Medical Ethnobotany Kyrgyztan

Piotr Otrba
Elektronicznie podpisany przez Piotr Otrba

DN: c=PL, o=Polish Botanical Society, ou=Polish Botanical Society,
l=Warsaw, cn=Piotr Otrba, email=p.otreba@pbsociety.org.pl
Data: 2016.03.31 10:36:21 +01'00'
Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae

DOI: 10.5586/asbp.3483
Publication history
Received: 2015-09-25
Accepted: 2015-12-03
Published: 2016-03-31
Handling editor
ukasz uczaj, Institute of
Applied Biotechnology and
Basic Sciences, University of
Rzeszw, Poland
Authors contributions
LP, ZP, CT, and VV jointly
designed the research; NK
and AK screened titles and
abstracts; LP screened full text
articles; IS and MS provided
taxonomic identification of
species and contributed to the
discussion with botanical and
environmental aspects; LP, ZP,
and CT conducted data analysis;
LP, ZP, and VV drafted the article
narrative and LP generated all
figures and tables; LP and AK
generated the study area map;
all authors read and approved
the final manuscript
Funding
The research was financially
supported by the Czech
Development Agency
Development Cooperation of
the Czech Republic (project No.
36/MZe/B/08-10). For additional
financial support we would like
to acknowledge the Internal
Grant Agency of the Faculty of
Tropical AgriSciences, Czech
University of Life Sciences
Prague (IGA, project No. FTZ
20155016).
Competing interests
No competing interests have
been declared.
Copyright notice
The Author(s) 2016. This is an
Open Access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License,
which permits redistribution,
commercial and noncommercial, provided that the
article is properly cited.
Citation
Pawera L, Verner V, Termote
C, Sodombekov I, Kandakov
A, Karabaev N, et al. Medical
ethnobotany of herbal
practitioners in the Turkestan
Range, southwestern
Kyrgyzstan. Acta Soc Bot Pol.
2016;85(1):3483. http://dx.doi.
org/10.5586/asbp.3483
ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPER
Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners

in the Turkestan Range, southwestern
Kyrgyzstan
Lukas Pawera1, Vladimir Verner2, Celine Termote3, Ishenbay
Sodombekov4, Alexander Kandakov2, Nurudin Karabaev5, Milan
Skalicky6, Zbynek Polesny1*
Department of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech
University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, 165 21 Prague 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
2
Department of Economics and Development, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University
of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, 165 21 Prague 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
3
Nutrition and Marketing Diversity Programme, Bioversity International, Bioversity Sub-Saharan
Africa Office, c/o ICRAF | United Nations Avenue, P.O. box 30677, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
4
Gareev Botanical Garden of the National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic,
Akhunbaeva 1-a, Bishkek 720064, The Kyrgyz Republic
5
Kyrgyz National Agrarian University, Mederova 68, Bishkek 720005, The Kyrgyz Republic
6
Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural
Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, 165 21 Prague 6-Suchdol,
Czech Republic
1
* Corresponding author. Email: polesny@ftz.czu.cz
Abstract
This study recorded and analyzed traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in the
Turkestan Range in southwestern Kyrgyzstan, where ethnobotanical knowledge
has been largely under-documented to date. Data was collected through participant observation and both semi-structured and in-depth interviews with 10 herbal
specialists. A total of 50 medicinal plant taxa were documented, distributed among
46 genera and 27 botanical families. In folk medicine they are applied in 75 different formulations, which cure 63 human and three animal ailments. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices were calculated to analyze traditional knowledge of
the informants and to determine the cultural importance of particular medicinal
plants. Ziziphora pamiroalaica, Peganum harmala, and Inula orientalis obtained
the highest use value (UV). The best-represented and culturally important families
were Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, and Apiaceae. Gastro-intestinal system disorders was
the most prevalent ailment category. Most medicinal plants were gathered from
nearby environments, however, species with a higher cultural value occurred at
distant rather than nearby collection sites. The findings of this study proved the
gap in documentation of traditional knowledge in Kyrgyzstan, indicating that further studies on the traditional use of wild plant resources could bring important
insights into ecosystems diversity with implications to human ecology and biocultural diversity conservation in Central Asia.
Keywords
Central Asia; ethnomedicine; human ecology; quantitative ethnobotany; traditional knowledge; bio-cultural diversity; gathering environments
Introduction
Currently, traditional medical systems, and in particular herbal remedies, still play an
important role in the healthcare of millions of people in developing countries, who do
not have access to modern medical care or cannot afford it [1]. However, these cultures and societies are undergoing rapid environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural
changes. Much of traditional medical knowledge, which is considered an intangible
Published by Polish Botanical Society
1 of 31
Pawera et al. / Ethnobotany of Kyrgyz medicinal plants
Digital signature
This PDF has been certified using digital
signature with a trusted timestamp to
assure its origin and integrity. A verification
trust dialog appears on the PDF document
when it is opened in a compatible PDF
reader. Certificate properties provide
further details such as certification time
and a signing reason in case any alterations
made to the final content. If the certificate
is missing or invalid it is recommended to
verify the article on the journal website.
cultural heritage, is being irretrievably lost before it is documented, studied or even

touched by science [2].
Although Central Asian traditional medicine has a very old and rich history, it is not
as widely understood and studied as neighboring medical systems such as traditional
Chinese medicine or Ayurveda [3]. It is recognized that Central Asian medicine was
influenced mainly by the Unani Tibb (Greco-Arabic) system and its broad range of
scholars. Yet, current folk medical practices have not been widely studied and various
questions remain. Examples include how the relationship between plants and people
developed further in particular regions with regards to the movement and isolation of
ethnic groups, and the current status and importance of traditional knowledge (TK)
among indigenous Central Asian societies after Soviet Union rule.
This period, over 70 years, was characterized by the unsustainable use of natural resources and by the neglect or even suppression of local beliefs, traditions and practices,
which resulted in the significant loss of TK [4]. During this time, phytotherapy and
the activities of local healers were restricted and botanical medicines were regulated
by the government [3]. Consequently, people were rather obliged to leave behind their
folk medicine and participate in comprehensive governmental health services. As a
result, indigenous knowledge lost its natural importance until the collapse of the subsidized system of the Soviet Union, after which the revival of TK is supposed to have
been of crucial importance. For example, Stickley et al. [5] studied the use of complementary and alternative medicine in eight former Soviet republics. Among all, they
found the most prevalent use of folk medicine practices for the treatment of selected
common health disorders in Kyrgyzstan. Another study [6] reported the revival of
spiritual healing and shamanism in urban areas of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.
Although limited information on the use of medicinal plants in Kyrgyzstan is available in international sources of literature [7], there is evidence of several publications
from Soviet times (e.g., [8,9]). However, this literature considered mainly scientifically
recognized medicinal plants, or those manufactured for herbal medicaments and
pharmacological preparations. Medicinal plant species used in folk medicine were
poorly documented, not scientifically recognized and not included in the literature
published at that time [10].
Remarkably, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, medicinal plants have rapidly
regained the attention of rural communities in Central Asian countries [11]. From the
recent study on the Tajik-Afghan border [12], it is obvious that natural vegetation may
still be crucial in the primary healthcare and resilience of local people. Egamberdieva
et al. [13], in the Uzbek Chatkal reserve, noted that medicinal plant resources also
generate additional income. Comparable studies from Kyrgyzstan, however, are still
lacking.
An English-language monograph concerning the medicinal plants of Central Asia
has reviewed scattered literature sources on the medicinal plants of Kyrgyzstan and
Uzbekistan [7]. The authors claim that numerous plants used in Kyrgyz folk medicine
have not been documented and they have called for ethnomedicinal field studies to
facilitate the identification of medicinal species used.
According to MEP [14], in distant and less accessible mountainous regions of
the country, the collection of wild plants and non-timber forest products remains a
fundamental livelihood strategy for the local people. There are medicinal herbs with
promising economic value which could alleviate poverty in rural areas, but there is a
lack of information on the use of these wild plants, their habitats and the sustainability
of continuous harvesting [15].
To prevent further decline in Kyrgyz TK, again under threat nowadays due to substantial depopulation and urbanization ethnobotanical studies documenting local
knowledge, analyzing collection-use patterns and identifying traditional medicinal
plant species are urgently needed. According to our best knowledge, there are no publications or studies documenting data on medicinal plant use in the Turkestan Range
of Kyrgyzstan.
This study aimed to: (i) document the traditional use of medicinal plant species
using standard ethnobotanical methods, (ii) assess the homogeneity of TK of the
informants and determine culturally important species, (iii) analyze the collection
patterns of medicinal plants, and (iv) do a comparative analysis of the medicinal plant
species used on the basis of relevant studies from neighboring countries.
The Author(s) 2016
Acta Soc Bot Pol 85(1):3483
2 of 31
Material and methods

