Aero Board Exam Review

Aircraft Design
AERO BOARD PREP

LF Banal
Aircraft Design | Lemuel F. Banal
Aero Board Exam Review 2015
Coverage
Aircraft design process overview
Aircraft configuration
Analysis
Pertinent regulation
Overview of Aircraft Design

What is aircraft design? What are the processes involved? What is the
product of aircraft design? Where does it start and where does it end?
What is aircraft design?
L. Jenkinson and J. Marchman. Aircraft Design Projects for Engineering Students
L. Jenkinson and J. Marchman. Aircraft Design Projects for Engineering Students

Airplane design is the intellectual engineering process of
creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying
machine to
(1) meet certain specifications and requirements
established by potential users (or as perceived by the
manufacturer) and/or
(2) pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology.
John D. Anderson, Jr. Aircraft Performance and Design
What is the starting point of aircraft design?
Daniel P. Raymer. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach
Requirements
1. Range.
2. Take-off distance.
3. Stalling velocity.
4. Endurance [usually important for reconnaissance airplanes; an overall dominating factor for
the new group of very high-altitude uninhabited air vehicles (UAVs) that are of great interest at
present].
5. Maximum velocity.
6. Rate of climb.
7. For dogfighting combat aircraft, maximum tum rate and sometimes minimum tum radius.
8. Maximum load factor.
9. Service ceiling.
10. Cost.
11. Reliability and maintainability.
12. Maximum size (so that the airplane will fit inside standard hangars and/or be able to fit in a
standard gate at airline terminals).
Mission Specification
Jan D. Roskam. Airplane Design
Mission Specification
Payload and type
Range and/or loiter requirements
Cruise speed and altitude
Field length for take-off and landing
Fuel reserves
Climb requirements
Maneuvering requirements
Certification base (experimental, FAR 23, FAR 25, military)
Jan D. Roskam. Airplane Design
Phases of Aircraft Design
Daniel P. Raymer. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach
Phases of Aircraft Design
Suggested Approach
Preliminary Design
Preliminary Design
P. D. Sequence I
Preliminary Design
P.D. Sequence II
Trade Study
Dream Airplanes by CW Miller
Aircraft Configuration
Why do aircraft look like they do? What are the merits and drawbacks of
certain wing, empennage, fuselage, and landing gear configurations?
Wing Design Considerations
Wing Design Considerations
size (area)
aspect ratio
taper ratio
thickness ratio
sweep angle
dihedral angle
incidence angle
twist angle
airfoil(s)
high-wing, mid-wing, or low-wing

monoplane, biplane, or triplane
cantilever or strutted
tandem
compound or simple
delta, elliptical, etc.
high-lift device integration
other considerations:
fuel volume, lighting-strike
Wing Geometry
Wing Geometry
Wing Geometry
Wing Geometry
Planform Shape
Vertical Position
High Wing
Places
fuselage closer to the ground;

loading/unloading; adapted by cargo aircraft
easier
Sufficient ground clearance for engine nacelle or
propeller; less landing gear height needed

Wing tips less likely to strike the ground
Usually less in weight
High Wing
A strutted wing usually presents less weight but
struts adds to drag.

Struts for a high wing, that is struts below the wing,
offer less drag compared to struts above the wing

Weight savings for placing wing box at the top; no
fuselage stiffening necessary; however, increased

frontal area adds to drag
High Wing
For a STOL aircraft, a high wing provides ground
clearance for the large flap necessary for high CL

Prevents floating (ground effect is reduced) which
makes it hard to land on desired spot

STOL aircraft are usually designed to operate in
unimproved fields; High wing places engines and

propellers away from rocks and debris
High Wing
Landing gear is installed to the fuselage rather than
the wing to reduce strut length

Fuselage needs stiffening; means more weight
External blisters (landing gear housing) might be
necessary; means added weight and drag
High Wing
Fairing where wing connects to the circular fuselage
is necessary
Flattened bottom will provide desired floor height
but means more weight
High Wing
fairing
flattening
High Wing
Better visibility towards the ground
Restricted visibility towards the rear
Obscures pilot vision in a turn
Blocks upward visibility in a climb
Mid Wing
Least interference drag
To a degree, has the ground clearance advantage of
the high wing

Superior aerobatic maneuverability due to absence
of actual or simulated/effective dihedral which will

act in the wrong direction in inverted flight
Mid Wing
Needs fuselage stiffening; means more weight
Carry-through structure will limit space for a
passenger or cargo aircraft; difficult to incorporate in

a fighter aircraft in which most of the fuselage is
occupied by the jet engines and inlet ducts
Low Wing
Landing gear can be attached to (and retracted into)
the wing which is already strong with no stiffening

(and no external blisters) necessary
Allows for a shorter landing gear strut which means
less weight; however there still must be enough

ground clearance
Given
enough ground clearance, aft-fuselage

upsweep can be reduced, reducing drag
Low Wing
Commonly adapted by large commercial transports
which normally operate in well-equipped airfields;

loading and unloading is not a problem
Ground clearance problems may be alleviated by a
dihedral; but too much dihedral can cause Dutch roll

tendencies.
Placing the propellers higher above the wing increases
interference effects and cruise fuel consumption.

