase, the mature follicle ruptures and releases a
first polar
body
(haploid)
oogonium
(diploid
female
germ cell)
primary oocyte
(diploid)
secondary
oocyte
(haploid)
A Growth
three polar
bodies
(haploid)
B Meiosis I and
cytoplasmic division
ovum
(haploid)
C Meiosis II and
cytoplasmic division
ded by the zona pellucida and some folreleased into an oviduct. Thus, the midcyLH is the trigger for ovulation, the release
ry oocyte from an ovary (Figure 42.10e).
is followed by the luteal phase of the
e. During this phase, the ruptured follicle
ellowish glandular structure known as the
m (Figure 42.10f ). In Latin, corpus means
teum means yellow.
us luteum secretes a large amount of the
e progesterone, and a lesser amount of
he high progesterone level feeds back to
d reduces secretion of LH and FSH, so a
does not develop.
ncy does not occur, the corpus luteum
re than 12 days. In the final days of the
a decline in LH causes it to break down
g). Then a new follicular phase begins.
FSH
LH
LH surge
triggers ovulation
ovulation
corpus
luteum
forms
corpus luteum
secretes estrogens,
progesterone
follicle secretes
estrogens
C
corpus luteum
breaks down
Progesterone
Estrogen
estrogens,
progesterone,
cause uterine
lining to thicken
low estrogen
D
menstrual
flow
10
Follicular phase
12 14 16
Days of cycle
18
20
22
Luteal phase
24
26
28
BEHAVIORAL CHANGES