Study area
The study was performed in the villages of Oezgerush (3975' N and 7005' E) and
Katran, including the surrounding mountainous area of the Turkestan Range in the
most western part of southern Kyrgyzstan, bordering with Tajikistan (Fig. 1). This
area belongs to the Leilek district of the Batken Province, with the administrative
center being the town of Isfana. The Batken Province represents one of the poorest
regions of the country, with more than 80% of population living below the poverty
line [16]. Considering the health care options, in the Katran there is a small drugstore
with only limited assortment of the basic medicaments. However, the hospital and
convenient medical services are available in Isfana town located approximately 70
km (about 3 hours by local minibus) from Oezgerush and 50 km (about 2 hours by
minibus) from Katran. Although there is possibility to access conventional healthcare,
majority of rural population have constrains to afford it. Moreover, during the wintertime Isfana is generally inaccessible. In the mountainous regions, local families derive
their livelihoods from subsistence farming systems consisting of extensive livestock
(predominantly sheep, goats, and donkeys) and/or the cultivation of mainly potatoes,
maize, apples and apricots.
The southern part of the province, along the Kyrgyz-Tajik border where our study
area was located, is formed by the Turkestan Range which belongs to the Pamir-Alay
Mountains. It is characterized by a semi-arid continental climate with significant
changes in temperature and precipitation as a result of high elevation differences [17].
The average annual precipitation is estimated at 513 mm, varying from 150 to 500
mm in the plains of the dry lowlands to over 1000 mm in the mountains [18]. The
study area, with an altitudinal range from 1450 to 3350 m a.s.l., is covered by three
main types of natural vegetation. In the lowlands semi-desert/mountain steppe occurs
Fig. 1 Map of the study area.
The Author(s) 2016
3 of 31
(Acanthophyllum-Stipa-Artemisia-Euphorbia-Ferula). Riverbanks are dominated by