Effects of Vertical Position
Number of Wings
Biplane
Number of Wings
Triplane
Number of Wings
Multiplane
Biplane
Pass
Low structural weight
Does not require high-lift devices for low speed flight
Compact: relatively short wing span
Half induced drag compared to monoplane producing
same lift (in theory)

Decalage, Stagger, Gap, Span Ratio
Decalage, Stagger, Gap, Span Ratio

Gap the vertical distance between the two wings
Span Ratio
the ratio between the shorter to the longer wing
Stagger
the longitudinal offset of the two wings relative to
each other (positive, when upper wing is closer to the nose;
negative, otherwise)
Decalage relative incidence between the two wings (positive,
when upper wing has a larger incidence; negative, otherwise)
Cantilever vs Strutted
Strutted wings are lighter
Struts cause profile and interference drag
Monoplane, Biplane, Joined Wing
Other Wing Configurations
Wing Size and Wing Loading

Affects [a] take-off and landing field length, [b] cruise
performance (L/D), [c] ride through turbulence, and

[d] weight
For a short field length, a large wing / low wing
loading is required
Wing can be kept small by using flaps

For cruise at (L/D) max, a high wing loading is required
For flight at high altitudes and at low speeds, a large
wing is required.
Of course a large wing means more weight
A low wing loading translates to a high load factor
and thus poor ride qualities

Aspect Ratio
b
AR
S
High aspect ratio means reduced induced drag;
increased (L/D)max
Also means high lift curve slope; good approach
attitude; bad ride through turbulence

The higher the AR, the higher the span, the heavier
Aspect Ratio
Aspect Ratio
Thickness Ratio
max thickness
t/c
chord
Higher thickness ratio, higher profile drag / wave drag
Higher thickness ratio, lower weight
Higher thickness ratio (up to 12-14%), higher Clmax
Higher thickness ratio, greater fuel volume

Thickness Ratio
Thickness Ratio
Thickness Ratio
Sweep Angle
Delays drag divergence effects
Used for balance

Used for stability (dihedral effect)
Better ride through turbulence characteristics
Sweep Angle
Sweep Angle
Recall the concept
of a critical Mach
number?
Sweep Angle
Effective M is reduced
Mcr is increased.
Sweep Angle
Is Mcr = 0.808 the critical Mach number for the wing?
NO! Because of 3D effects.
M cr for airfoil
M cr for airfoil actual M cr for swept wing
cos
Sweep Angle
Effective thickness is reduced
Sweep Angle
The thicker the airfoil,
the less is the critical

Mach number.
Again, sweep delays
drag divergence
effects by increasing
the critical Mach
number.
Sweep Angle
In supersonic flight, sweep reduces wave drag.
Sweep Angle: forward VS aft

Both delay drag divergence or compressibility
effects the same way

Forward swept wing is usually heavier
Forward
swept
wing
has
superior
stall
characteristics; outboard-mounted lateral controls
maintain effectiveness well into a stall
Sweep Angle
Sweep Angle: oblique wing

An oblique wing is also a swept wing: there is
forward swept and aft swept at the same time
Sweep Angle
Sweep Angle
Contributes to pitch up characteristics
Performs less during take-off and landing

Reduces subsonic lift
Significant weight penalty
Variable Sweep
A solution ton constant sweep problems
Attendant balance problems
Weight penalty due to pivot mechanism
Complexity
Variable Sweep
Sweep Angle
Effect of sweep on lift curve slope
What makes for good ride characteristics?
qCL
W /S
n q(C L / )
W /S
A large wing loading and a small lift curve slope
(wing sweep) results in small changes in load factor,

thus good ride through turbulence characteristics.
Effect of sweep on approach attitude
Effects of Wing Sweep
Taper Ratio
ct
cr
More taper (smaller taper ratio) means less weight
More taper (small tip chord), more conducive to tip
stall
Less taper means more fuel volume
Tapered wings cost more than untapered wings
Taper Ratio
A wing with taper is a trade-off between elliptical
(least induced drag, difficult to manufacture) and a

rectangular wing (more induced drag, easy to
manufacture).
More taper is needed for a swept wing.
Very low taper (<0.2) promotes tip stall
Low taper is inherent for a delta wing
Taper Ratio
Geometry for minimum induced drag
Taper Ratio
Supermarine Spitfire
Taper Ratio
Taper Ratio
Taper Ratio
Effect of Taper on Lift Distribution
Effect of sweep on desired taper ratio
Taper Ratio
Reverse Taper Republic XF-91 Thunderceptor
Reverse Taper
Improved tip stall characteristics
Improved cross-sectional area distribution; allows for a
smaller fuselage
Weight penalty
Variable Taper
Wing Twist
Wing Twist
Geometric Twist one type of airfoil used, incidence is
changing relative to root chord.
Linear Twist
incidence is proportional to distance
from root airfoil.
Aerodynamic Twist difference in the zero-lift angles
of the root and tip airfoil. Same as geometric twist if
one type of airfoil is used.
Wing Twist
Note: It is possible for a wing without geometric twist
to have an aerodynamic twist. This can happen, for
example, when the root and the tip are using different
airfoil.
Wash-out tip airfoil has negative incidence relative to
root airfoil.
Wash-in
opposite of wash-out.
Wing Twist
Wing Twist
Wing Twist
Washout delays tip stall
May increase induced drag
Less-loaded tip; less strength requirements; less
weight
Wing twist will only be optimal relative to lift
distribution for one value of coefficient of lift.

Wing Twist
Wing Incidence
Wing Incidence
Used to minimize drag at some operating condition,
usually cruise.
Used to improve attitude
Fuselage angle of attack for minimum drag and
optimal wing angle of attack for the same condition

usually differ.
Wing Incidence
Dihedral
Dihedral
Dihedral
Wing Tips
Wing Tips
Wing Tips
A sharp tip is more effective than a rounded tip in
alleviating tip vortex effects

The Hoerner tip is the most widely used low-drag
wingtip
Tip curved upwards/downwards increase effective
span without increasing actual span

Wing Tips
A swept wing tip addresses the condition that
vortices tend to be located at the trailing edge of the

wing tip; increases torsional load
Cut-off forward swept is used for supersonic aircraft;
part with little lift is cut-off; reduced torsional load
Wing Tips
The endplate is an intuitive solution to the leakage of
the high pressure flow below the wing to the low

pressure flow above it.
Adds to wetted area, and therefore drag
Might be better to just add to the span instead
Solution to a short span requirement
Wing Tips: A320 Sharklet
Wing Tips
Works better for low aspect ratio wings; less effective
for an already working high-aspect-ratio wing

Can aggravate flutter tendencies
Works best for only one speed
the design speed
Trade study needed: increase aspect ratio (span) or
use winglet?
High-Lift Devices
High-Lift Devices
High-Lift Devices
High-Lift Devices
(1) airfoil only
(2) plain flap
(3) split flap
(4) leading-edge slat
(5) single-slotted flap
(6) double-slotted flap
(7) double-slotted flap in
combination with a
leading-edge slat
(8) addition of boundarylayer suction (BLC) at the
top of the airfoil.
Plain Flap
Rear section of the airfoil is hinged so that it can be
rotated downward.
With a simple plain flap, CLmax can be almost doubled
Creates more lift simply by mechanically increasing
the effective camber of the airfoil

Increases the drag and pitching moment.
Split Flap
Only the bottom surface of the airfoil is hinged
Causes a slightly higher CLmax than that for a plain flap.
Performs
the same function as a plain

mechanically increasing the effective camber.
flap,
However, the split flap produces more drag and less
change in the pitching moment compared to a plain

flap.
Split Flap
Invented by Orville Wright in 1920
Employed on many of the 1930s and 40s airplanes
because of its simplicity

However, because of the higher drag associated with
split flaps, they are rarely used on modern airplanes.
Leading-Edge Slat
A small, highly cambered airfoil located slightly
forward of the leading edge of the main airfoil

Essentially a flap at the leading edge, but with a gap
between the flap and the leading edge
Leading-Edge Slat
Functions primarily to modify the pressure distribution
over the top surface of the airfoil.