riparian forest (Salix-Populus-Betula-Tamarix-Hippophae). The highest altitudes are
formed by juniper forest (Juniperus spp.), and high plateaus by grassy alpine meadows
[18,19]. Steep rocky slopes occurring throughout the area are dominated by various
xerophytic shrubs and herbaceous species.
Data collection
The study was carried out over the period of July to August 2012. We targeted the
most knowledgeable community representatives who were capable of providing specific information concerning the traditional medicinal use of local plant resources
[20]. Therefore, the purposive sampling and snowball methods were applied in the selection of informants [21]. The study was undertaken with the participation of 10 key
informants (one woman and nine men) whose age ranged from 26 to 78 years.
All participants in the study were ethnic Kyrgyz people. Since the time of the Soviet
Union, most of the Kyrgyz population speaks Russian, which has remained the official language in Kyrgyzstan. Therefore, interviewees were free to choose the language
(Kyrgyz or Russian) in which they wished to communicate. A local bilingual assistant
accompanied the investigator for translation.
The Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology (http://ethnobiology.net/code-of-ethics/) was followed. Prior to any research activity, each participant
was familiarized with the project objectives, the survey was discussed and informed
consent was obtained verbally.
Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and in-depth discussions
[22], complemented with direct participant observation [23]. When possible, participants were observed and offered help primarily during home gardening, mowing hay,
herding animals and collecting plant resources. Initially, respondents were asked to
provide basic socioeconomic information (age, living place, occupation, and ethnicity). Subsequently, ethnobotanical information including the vernacular names of
medicinal plant species used, plant parts used, their specific medicinal use, collection
season, collection site, mode of preparation, and administration of the herbal remedies was documented. Three most knowledgeable informants were visited several
times in order to capture the local knowledge and practices thoroughly.
Finally, respondents were asked to show the plant species mentioned on-site for
preparation of a herbarium reference collection. Thereby, plant specimens were
collected during informant-guided field excursions: walks-in-the-woods sensu
Alexiades [24]. All plant material was collected by the first author and subsequently
taxonomically identified in collaboration with the Gareev Botanical Garden of the
National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic in Bishkek and the Department
of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources
of the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague. Voucher specimens were deposited in the herbarium of the National Museum in Prague (PR) and duplicates in the
herbarium of the Gareev Botanical Garden in Bishkek. Species botanical names were
verified according to The Plant List (http://www.theplantlist.org). The spelling of local
plant names was cross-checked with the most knowledgeable informants. Transliteration of the folk names into the English followed the style of Eisenman et al. [7].
Data analysis
Quantification of ethnobotanical data. At first, the ethnobotanical information collected was converted into use reports (UR). One UR corresponds to the event where
the informant (i) mentions the use of a species (s) for the treatment of an ailment
category (u) [25]. In the present study, if an informant used a particular species for the
treatment of more than one health disorder belonging to the same ailment category, it
was considered as one UR [26].
The health disorders reported by informants were classified into 15 ailment categories according to Cook [27]. A few of these categories were slightly modified in
compliance with informant-defined medicinal uses to uncover significant local health
The Author(s) 2016
4 of 31
problems [e.g., plants for the treatment of haemorrhoids were placed in a separate
category. Also the category veterinary (VET) was added].
Informant consensus factor (ICF). In traditional medical systems, the same plant
species is often reported to be used for the treatment of various unrelated ailments. To
verify the homogeneity of ethnomedicinal knowledge, an ICF suggested by Heinrich
[28] was calculated. The ICF shows whether or not there is agreement among respondents in the use of plant species in particular ailment categories.
The factor was calculated as: ICF = (Nur Nt)/(Nur 1), where Nur is the number of
UR in each ailment category and Nt is the number of species used in the same category
by all informants interviewed.
ICF values range from 0 to 1. Low ICF values (close to 0) indicate that there is
disagreement among informants over which plants they use for the treatment of particular ailment categories. A high ICF thus means that there is a well-defined selection
criterion of species used for the treatment of diseases in a particular ailment category,
which indicates that the knowledge between respondents is exchanged extensively
and precisely [20].
Informant agreement ratio (IAR). The consensus on the individual species was determined by calculating the IAR [29] for each species. The IAR was calculated using
the formula: IAR = (Nr Na)/(Nr 1), where Nr is the total number of UR registered
for species and Na is the number of ailment categories that are treated with this species. Also, this value varies between 0, when the number of ailment categories is equal
to the number of UR, and 1, whereby all the respondents agree upon the use of the
species for ailments of only one ailment category.
Fidelity level (FL). The FL developed by Friedman et al. [30] was used to determine
the most frequently used species to treat a particular ailment category. This index was
calculated for each species in a particular ailment category. The formula to calculate
this index is: FL(%) = Np/(N 100), where Np is the number of UR for a plant species
in a particular ailment category and N is the total number of UR for the same plant
species [31]. Medicinal plants with the highest FL ratio are considered as the most
preferred for a particular ailment category. A low FL of a given plant reveals its use
within various ailment categories.
Use value (UV). This was a quantitative index which we used to demonstrate the
relative importance of locally used species. The UV proposed by Phillips et al. [32]
was calculated using the formula: UV = UN, where U is the number of UR cited by
each informant for a given plant species and N is the total number of informants interviewed. The UV index discloses the cultural importance of plant species, where the
most frequently cited plant species will obtain a high UV [30].
Comparative analysis
Overlap analysis for medicinal plants. Firstly, medicinal species in the study area
were compared with the all available recent ethnobotanical studies from Central Asia
[1113]. The large-scale study comprising different regions of Uzbekistan [11] was
divided into three particular provinces with purpose to obtain comparable data. Medicinal plants diversity was compared and Jaccard similarity indices were calculated
following the methodology of Gonzlez-Tejero et al. [33]. Jaccard index = [C/(A + B
C)] 100, where A is the number of species in sample A, B is the number of species
in sample B and C is the number of species common to A and B.
Secondly, the medicinal species used from all the above-mentioned studies were
divided and compared geographically according to their location within particular
mountain systems. For example, in our study area Achillea millefolium L. was not
documented, however it is included in the Pamir-Alay Mountains because it was encountered in this mountain system by another author [11].
The Author(s) 2016
5 of 31
Results
Diversity of medicinal plants, their uses, and
custodians of ethnomedicinal knowledge
At present, due to traditions, but also the economic situation and isolation in a mountainous environment, local people still utilize various medicinal plants for primary or
complementary health care. We documented 50 medicinal plant taxa (49 species and
two distinct forms of one species, i.e., Perovskia scrophulariifolia Bunge) distributed
among 46 genera and 25 botanical families. One medicinal plant could only be identified down to genus level (Taraxacum sp.). Lamiaceae is the best-represented family
with eight species, followed by the Asteraceae (7), Apiaceae (6), and Rosaceae (6)
families. Among the medicinal plants investigated, the dominant plant habit is herb
consisting of 36 taxa, followed by shrub (11), tree (2) and vine (1).
The ethnobotanical data is shown in Tab. 1, where ethnomedicinal information on
each species is complemented with two quantitative indices to demonstrate species
cultural value (UV) and consensus (IAR) on their medicinal uses among informants.
Twelve medicinal plants were used only historically, in other regions or could not be
found during field visits, so they were not identified taxonomically. To prevent loss of
knowledge, ethnobotanical information on these folk species is provided in Tab. 2,
whereas they are not further considered in data analysis.
For the 46 plant taxa reported by at least two informants, 420 medical citations were
converted to 327 UR with the intention of ensuring relevant quantitative calculations.
The highest number of UR was recorded for gastro-intestinal system disorders (GISD;
86), followed by circulatory system disorders (CSD; 46) and infections/infestations
(41; II), as shown in the Tab. 3. The most often quoted health disorders are presented
in Tab. 4, together with the most widespread plant species used to treat them.
The key informants were represented by the last Kyrgyz traditional healer known
in the Leilek district (78 years old), whose source of livelihood has been for whole
life selling of medicinal herbs on local markets. Afterwards we interviewed the most
knowledgeable community members such as home-based herbalists and regular medicinal plant collectors-users. Informants occasionally share knowledge among themselves. Furthermore, they were observed to advise other members of the community
when needed. In the study area medicinal plant knowledge is thus not only transmitted vertically among generations in a family model, but also horizontally within community. Although several publications about medicinal plants were published during
the Soviet times, any informant referred to a book during interviews. Only one participant showed newspaper clipping about Hypericum perforatum L.
The role of women in traditional medicine is similar in many Islamic cultures,
where specific ethnomedicinal knowledge remains customarily a male-exclusive
domain, as for example found by Chellapandian et al. [25] and Keusgen et al. [34].
Among our informants there was only one elderly woman. She had, however, a considerable knowledge of medicinal plants acquired during her lifetime spent in the
mountainous region. Hence, we believe that women are also eminent custodians of
ethnobotanical knowledge. Based on the low frequency of citation of women and
child health disorders, male researcher could miss some information due to cultural
boundaries. Further gender-sensitive studies with female investigators are necessary
to better approach this issue. In general, younger women and children were observed
as regular gatherers of the most useful plants (firewood, fruits from orchards and economic plants).
Quantitative ethnobotany
The ICF values and related aspects are associated with ailment categorization reported
in Tab. 3. The ICF value in our study varies from 0 to 1, with the mean value being
0.49. The highest ICF was calculated for the VET category (ICF = 1), followed by the
categories of haemorrhoids (HMR; ICF = 0.83) and Skeleto-muscular system disorders (SMSD; ICF = 0.76). The most frequently cited category, GISD (86 UR), showed
the broadest spectrum of 33 species used, with overall consensus relatively high (ICF
The Author(s) 2016
6 of 31
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Alliaceae
Malvaceae
Rosaceae
Apiaceae
Achillea asiatica
Serg.
PR 837047
Allium carolinianum DC.

PR 837033
Althaea officinalis L.
PR 837020
Amygdalus bucharica Korsh.