The slat itself, being highly cambered, experiences a
much lower pressure over its top surface; but the flow
interaction results in a higher pressure over the top
surface of the main airfoil section.
Leading-Edge Slat
This mitigates to some extent the otherwise strong
adverse pressure gradient that would exist over the

main airfoil section, hence delaying flow separation
over the airfoil.
In the process CLmax is increased with no significant
increase in drag
Produces about the same increase in CLmax as the plain
flap
Single-Slotted Flap
The slot allows the higher-pressure air on the bottom
surface of the airfoil to flow through the gap,

modifying and stabilizing the boundary layer over the
top surface of the airfoil.
Flow through the slot creates a low pressure on the
leading edge of the flap, and essentially a new

boundary layer is formed over the flap which allows
the flow to remain attached to very high flap
deflections.
Double-Slotted Flap
If one slot is good, two are even better
Higher CLMAX compared to a single-slotted flap

This benefit is achieved at the cost of increased
mechanical complexity.
Double-Slotted Flap + LE Slat

If one type of a high-lift device is good, two may
complement each other

Mutual benefit is obtained by employing both
leading- and trailing-edge devices in combination on

the same airfoil
Boundary Layer Suction

The low-energy boundary layer flow over the top
surface of the airfoil is the culprit, in combination with

the adverse pressure gradient, which causes flow
separation and hence stall.
By mechanically sucking away a portion of the
boundary layer through small holes or slots in the top

surface of the airfoiI, flow separation can he delayed
Boundary Layer Suction

Increased mechanical complexity and cost of this
device, along with the power requirements on the

pumps, diminish its attractiveness as a design option.
Active boundary layer suction has not yet been used
on standard production airplanes. It remains in the

category of an advanced technology item.
Fowler Flap
Does not only deflect downward to increase the
effective camber, but also translates or tracks to the

trailing edge of the airfoil to increase the exposed
wing area and further increase lift
Leading-Edge Flap
Pivots downward, increasing the effective camber.
But unlike the leading-edge slat, the leading-edge flap
is sealed, with no slot
Krueger Flap
Essentially a leading-edge slat which is thinner, and
which lies flush with the bottom surface of the airfoil

when not deployed
Hence, it is suitable for use with thinner airfoils.
Effect of High-Lift Devices on Lift Curve
Effect of High-Lift Devices on Camber and AOA
Empennage
Design Considerations
Function of the Empennage

The empennage exists mainly for trim, stability and
control.
For the horizontal tail, trim is usually achieved
through setting it at a negative angle of attack such

that it will produce negative lift causing a pitch up
moment that will counter the pitch-down tendency
of the wing with a positively cambered airfoil.

Trim in the yaw direction is usually not a problem
due to the aircraft symmetry.

The role of the vertical tail is more important for
multi-engine aircraft.
Propwash may cause the vertical tail to produce a
nose-left moment; the vertical tail can be offset by a

few degrees.

The way the tail provides stability is pretty much
same as for the fins or feathers of an arrow.

Pitch control

Directional control
Empennage Configurations
Conventional
Conventional
It works! Adapted by about 70% or more of aircraft in
service (Raymer)
Relatively lightweight
Horizontal tail is in the wake of the wing
Does not allow for an aft-mounted engine
Low horizontal tails are best for stall recovery
T-Tail
T-Tail
Heavier than conventional due to strengthening of the
vertical tail to support the horizontal tail

Allows for a smaller vertical tail due to end plate effect
Horizontal tail is clear of wing wake and propwash
Allows for an aft-mounted engine
Stylish!
T-Tail: blanketing/deep stall/superstall
Cruciform
Cruciform
Compromise between conventional and T-tail
Less weight penalty compared to T-tail
Undisturbed flow in lower part of rudder at high
angles of attack
No endplate effect
Aft Tail Positioning
H-Tail
H-Tail
H-Tail
Undistrubed flow in vertical tails at high angles of
attack
May enhance engine out control in multiengine
aircraft with the rudders positioned in the propwash

Endplate effect on the horizontal tail; reduced size
possible
H-Tail
Heavier than conventional
Hides hot exhaust from heat seeking missiles (as in the
A-10 Warthog)
Allows
for smaller/shorter vertical tail

distributed between the two vertical tails
(area
is
V-Tail (Butterfly)
V-Tail (Butterfly)
V-Tail
May allow for a reduced wetted area
Reduced interference drag
Control/Actuation complexity
Adverse roll-yaw coupling

Surfaces are out of the wing wake
V-Tail
V-Tail: Adverse Roll-Yaw Coupling

Aircraft yaws right with tendency to roll left (counter-clockwise)
Inverted V-Tail
Proverse Roll-Yaw Coupling

Reduced spiralling tendencies
Ground clearance problems
Y-Tail
Avoids complexity of ruddervators
V surfaces provide pitch control only

Rudder in third surface
Twin Tails
Twin Tails
Avoids blanketing of the rudders due to wing and
forward fuselage at high angles of attack.

Reduces height; area is distributed between the two
vertical tails.
Usually heavier than a single centerline-mounted
vertical tail.
Boom-Mounted Tails
Boom-Mounted Tails
Boom-Mounted Tails
Allows for a pusher propeller configuration
Tailbooms are typically heavier than a conventional
fuselage construction
May be connected or not; high-, mid-, or low-mounted
horizontal tail, which can have a V configuration.
Ring Tail
Ring Tail
Ring Tail
Doubles as a propeller shroud.
Conceptually appealing, however proven inadequate
in application.
All-Moving Tail
All-Moving Tail
Other Configurations
Control Canard
Control Canard
Negligible contribution to lift
Used to control angle of attack of wing
Used to balance pitching moments due to flaps
Lifting Canard
Lifting Canard
Contributes to lift; higher aspect ratio for reduced
induced drag; greater camber for increased lift

Theoretically more efficient than an aft-tailed aircraft;
wing lift reduced - smaller wing; in aft-tailed aircraft,

tail produces negative lift for stability
wing must
produce more lift bigger wing.
Lifting Canard
Pushes wing aft; bigger pitching moments due to flaps
Canard is closer to CG; less effective pitch control;
surface must be increased; resulting in more trim drag

Pitch up tendencies are avoided
Tandem Wing
Tandem Wing
Tandem Wing
Extension of the lifting canard concept
50% theoretical reduction in induced drag because lift
is distributed between the two wings

Aft wing experiences downwash and turbulence
caused by the forward wing

Wings must be separated (horizontally and vertically)
as far as possible
Three Surface
Three Surface
Theoretically offers minimum trim drag
Additional weight; more interference drag; complexity
Engine Disposition
Mounting
Wing-mounted
Fuselage-mounted
Empennage-mounted
Any combination of the above
Powerplant Disposition Considerations

Effect of power changes or power failures on stability
and control: longitudinal, lateral and directional. The

vertical and/or lateral location of the thrustline(s) are
critically important in this respect.
Drag of the proposed installation

Weight and balance consequences of the proposed
installation
Inlet requirements and resulting effect on
power and efficiency

Accessibility and maintainability

Acceptable FOD characteristics
Geometric clearance when static on the ramp: no
nacelle or propeller tip may touch the ground with

deflated landing gear struts and tires
Geometric clearance during take-off rotation: no
scraping of nacelles or of propeller tips is allowed with

deflated landing gear struts and tires

Geometric clearance during a low speed approach
with a 5 degrees bank angle

No gun exhaust gasses may enter the inlet a jet
engine. Such gun exhaust gasses are highly corrosive

to fan. Compressor and turbine blades.
Tractor VS Pusher
Tractor VS Pusher
Tractor - the propeller or inlet plane is forward of the
CG; tend to be destabilizing with respect to static

longitudinal and directional stability
Pusher - the propeller or the inlet plane is located
behind the CG; tend to be stabilizing; may save

empennage area
Tractor
The heavy engine is at the front, which helps to move
the center of gravity forward and therefore allows a

smaller tail for stability considerations.
The propeller is working in an undisturbed free stream.
There is a more effective flow of cooling air for the
engine.
Tractor
The propeller slipstream disturbs the quality of the
airflow over the fuselage and wing root.

The increased velocity and flow turbulence over the
fuselage due to the propeller slipstream increase the

local skin friction on the fuselage.
Pusher
Higher-quality (clean) airflow prevails over the wing
and fuselage.
The inflow to the rear propeller induces a favorable
pressure gradient at the rear of the fuselage, allowing

the fuselage to close at a steeper angle without flow
separation. This in turn allows a shorter fuselage,
hence smaller wetted surface area.
Pusher
Engine noise in the cabin area is reduced.
The pilot's front field of view is improved.
Pusher
The heavy engine is at the back, which shifts the
center of gravity
longitudinal stability.
rearward,
hence
reducing
Propeller is more likely to be damaged by flying debris
at landing.
Engine cooling problems are more severe.
Landing Gear
Design Considerations
Landing Gear Configurations
Single Main
Employed by many sailplanes for its simplicity
Bicycle
Flat attitude take-off and landing; aircraft must have
high lift at low AOA (high AR with large camber and/or

flaps)
Used by aircraft with narrow fuselage and wide wing
span (e.g. B-47, U2)
Bicycle
CG should be aft of the midpoint of the 2 wheels
Taildragger
More propeller ground clearance
Less drag and weight
Easier lift production due to attitude, hence initial AOA

Inherently unstable (ground looping)
Limited ground visibility from cockpit
Inconvenient floor attitude

Taildragger
Longitudinal Tip-Over Criterion
Tricycle
Stable on the ground; can be landed with a large
(nose not aligned with runway)

Improved forward ground visibility
Flat cabin floor for passenger and cargo loading
Longitudinal Tip-Over Criterion
Lateral Tip-Over Criterion
Longitudinal Ground Clearance Criterion
Lateral Ground Clearance Criterion
Quadricycle
Flat take-off and landing attitude
Permits a very low cargo floor
Multi-boogey
For extra heavy aircraft (200-400 kips)
Redundancy for safety
Regulations
What are the local and international regulations
that have bearing on aircraft design?
Aircraft Categories
FAR Part 23 Airplane Categories

Normal
limited to airplanes that have a seating
configuration, excluding pilot seats, of nine or less, a
maximum certificated take-off of 12,500 pounds or less,
and intended for non-acrobatic operation.
Non-acrobatic operation includes:
(1) Any maneuver incident to normal flying;
(2) Stalls (except whip stalls); and
(3) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns, in which
the angle of bank is not more than 60 degrees.