PR 837027
Anethum graveolens L.
PR 837003
Family
Achillea arabica
Kotschy
PR 837022
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
The Author(s) 2016
Anthropic
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Semi-dessert/
steppe
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Gathering
environment
(R)
Ukrop (E)
(K)
Badam (E)
(K)
Gulkair (E)
,
(K)
Sasyk matal, Tou
piyaz (E)
Min zhalbrak,
Tysyachelistnik
(E)
p
(K),
(R)
p
(K),
(R)
Min zhalbrak
saribasch, Tysyachelistnik (E)
Vernacular
namea
Herb
Tree
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Plant
life-form
Aerial
part
Seed
Seed
Bulb
Leaf
Aerial
part
Aerial
part
Part
used
Fresh,
dried,
infusion
Paste
Hemorrhoid
Digestion, appetite
stimulator, kidney
stones
Fresh,
dried
Fresh,
dried,
infusion
Fresh
Fresh
Decoction
Decoction
Mode of
preparation
Stomach ache, gastritis, gastric ulcer

angina, asthma,
toothache
Heart disorders
Skin and eye

inflammation
Tonic, appetite
stimulator, jaundice
Wounds
Stomach ache, digestion problems
Stomach ache, digestion problems
Local medicinal
use/ailments treated
Oral
Topical
Oral
Oral
Topical
Oral
Topical
Oral
Oral
Mode of
application
Prepare a tea, 1
teaspoon per small
teapot, or add it
fresh into dishes
and salads.
Spread paste made

from fresh seeds.
Consume 45
seeds 3 times per
day.
Eat the seeds or

prepare a tea
Attach the fresh

cut bulb.
Eat the fresh bulb.
Attach crushed
leaves.
Drink 1 cup of tea

23 times per day.
Boiling should last
2030 min.
Drink 1 cup of tea

23 times per day.
Infuse long (for
2030 minutes).
Detailed
administration
Tab. 1 Traditional uses of medicinal plants among herbal practitioners in the Turkestan Range (Leilek district, Kyrgyzstan, Pamir-Alay Mountains).
JunSep
SepOct
SepOct
JulSep
JunAug
JunAug
Seasonal
availability
0.3
0.1
0.5
0.2
0.3
UVb
0.5
0.67
NCd
NCd
IARc
7 of 31
The Author(s) 2016
Boraginaceae
Asteraceae
Berberidaceae
Apiaceae
Artemisia absinthium L.
PR 837046
Berberis integerrimaBunge.
PR 837043
Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.

Fedtsch.
PR 837001
Apiaceae
Family
Arnebia euchroma (Royle)

I.M.Johnst.
PR 837014
Angelica ternata
Regel & Schmalh.
PR 837032
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Riparian forest, Anthropic

(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes, Juniper forest
(distant)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Gathering
environment
p (K)
Zire (E)
(K)
Karagat (E)
p (K)
Ermen (E)
,
(K)
Togenek,
Togendyk (E)
p (K)
Alkhorot (E)
Vernacular
namea
Herb
Shrub
Herb
Herb
Herb
Plant
life-form
Seed
Root,
bark
Leaf,
flower
Root
Aerial
part
Part
used
Appetite stimulator,
gastritis, stomach
ache, headache, flu,
cold
Fractures
High blood pressure,

headache, kidney
stones
Tuberculosis, cough,
flu
Headache, nerves,
hypertension, flu,
angina, sore throat,
stomach ache,
digestion, appetite
stimulator, kidney
and liver disorders,
cleaning of blood,
heart emasculation
Local medicinal
Oral
Oral
Dried
Oral
Oral
Infusion
Decoction
Infusion
Oral
Oral
Dried
Decoction
Oral
Mode of
application
Infusion
Mode of
preparation
Use as a (medicinal) spice for

dishes.
Prepare a tea from

dried seeds.
Prepare a decoction from fresh or

dried bark of the
trunk, branches or
roots. Use 12 teaspoons per small
teapot. Drink 2
times per day for 2
or 3 days.
Dry it shaded and

then prepare a tea,
use 1 teaspoon
per small teapot.
Drink in the
morning, noon
and evening.
Prepare a decoction of the root in

the milk.
Use as a (medicinal) spice for

soups and dishes.
Prepare a tea from

1 tablespoon per
teacup. Drink 3
times per day 1
cup of tea.
Detailed
administration
JulAug
MayOct
JunAug
JulAug
JulAug
Seasonal
availability
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.6
1.3
UVb
0.57
0.75
0.8
0.5
IARc
8 of 31
The Author(s) 2016
Papaveraceae
Corydalis
fedtschenkoana
Regel
PR 837000
Apiaceae
Conioselinum
vaginatum
(Spreng.) Thell.
PR 837030
Convolvulaceae
Asteraceae
Cichorium intybus L.
PR 837024
Convolvulus
arvensis L.
PR 837012
Capparaceae
Family
Capparis sicula
subsp. herbacea
(Willd.), D.
Rivera, Obn &
Alcaraz
PR 837023
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes, Juniper forest
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Semi-desert/
steppe
(nearby)
Gathering
environment
p (K)
Orman kara (E)
(K)
Pechek chop (E)
(K)
Gerench (E)
(K)
Talky (E)
(K)
Koorgu (E)
Vernacular
namea
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Shrub
Plant
life-form
Aerial
part
Leaf
Root
Root
Seed,
root
Part
used
Fractures, leg pain,

liver and kidney
disorders
Wounds
Heart pain and heart

disorders
Infusion
Fresh
Fresh,
dried
Decoction
Stomach problems
Oral
Topical
Oral
Oral
Wash/
bath
Wash/
bath
Infusion
Infusion
Internal
Mode of
application
Fresh,
dried
Mode of
preparation
Scabies
Haemorrhoid, leg,
and back pain
Local medicinal
Prepare a tea
from 2 teaspoons
per small teapot.
Drink a tea 12
times every day
(for 23 days)
mainly before
sleeping.
Crush the fresh

leaves and apply
topical on the
wound.
Chew small piece

of the root every
day. Or consume
the piece of the
root 3 times per
day.
Drink a decoction
every day 13
times in order to
release pain.
Prepare an infusion from the root

and then clean
(wash) the body.
Prepare an infusion from seeds

and/or roots and
wash the body.
Insert a seed into

the rectum.
Detailed
administration
AugSep
AugSep
AugSep
Aug
Sep
Seasonal
availability
0.8
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.5
UVb
0.71
0.5
0.75
IARc
9 of 31
The Author(s) 2016
Euphorbia
monocyathium
(Prokh.) Prokh.
PR 837026
Euphorbiaceae
Ephedraceae
Lamiaceae
Dracocephalum
stamineum Kar.
& Kir.
PR 837034
Ephedra equisetina Bunge

PR 837025
Cuscutaceae
Family
Cuscuta campestris Yunck.

PR 837004
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Gathering
environment
(K)
(R)
Ayuuvot, Medvedi koren (E)
(the bears
root)
(K)
Chekende (E)
B (K)
Voznoch (E)
(K)
Zar pechek (E)
Vernacular
namea
Herb
Shrub
Herb
Vine
Plant
life-form
Root
Aerial
part,
fruit
Aerial
part
Aerial
part
Part
used
Oral
Tincture
Wash,
bath
Oral
Decoction
Leg pain,
rheumatism
Oral
Topical
Oral
Oral
Mode of
application
Fresh,
dried
Infusion
Fractures, disorders
of internal organs
Disorders, ulcers
and inflammations
of all gastrointestinal
and urinary system,
angina, toothache,
jaundice
Powder
Infusion
Infusion
Mode of
preparation
Wounds
High blood pressure,

kidney stones, liver
and heart disorders,
jaundice
Kidney and liver disorders, jaundice
Local medicinal
Extract the root in

a spirit for 15 days
in a dark place.
Ingest 3 times per
day 1 teaspoon.
Chew and eat

pieces around 3
mm, 3 times a day
1 piece. Use up to
30 days.
Boil it and pour

to big bowl, then
put legs inside and
steam them.
Drink watery tea

herbal remedy has
strong flavor.
Grind dried fruit

in a hand and put
it on the wound
to recover and
heal it.
Prepare a tea,
use 1 teaspoon
of dry plant per
1 teapot. Let it
infuse around 20
minutes. Drink 3
times every day.
Prepare a tea and

drink every day
for 10 days.
Detailed
administration
AugSep
SepOct
JulAug
JulAug
Seasonal
availability
1.2
0.6
0.8
0.4
UVb
0.64
0.6
0.57
0.33
IARc
10 of 31
The Author(s) 2016
Hippophae turkestanica (Rousi)

Tzvelev
PR 837044
Heracleum
sphondylium
subsp. montanum (Schleich.
ex Gaudin) Briq.
PR 837002
Ferula kokanica
Regel & Schmalh.
PR 837040
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
Eleagnaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae
Family
Riparian
forest
(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Gathering
environment
p,
(K)
Chychyrkanak,
Ashkazan (E)
p (K)
Baltyrgan (E)
p (K)
Ak chair (E)
Vernacular
namea
Shrub
Herb
Herb
Plant
life-form
Fruit
Root
Stem,
branch
Sap
Part
used
Gastric ulcer,
gastritis, stomach
ache, gastroenteritis,
diarrhoea
High blood pressure
Angina, cough,
bronchitis, runny
nose, flu, cold, stomach ache
Local medicinal
Paste
Infusion
Infusion
Dried
Mode of
preparation
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Mode of
application
Squash fruits
and make oily
paste. Consume 3
teaspoons every
day, or mix a paste
with warm water
and drink up.
Should be drunk 3
times before noon.
Prepare a tea from

1 small teaspoon
of dried chopped
roots per teapot.
Drink 2 times per
day for several
days.
Prepare a tea
from dried stem
or branches. One
stick around 10
cm per tea cup.
Drink a tea 23
times every day.
Make an incision
to the plant and
after certain time
collect the rigid
sap. Then chew/
bite small pieces 3
times a day.
Detailed
administration
AugSep
JulAug
JunJul
Seasonal
availability
0.8
0.3
1.3
UVb
0.83
IARc
11 of 31
The Author(s) 2016
Cupressaceae
Juniperus semiglobosa Regel

PR 837031
Asteraceae
Inula orientalis
Lam.
PR 837041
Juglandaceae
Balsaminaceae
Impatiens parviflora DC.

PR 837017
Juglans regia L.
PR 837007
Hypericaceae
Family
Hypericum perforatum L.
PR 837049
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
Juniper forest
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Gathering
environment
(K)
(R)
Archa, Jolka (E)
(K)
Zhangak (E)
(K)
Antyz (E)
(K)
Chtyr (E)
(K),
(R)
Chay chop,
Zveroboy (E)
Vernacular
namea
Shrub
Tree
Herb
Herb
Herb
Plant
life-form
Fruit
Branch
Stomach ache
Flu, runny nose,

bronchitis
Vitamins and minerals deficiency
Seed
Infusion
Smoke
Fresh,
dried
Infusion
Decoction
Common cold,
cough and internal
infestations of
animals
Scabies
Decoction
Cough, sore throat,

infections, infestations, toothache,
diabetes
Infusion
Decoction
Scabies
Stomach ache
Infusion
Mode of
preparation
Stomach ache, digestion, high pressure,

headache, jaundice
Local medicinal
Leaf
Root
Seed
Aerial
part
Part
used
Oral
Inhalation
Oral
Wash/
bath
Oral
Oral
Oral
Wash,
bath
Oral
Mode of
application
Prepare a tea from

several fruits.
Burn the dry

branches and
inhale the antimicrobial smoke.
Consume a few
seeds.
Prepare an infusion and clean or

wash the affected
places on skin.
Give the cold

decoction drink to
animals.
Drink a tea 3
times per day.
Prepare a tea,
use 1 teaspoon of
seeds per small tea
pot. Infuse for 15
minutes and drink
3 times per day.
Clean or wash the

affected places on
skin.
Prepare a tea from

dried herb.
Detailed
administration
AprOct
Sep
MayAug
JulSep
Aug
JunJul
Seasonal
availability
0.6
0.3
1.4
0.1
UVb
0.6
0.5
0.54
NCd
0.56
IARc
12 of 31
The Author(s) 2016
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Mentha longifolia var. asiatica

(Boriss.) Rech.f.
PR 837015
Origanum
vulgare subsp.
gracile (K. Koch)
letsw.
PR 837013
Zygophyllaceae
Lamiaceae
Marrubium anisodon K.Koch

PR 837016
Peganum harmala L.
PR 837019
Malvaceae
Family
Malva neglecta
Wallr.
PR 837005
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
Semi-desert/
steppe
(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Gathering
environment
,
(K)
Abdyrashman,
Usyryk (E)
(K)
Dushies (E)
(K)
Zhalpyz (E)
(K)
Kotur chop (E)
,
(K)
Nan chop, Mai
tokoch (E)
Vernacular
namea
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Plant
life-form
Skin disorders,
scabies
Cough, bronchitis
Aerial
part
Flu, angina, high

pressure, internal
organ disorders
High pressure,
stomach ache, ulcers
of gastro-intestinal
system, kidney
disorders, source of
vitamins
Root
Aerial
part
Aerial
part
Skin eczemas and

scabies
Digestion problems
Seed
Aerial
part
Woman uterine
disorders, pregnancy and obstetric
complications
Local medicinal
Aerial
part
Part
used
Smoke
Decoction
Infusion
Fresh,
dried
Infusion
Infusion
Infusion
Mode of
preparation
Inhalation
Wash/
bath
Oral
Oral
Wash,
bath
Oral
Oral
Mode of
application
Burn a dry plant

material and
inhale smoke in
enclosed room.
Clean affected
places on skin.
Prepare a tea from

12 teaspoons per
small teapot. Use
23 cups daily for
10 days. Infuse for
1520 min.
Prepare a tea,
use 1 teaspoon
per small tea pot.
Drink 23 times
per day.
Prepare an infusion and when it

is lukewarm wash
the skin.
Prepare a tea from

a few seeds.
Prepare a tea,
drink regularly.
Detailed
administration
AugSep
Jul
JulAug
JulAug
AugSep
Seasonal
availability
1.6
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.2
UVb
0.73
0.5
0.51
0.5
IARc
13 of 31
The Author(s) 2016
Plantaginaceae
Lamiaceae
Perovskia scrophulariifolia Bunge

(purple form)
PR 837010
Plantago major
L.
PR 837021
Lamiaceae
Family
Perovskia scrophulariifolia Bunge

(white form)
PR 837011
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
Anthropic,
Riparian
forest
(nearby)
Semi-desert/
steppe
(nearby)
Semi-desert/
steppe
(nearby)
Gathering
environment
(K)
Bakazhalbrak
(E)
(K)
Koyen tamuk (E)
--
(K)
Ak-koyen-tamuk
(E)
Vernacular
namea
Herb
Herb
Herb
Plant
life-form
Leaf
Leaf
Infusion
Fresh
Wounds
Fresh
Stomach ache, gastric ulcer, gastritis,

digestion, headache,
high pressure, kidney disorders, raised
temperature
Skin disorders,
wounds
Fresh,
dried
Scabies
Fresh,
dried
Infusion
Toothache
Seed
Infusion
Mode of
preparation
High blood pressure
Stomach ache, headache, inflammations

of gastrointestinal
system, digestion
problems, lowering
blood pressure
Aerial
part,
seed
Leaf
Local medicinal
Part
used
Topical
Oral
Topical
Wash,
bath
Oral
Topical
Oral
Mode of
application
Apply externally
on wounds.
Prepare a tea from