Utility
maximum certificated take-off weight of 12,500 pounds
or less, and intended for limited acrobatic operation.
Airplanes certificated in the utility category may be
used in any of the operations covered under the
normal category and in limited acrobatic operations.

Limited acrobatic operation includes:
(1) Spins (if approved for the particular type of
airplane); and
(2) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns, or similar
maneuvers, in which the angle of bank is more than 60
degrees but not more than 90 degrees.

Acrobatic
maximum certificated take-off weight of 12,500 pounds
or less, and intended for use without restrictions, other
than those shown to be necessary as a result of
required flight tests.

Commuter
limited to propeller-driven, multiengine
airplanes that have a seating configuration, excluding
pilot seats, of 19 or less, and a maximum certificated
take-off weight of 19,000 pounds or less. The
commuter category operation is limited to any
maneuver incident to normal flying, stalls (except whip
stalls), and steep turns, in which the angle of bank is
not more than 60 degrees.

Except for commuter category, airplanes may be type
certificated in more than one category if the
requirements of each requested category are met.
Limit Maneuvering Load Factor
Limit Maneuvering Load Factor (Part 23)

The positive limit maneuvering load factor n may not
be less than
24,000
n 2.1
W 10,000
for normal and commuter category airplanes, where
W = design maximum take-off weight, except that n
need not be more than 3.8; 4.4 for utility category
airplanes; or 6.0 for acrobatic category airplanes.

The negative limit maneuvering load factor may not be
less than
(1)0.4 times the positive load factor for the normal,
utility, and commuter categories; or
(2) 0.5 times the positive load factor for the acrobatic
category.

Maneuvering load factors lower than those specified in
the preceding slides may be used if the airplane has
design features that make it impossible to exceed
these values in flight.

The positive limit maneuvering load factor n for any
speed up to VD may not be less than
24,000
n 2.1
W 10,000
where W = design maximum take-off weight, except
that n may not be less than 2.5 and need not be more
than 3.8.

The negative limit maneuvering load factor
a) May not be less than -1.0 at speeds up to VC; and
b) Must vary linearly with speed from the value at VC to

zero at VD .
c) Maneuvering load factors lower than those specified
above may be usd if the airplane has design features that
make it impossible to exceed these values in flight.
Limit Maneuvering Load Factor
Design Airspeeds
Design Airspeeds, KEAS (FAR 23.335)

Design cruising speed, VC
For normal, utility, and commuter category airplanes,

VC 33 W / S
For acrobatic category airplanes,

VC 36 W / S
Where W/S is the wing loading at the design
maximum take-off weight.

For W/S 20
VC k W / S
where k must vary linearly
from 33 at W/S 20, to 28.6 at W/S 100

VC need not be more than 0.9 VH at sea level.
At altitudes where an MD is established, a cruising
speed MC limited by compressibility may be selected.

Design dive speed, VD
VD 1.25VC
Using the required minimum design cruising speed VC min ,

VD 1.4VC min (normal, commuter)
VD 1.50VC min (utility)

VD 1.55VC min (acrobatic)

Compliance with requirements in the preceding
slide need not be shown for reasons specified in FAR

Part 23.335(b4).

For W/S 20
the multiplying factor must vary linearly
from 1.40, 1.50 or 1.55 at W/S 20, to 1.35 at W/S 100

Design maneuvering speed, VA
VA VS n
VS is a computed stalling speed with flaps retracted at the
design weight, normally based on the maximum airplane

normal force coefficients, CAN
n is the limit maneuvering load factor used in design

The value of VA need not exceed the value of VC used in design.