2 leaves per small
teapot. Drink
daily, 3 times a day
for 10 days.
Apply the crushed

leaves on desirable
spots on the skin.
Clean or wash the

affected places by
infusion.
Prepare a tea, use

12 teaspoons per
small teapot, drink
3 times every day.
Attach on tooth to
inhibit toothache.
Prepare a tea from

1 teaspoon per
teapot.
Detailed
administration
JunAug
MaySep
Aug
Seasonal
availability
1.4
0.3
0.5
UVb
0.54
0.5
0.5
IARc
14 of 31
The Author(s) 2016
Crassulaceae
Asteraceae
Rhaponticum
repens(L.) Hidalgo.
PR 837048
Rhodiola gelida
Schrenk. ex
Fisch. & C.A.
Mey.
PR 837038
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Prunus armeniaca L.
PR 837009
Prunus erythrocarpa (Nevski)

Gilli
PR 837028
Polygonaceae
Family
Polygonum hissaricum Popov

PR 837035
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Gathering
environment

(K),
(R)
Altyn Tamyr,
Zlotoy koren (E)
(the golden
root)
(K)
Kekre chop (E)
(K)
Karacheke (E)
(K)
Uruk (E)
(K)
Kymyzyek (E)
Vernacular
namea
Herb
Herb
Shrub
Tree
Herb
Plant
life-form
Root
Aerial
part
Fruit
Fruit
Stem,
leaf
Part
used
Blood pressure harmonization, nerves

and headache,
gastritis, gastro-intestinal organ ulcers,
heart problems and
its strengthening
Stomach ache,
digestion problems,
diarrhoea
Nerves, headache,
high pressure, limbs
ache and stomach
ache
Stomach ache,
heartburn
Immunostimulant,
flu
Local medicinal
Tincture
Oral
Oral
Oral
Fresh
Infusion
Oral
Oral
Oral
Mode of
application
Infusion
Fresh,
dried
Fresh
Mode of
preparation
Cut the fresh root

on small pieces
and extract for 40
days in a spirit,
use daily for 10
days 1 teaspoon 3
times a day.
Prepare a tea from

dried plant, use
one teaspoon per
small teapot. Keep
drinking for 10
days, 23 times
per day.
Eat a several fresh

fruits medicinal
snack.
Prepare a tea, 5
seeds per teapot.
Drink 3 times per
day for 12 days.
Eat 5 mature
fruits.
Consume the fresh

stem and leaves
rich in vitamins.
Also refreshing
wild vegetable
snack.
Detailed
administration
JulAug
MayJul
Aug
JunAug
MayJul
Seasonal
availability
1.3
0.6
0.7
0.1
0.7
UVb
0.75
0.25
NCd
0.67
IARc
15 of 31
Grossulariaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Asteraceae
Lamiaceae
Rosa ecae Aitch.

PR 837042
Rosa fedtschenkoana Regel

PR 837029
Rubus caesius L.
PR 837006
Taraxacum sp.
PR 837045
Thymus seravschanicus Klokov

PR 837037
Family
Ribes meyeri
Maxim.
PR 837039
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
The Author(s) 2016
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Anthropic,
Riparian
forest
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Riparian
forest
(nearby)
Mountainous
slopes
(distant)
Gathering
environment
p (K)
Min tamyr (E)
(the plant of
thousand roots)

(K)
Mama kaymak
(E)
(K)
Buldurgan (E)
(K),
, (R)
Gul sogar, Shipovnik (E)
(K)
It murun (E)
p
(K)
Boary karagat
(E)
Vernacular
namea
Herb
Herb
Shrub
Shrub
Shrub
Shrub
Plant
life-form
Aerial
part
Aerial
part
Fruit
Woman genital disorders, problem with

fertility
Stomach ache
High pressure,
headache
Cough, angina, flu,

runny nose, immunity, heart defects,
high pressure, gastric
ulcers, gastritis
Insect bites
Fruit
Fruit
Stomach disorders,
heart disorders,
bronchitis
Kidney and urinary

disorders, increasing
level of blood
Local medicinal
Leaf,
flower,
fruit
Fruit
Leaf,
fruit
Part
used
Infusion
Infusion
Fresh,
preserved
Infusion
Fresh,
powder
Infusion
Fresh/
dried
Infusion
Mode of
preparation
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Oral
Oral
Oral
Mode of
application
Prepare a tea
from dried plant
material.
Prepare a tea from

1 heaped tablespoon per teapot.
Drink every day
for 10 days.
Eat fresh or preserved fruit.
Prepare a tea and

drink 1 cup every
day, use 23 fruits
per small teapot.
Attach the fresh

fruit or powdered
dry fruit on bitten
place.
Prepare a tea and

drink regularly.
Consumed in
fresh or dried
form.
Prepare a tea and

drink 3 times per
day for 10 days.
Detailed
administration
JunAug
May
June
JunJul
AugSep
Aug
JunAug
Aug
Seasonal
availability
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.5
UVb
NCd
0.5
0.56
0.25
0.75
IARc
16 of 31
The Author(s) 2016
Mountainous
slopes,
Juniper forest
(distant)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Anthropic
(nearby)
Gathering
environment
(K)
Kiygot (E)
(the herb of the
wild goat)
(K)
K (R)
Zhygoru,
Kukuruz (E)
(K)
Chagan Chop
(E)
(K)
Temir teken (E)
Vernacular
namea
Herb
Graminoid
Herb
Herb
Plant
life-form
Aerial
part
Flower
Aerial
part
Aerial
part
Part
used
Flu, cough, cold,

angina, runny nose,
infections, blood
cleaning, blood pressure harmonization,
headache, stomach
ache, gastritis,
antiemetic
Liver and kidney

problems, jaundice
Radicular and leg

pain, rheumatism
Purification of blood
and urinary system,
disorders of internal
organs
Skin allergy,
inflammations
Local medicinal
Infusion
Infusion
Fresh
Infusion
Infusion,
fresh
Mode of
preparation
Oral
Oral
Topical
Oral
Wash,
bath,
topical
Mode of
application
Prepare a tea from