Design speed for maximum gust intensity, VB
VB may not be less than the speed determined by the
intersection of the line representing the maximum positive lift,

CN MAX, and the line representing the rough air gust velocity on
the gust V-n diagram, or , VS ng whichever is less
1

Design speed for maximum gust intensity, VB
VB VS1 ng
ng is the positive airplane gust load factor due to gust, at speed
VC and at the particular weight under consideration
VS1 is the stalling speed with the flaps retracted at the particular
weight under consideration.
VB need not be greater than VC

V-n Diagram
V-n Diagram aka Flight Envelope (FAR 23.333)
V-n Diagram without gust effect
V2 SCL
L
n 2
W
W
1
2 C L , max
nmax V
W
2
S
VC
VB
VD
VA
Gust V-n Diagram
Gust V-n Diagram
Load factor increment due to gust

When an aircraft in level equilibrium flight encounters a
gust, its load factor of 1 is incremented.

V'
Vg
tan
Vg
V

Vg
C L C L C L
L qSC L
L qSCL (Vg / V )
n
W
W
(1 / 2) V SCL Vg
2
n 1 n 1
n 1
WV
VSCL Vg
2W

How does our result compare with
n 1
VSCL Vg
2W
n 1
k gU deVa
498(W / S )
C L is the same as a - airplane lift curve slope

Vg , the gust velocity, is the same as U de , or rather Vg k gU de
turn our result into a form similar to that of


More about the slope a
a is the slope of the airplane normal force coefficient
curve CNA per radian if the gust loads are applied to the
wings and horizontal tail surfaces simultaneously by a
rational method.
The wing lift curve slope CL per radian may be used
when the gust load is applied to the wings only and
the horizontal tail gust loads are treated as a separate
condition.
CL vs CN
CN
CL

n 1
How does our result compare with

n 1
VSCL Vg
n 1
2W
Vak gU de
k gU deVa
498(W / S )
2(W / S )
Let 0.002378 slug/ft 3

Let V have units of knots (1knot 1.68781 ft/s)
n 1
(0.002378)V (1.68781)ak gU de
2(W / S )
k gU deVa
498(W / S )

n 1
k gU deVa
498(W / S )
Note that because we used sea level density, V is now

equivalent airspeed (knots), that is KEAS.
Wing loading (W/S) should be in lb/ft2
Lift curve slope, a, should be per radian
Ude, the derived gust velocity should be in ft/s

The fact that a gust is usually not sharp-edged is
accounted for by the so-called gust alleviation factor, kg.
kg
0.88 g
5.3 g
2(W / S )
2m
g
cag
caS
Where
g is the airplane mass ratio, c is the mean
aerodynamic chord (ft), m is the air mass (kg), and g is the
gravitational acceleration (ft/s2).

The following gust shape is assumed (as per FAR)
U de
2s
U
(1 cos
)
2
25c
Where s is the distance in feet penetrated into the gust,

and c is the mean aerodynamic chord, also in feet.
Also, gust load factor is assumed to vary linearly from VC
to VD.

About the derived gust velocity, as per FAR 23.333,
50 ft/s at VC (sea level to 20,000 ft)

50 to 25 ft/s at VC (20,000 to 50,000 ft)
25 ft/s at VD (sea level to 20,000 ft)
25 to 12.5 ft/s at VD (20,000 t0 50,000 ft)
Rough air gust of 66 ft/s at VB (sea level to 20,000 ft)
(commuter aircraft) and,
66 to 38 ft/s at VB (20,000 to 50,000 ft)

It is clear that n is linear with V.
n
n 1
k gU deVa
498(W / S )
1 constant x V
V
Combined V-n Diagram / Flight Envelope
More Airspeed Terms
Types of Airspeeds
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
IAS is shown on the dial of the instrument, uncorrected

for instrument or system errors.
Above is FAA definition. With JAR, IAS is considered to include instrument error correction.
Types of Airspeeds
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
CAS is the speed at which the aircraft is moving through

the air, which is found by correcting IAS for instrument
and position errors.
Also called RAS, Rectified Airspeed

Types of Airspeeds
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)
EAS is CAS corrected for compression of the air inside the
pitot tube. EAS is the same as CAS in standard
atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure
altitude increase, the CAS becomes higher than it should
be, and a correction for compression must be subtracted
from the CAS.
Types of Airspeeds
True Airspeed (TAS)
TAS is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and

temperature. TAS and CAS are the same in standard
atmosphere at sea level. Under nonstandard conditions,
TAS is found by applying a correction for pressure
altitude and temperature to the CAS.
Types of Airspeeds
Ground Speed (GS)
GS or G/S is the rate at which the aircraft travels over the

ground and is equal to TAS +/- the along-track wind
component.
Take-Off Speeds
Take-Off Speeds (V-Speeds)

Vstall
VMCG
VMCA
V1
VR
VMU
VLO
Stalling Speed
VS0
flaps-down stall speed (minimum steady-flight speed), KCAS
VS1
flaps-up stall speed (minimum steady-flight speed), KCAS
VS0 61 knots
See FAR 23.49 for details.
Stalling Speed
Stalling Speed
Minimum Control Speed on the Ground, V MCG

VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground, and
is the calibrated airspeed during the take-off run at

which, when the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the
airplane using the rudder control alone (without the
use of nosewheel steering), as limited by 150 pounds of
force, and using the lateral control to the extent of
keeping the wings level to enable the take-off to be
safely continued. -FAR 23.149(f )

In the determination of VMCG, assuming that the path of
the airplane accelerating with all engines operating is

along the centerline of the runway, its path from the
point at which the critical engine is made inoperative
to the point at which recovery to a direction parallel to
the centerline is completed may not deviate more than
30 feet laterally from the centerline at any point. -FAR
23.149(f )

The minimum speed at which the aircraft will remain
controllable, in the event of an engine failure on

ground
Rudder must be able to counteract asymmetrical thrust
Controlable means at most 30 ft lateral excursion
(without use of nose wheel steering)
If failure occurs before VMCG, take-off must be aborted
FAR 25.107
Minimum Control Speed, V MC

VMC is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the
critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is

possible to maintain control of the airplane with that
engine still inoperative, and thereafter maintain
straight flight at the same speed with an angle of bank
of not more than 5 degrees. -FAR 23.149(a)
Minimum Control Speed in the Air, V MCA

VMCA is the minimum speed at which the aircraft will
remain controllable, in the event of an engine failure in

the air.
Rudder must be able to counteract asymmetrical thrust
Controlable means constant heading with level wings
can be maintained at full rudder.
Bank angle reduces required minimum control speed.
Compliance must be shown at 5 degrees bank angle.
FAR 25.107
Take-Off Decision Speed, V 1

The take-off decision speed, V1, is the calibrated
airspeed on the ground at which, as a result of engine

failure or other reasons, the pilot is assumed to have
made a decision to continue or discontinue the takeoff.
See FAR 23.51(c) for details.
Take-Off Decision Speed, V 1

The speed at which the pilot can successfully continue
the take-off even though an engine failure (in a

mulitengine aircraft) would occur at that point. This
speed must be equal to or larger than VMCG in order to
maintain control of the airplane.
A more descriptive name for V1 is the critical engine
failure speed. If an engine fails before V1 is achieved,

the take-off must be stopped. If an engine fails after V1
is reached, the take-off can still be achieved.
Rotation Speed, V R
For normal, utility, and acrobatic category airplanes,
rotation speed, VR, is the speed at which the pilot

makes a control input, with the intention of lifting the
airplane out of contact with the runway or water
surface.
See FAR 23.51(a) for details.
Rotation Speed, V R
Lift-Off does not happen at rotation because lift is not
yet greater than the weight

Lift has to be increased by increasing angle of attack
further.
But maximum angle of attack is limited by tail ground
clearance and stall.
Lift must be increased by increasing velocity further.
VR 1.05VMC or 1.10VS1 see FAR 23.51(a)
Minimum Unstick Speed, V MU

If the angle of attack is increased such that tail ground
clearance is pushed to the limit, and the aircraft liftsoff, the velocity at that point is called VMU.
VMU>VR
Lift-Off Speed, V LOF

Tail ground clearance is really not pushed to the limit,
thus the aircraft has to accelerate further to increase

lift.
The velocity at the exact point the aircraft lifts-off the
ground is called VLOF.
Never-Exceed Speed, V NE
FAR 23.1505(a)
The never-exceed speed VNE must be established so that
it is -(1) Not less than 0.9 times the minimum value of VD
allowed under Sec. 23.335; and
(2) Not more than the lesser of -(i) 0.9 VD established under Sec. 23.335; or
(ii) 0.9 times the maximum speed shown under Sec.
23.251.
Maximum Structural Cruising Speed, V NO

FAR 23.1505(b)
The maximum structural cruising speed VNO must be
established so that it is
(1) Not less than the minimum value of VC allowed under
Sec. 23.335; and
(2) Not more than the lesser of
(i) VC established under Sec. 23.335; or
(ii) 0.89 VNE established under paragraph (a) of this
section.
Flap Extended Speed, V FE

FAR 23.1511
The flap extended speed VFE must be established so that
it is-[(1) Not less than the minimum value of VF allowed in
Sec. 23.345(b); and
(2) Not more than VF established under Sec. 23.345(a), (c),
and (d).]
See FAR 23.1511 for details
Take-Off Speeds
Speed at 50 ft
See FAR 23.51(b) for details
Take-Off Speeds
Critical Engine Failure Speed, VEF
xxx
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation

Aero Board Exam Review

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Aero Board Exam Review

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Aircraft Design

AERO BOARD PREP

Aircraft Design | Lemuel F. Banal