12 teaspoons per
small teapot.
Prepare a tea
from male flower
and drink up to 3
times a day.
Use fresh plant

externally on skin
against rheumatism and muscular
pain.
Prepare a tea and

drink regularly for
a longer time.
Clean the affected

places by warm
infusion or attach
crushed fresh
plant.
Detailed
administration
AugSep
AugSep
MayJun
AprMay
Seasonal
availability
0.4
0.9
0.3
UVb
0.68
0.33
0.38
IARc
K Kyrgyz language; R Russian language; E English transliteration, the term in quotation marks express a popular folk meaning. b UV: species use value. c IAR informant agreement ratio. d NC
not calculated (reported only by one informant). e not collected (identified in the field by the first author).
Lamiaceae
Ziziphora
pamiroalaica Juz.
PR 837036
Urticaceae
Urtica dioica L.
PR 837018
Poaceae
Zygophyllaceae
Tribulus terrestris L.e
Zea mays L.
PR 837008
Family
Botanical name
and voucher
specimen No.
Tab. 1Continued
17 of 31
Tab. 2 Ethnobotanical information on taxonomically unidentified medicinal plants.
Vernacular namea
Number of
informants
Plant part
used
Preparation and
application
Note
Stomach disorders, headaches, kidney disorders,

immunity enhancer
Leaf
Consumed or chewed
Not found
Root
Infusion drunk
Local medicinal use
(K)
Ulkon (E)
(K)
Mandil (E)
Rheumatism, pain of
joints, tonic, stabilization and strengthening
of heart functions, high
blood pressure
Root
Consumed/chewed fresh
or dried, or decoction/
tincture is prepared and
ingested
Not found
(K)
Chechendir (E)
Skin inflammations and

other skin disorders
Leaf
Applied fresh topically, or

infusion for wash/bath
Not found
(K)
Shakul dak choepte (E)
Kidney stones and kidney

disorders
Flower
Infusion drunk
Not found.
Occur earlier in
the season.
(K)
Zhylan chop (E)
Aphrodisiac for men
Root
Consumed/chewed dried,
or infusion is drunk
Not found
(K)
Ak Shuvak (E)
Scabies, body odor (feet/

leg), high blood pressure
Aerial
part
Infusion drunk for high

blood pressure, or decoction for wash/bath
Not found
(K)
Kunkurama (E)
Haemostasis
Leaf
Dried ground and applied externally
Not found
(K)
Dolona(E)
Unknown medicinal use
Fruit
(black
color)
Consumption of fresh/
dried/canned fruits
Not found.
Occur in other
regions.
(K)
Uibede (E)
Kidney disorders
Leaf
Infusion drunk
Not found. Not

used anymore.
(K)
Saviz chop (E)
Not found. Not

used anymore,
forgotten use.
- (K)
Kyzyl-ychak (E)
Not found. Not

used anymore,
forgotten use.
() (K)
(Duk) Schilbi (E)
Not found. Not

used anymore,
forgotten use.
K Kyrgyz language; E English transliteration.
= 0.62). Accordingly, there is an assumption of well-developed knowledge and exchanged information on herbal treatment in those categories. The lowest value, with
no consensus at all, was determined for dental and mouth care (DMC) and the other
uses (OTH) categories.
An agreement on the use of particular plant species for the treatment of various
disorders in a given ailment category was assumed by the IAR presented in Tab. 1.
Rhaponticum repens (L.), Achillea arabica Kotschy, Taraxacum sp., Conioselinum vaginatum (Spreng.) Thell., Heracleum sphondylium subsp. montanum (Schleich. ex
Gaudin) Briq., Berberis integerrima Bunge., Hippophae turkestanica (Rousi) Tzvelev,
Convolvulus arvensis L., and Tribulus terrestris L. have shown a 100% agreement
among informants.
Through use of the FL index, highly preferred plants within particular categories
were determined (Tab. 5). Notably, GISD includes the most plant species, obtaining a
The Author(s) 2016
18 of 31
Tab. 3 Ailment categories presented according to the descending order of the informant consensus factor (ICF).
% of total UR
ICF
Veterinary (VET)
Haemorrhoids (HMR)
0.83
Skeleto-muscular system disorders (SMSD)
0.76
22
Respiratory and throat disorders (RTD)
0.63
14
36
11
Gastro-intestinal system disorders (GISD)
0.62
33
86
26
Circulatory system disorders (CSD)
0.56
21
46
14
Infections/infestations (INF)
0.5
21
41
13
Injuries/wounds (INJ)
0.5
11
Neurological problems (NEU)
0.47
10
18
Immunity disorders (IMD)
0.44
10
Genito-urinary system disorders (GUSD)
0.4
13
21
Skin disorders (SKD)
0.38
13
Blood system disorders (BSD)
0.2
Dental and mouth care (DMC)
Others (OTH)
No. of speciesa
No. of URb
Ailment category
A taxon may be reported in more than one ailment category. b UR use report.
100% FL. The highest cultural importance demonstrated by the UV index was calculated for Ziziphora pamiroalaica Juz. (UV = 2), Peganum harmala L. (UV = 1.6), Inula
orientalis Lam., Plantago major L. (UV = 1.4), Ferula kokanica Regel & Schmalh., Angelica ternata Regel & Schmalh., Rhodiola gelida Schrenk. ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey. (UV
= 1.3), and Euphorbia monocyathium Prokh. (UV = 1.2). Based on the sum of species
UV, the most culturally important families were Lamiaceae (total UV = 5.2), Apiaceae
(total UV = 4.3), and Asteraceae (total UV = 3.9).
Tab. 4 Ten most frequently reported health problems and species with highest citation
frequency for their treatment.
Health disorder
No. of citations
Prioritized species
Stomach aches
59
Hippophae turkestanica, Rhaponticum repens
Kidney disorders
16
Ribes meyeri
Headaches
16
Prunus erythrocarpa
Fractures
14
Berberis integerrima
Influenza
14
Ziziphora pamiroalaica
Coughs
14
Ferula kokanica
Angina
14
Ziziphora pamiroalaica, Ferula kokanica
Wounds
11
Convolvulus arvensis
Scabies
11
Peganum harmala
The Author(s) 2016
Mode of preparation,
administration, and
plant parts used
The herbal remedies were
prepared according to various modes of preparation
(Fig. 2). Principally, there was
no report on the use of herb
mixtures, and all remedies
were prepared from single
plant species. The most frequent method of preparation
was infusion (37%). Infusions
were prepared in the form of
herbal tea, usually in a local
teapot with an approximate
volume of 0.5 L. The majority of plants were infused for
between 510 minutes. Cold
19 of 31
Tab. 5 The prioritized species in particular ailment categories based on the fidelity level index.
Ailment category
Fidelity level
Plant species
Gastro-intestinal system disorders
100%
Hippophae turkestanica, Taraxacum sp., Rhaponticum repens, Achillea arabica
Circulatory system disorders
100%
Heracleum sphondylium subsp. montanum, Conioselinum vaginatum
Skeleto-muscular system disorders
100%
Berberis integerrima
Skin disorders
100%
Tribulus terrestris
Infections/infestations
83%
Arnebia euchroma
Injuries/wounds
80%
Convolvulus arvensis
Haemorrhoids
80%
Capparis sicula subsp. herbacea
Immunity disorders
71%
Polygonum hissaricum
Respiratory and throat disorders
67%
Juniperus semiglobosa
Genito-urinary system disorders
60%
Ribes meyeri
Neurological problems
57%
Prunus erythrocarpa
Blood system disorders
40%
Ribes meyeri
Veterinary
21%
Inula orientalis
Others
20%
Allium carolinianum, Perovskia scrophulariifoliaa
Dental and mouth care
10%
Amygdalus bucharica
Preserved
Purple form of Perovskia scrophulariifolia.
1%
Tincture
2%
Powder
2%
Paste
2%
Smoke
3%
Decoction
11%
Dried
16%
Fresh
25%
Infusion
37%
Fig. 2 Proportional distribution of species according

to the mode of preparation.
Root
13%
Seed
13%
Leaf
15%
Flower, 4%
Branch, 3%
Fruit
15%
Stem, 3%
Aerial part
31%
Bark, 1%
Bulb, 1%
Sap, 1%
Fig. 3 Plant parts used for medicinal purposes.
The Author(s) 2016
or gently warmed infusions were applied as washes and baths

for the treatment of scabies and other skin disorders. The direct
consumption of fresh fruit and seed was popular, and in some
cases the chewing of various plant parts. Fresh plants were often
applied topically to cure skin problems, injuries and wounds.
For the preparation of a decoction, plants were boiled for 1020
minutes in water, or, as in the case of Arnebia euchroma (Royle)
I.M. Johnst., in milk, in order to increase drug efficiency against
tuberculosis.
With regard to the application methods reported by informants, 77% of remedies were used internally, i.e., oral (73%),
inhalation (3%), and insertion (1%). The remaining 23% of
herbal preparations were applied externally, i.e., topical (15%)
and wash/bath (8%). The largest variability in terms of application methods was recorded for Peganum harmala (oral, topical,
and inhalation) and Ephedra equisetina (oral, topical, and wash/
bath).
The proportion of different plant parts used for medicinal
purposes is shown in Fig. 3. Above all, aerial plant parts (31%)
are used for the preparation of plant-based medicaments.
Stem from only two species were used. The raw stems of Polygonum hissaricum Popov, a popular diet-enriching vegetable
snack, were consumed to enhance immunity. Its medicinal use
had not been previously recorded. The stem and branches of
Ferula kokanica contain a valuable sap which is used to treat
angina, coughs, bronchitis, runny noses, flu, colds, and stomach aches. Interestingly, many plants of F. kokanica are notched,
20 of 31
the solidified sap collected the next day and then stored, usually in a matchbox, and
always carried personally throughout the year. Bark used only in one case from Berberis integerrima was prepared as a decoction in order to help set fractures and aid in
their healing. The use of bulbs was recorded for Allium carolinianum DC merely as
an immunity and appetite stimulator, and occasionally prepared as a treatment for
jaundice.
Food-medicine continuum
Nearly one quarter of documented taxa (24%) were commonly used as sources of
food. In the present study Amygdalus bucharica, Angelica ternata, Bunium persicum
B. Fedtsch, and Hippophae turkestanica were the sources of medicinal food. We observed a changing pattern from medicinal food to medicine based on the method of
preparation. For instance, in order to achieve a particular medicinal effect, A. ternata
and B. persicum are prepared as an infusion instead of being used for seasoning. Other
edible species are generally considered healthy, therefore according to Pieroni and
Quave [35] rather fit into the category of functional food (Anethum graveolens L.,
Juglans regia L., Polygonum hissaricum, Ribes meyeri Maxim., Rubus caesius L., Prunus
armeniaca L.). Although, from the local perspective consumption of these species
has a beneficial effect on particular organs or body systems, they are not ingested as a
highly effective medicine. A third group of food/medicinal species we distinguished
has separate functions as food or medicine, which means that the culinary use of the
species is unrelated to the medical application [Juglans regia, Mentha longifolia var.
asiatica (Boriss.) Rech.f, Zea mays L.]. Some remarkable culturally important medicinal food species are shown in Fig. 4.
Collection patterns and seasonal availability
Medicinal plants are primarily gathered from the wild (86% of documented taxa). The
remaining plants are either collected or cultivated (five species), with three species
cultivated only.
Fig. 4 Culturally important medicinal food plants. a Angelica ternata. b Bunium persicum (being sundried).
c Prunus erythrocarpa (fruiting branch). d Polygonum hissaricum.
The Author(s) 2016
21 of 31
Fig. 5 Ethnobotanical characteristics of the gathering environments. UV use value index; IAR informant agreement
ratio (certain taxa are gathered in more than one environment).
N415DE"4C@:5.CF4C27"
!!"
D:721C2"4C@:5.CF4C27"
*#"
#$%&" *#"
;.21<"UV"
-.%"./"01234546"
7849:47"
'%(!" '%+,"
'%)'" '%),"
?@45104"UV"
?@45104"IAR"
Fig. 6 Comparison of nearby and distant gathering

environments. UV use value; IAR informant agreement ratio.
C-8?5+5@"<12."
D02AB-85@"<12."
C-8?5+5@"-1@"702AB-85@"
90:;5+"<="*2-18>""3-8?5+5@"<+"702AB-85@"
&"
%"
&"
!"
&"
!"
&&"
!"
&"
!%"
$"
$'"
$%"
#"
!"
)*+"
,-."
$"
("
/01"
/02"
)03"
45*"
678"
Fig. 7 Seasonal availability of gathered and cultivated

medicinal plants
The Author(s) 2016
The majority of taxa (64%) are obtained from nearby locations (up to 1 hour walking distance from informants
homesteads). Within nearby localities, the highest diversity of
medicinal plants gathered (52% of taxa) was found in anthropic
environments like homegardens and orchards (Fig. 5). The
most common medicinal plants were collected from nearby
environments, while commercially valued species and those
with strong treating effects were gathered in distant mountainous areas such as mountainous slopes and juniper forests at
higher altitudes. As shown in Fig. 5, the highest IAR (0.77) was
calculated for medicinal plants gathered in high altitude juniper forests, one of the most distant environments. Notably, the
highest total UV showed species gathered from mountainous
slopes at distant sites. Although the number of species gathered in particular environments is positively correlated to the
total UV (r = 0.89, p < 0.05), there is no significant relationship
between the number of gathered species and the average UV (r
= 0.14, p > 0.05), and average IAR (r = 0.63, p > 0.05).
Afterwards, we compared the merged data for nearby
(semi-dessert/steppe, anthropic environments, riparian forest) and distant environments (mountainous slopes, juniper
forest) in Fig. 6. Although distant environments provide less
medicinal species, their total UV (Fig. 6) and average IAR
(MannWhitney test, p = 0.206) are slightly higher, whereas
average UV reached significantly higher values (MannWhitney test, p < 0.05).
The period of species availability is shown in Fig. 7. The
duration of the collection season varies for particular plants
from 1 month to a maximum of 7 months, with an average duration of 2.5 months per species. Medicinal plants were commonly dried to ensure their availability all year round.
22 of 31
Comparative analysis of medicinal

plant species used
Overlap between the mountain systems is shown
through a Venn diagram (Fig. 8), and Jaccard similarity indices are presented in Tab. 6.
Interestingly, the highest degree of similarity at
generic and species level was determined for the
medicinal plants used in the Badakshan region of
the adjacent mountain system of Pamir. Notable
commonalities were detected with regions in other
parts of the Pamir-Alay Mountains. The lowest
level of similarity was found with studies from the
mountain ranges of Tien Shan.
Fig. 8 Venn diagram comparing medicinal species used within
major Central Asian mountain systems.
So far, the greatest number of medicinal species
used has been documented in the Tien Shan Mountains 140 spp. [11,13], followed by the Pamir-Alay
90 spp. (present study and [11]) and lastly Pamir Mountains 58 spp. [12]. Although
Pamir-Alay and Tien Shan have the highest number of species in common (25 spp.;
Jaccard index = 12.20), a slightly higher Jaccard index (12.98) was calculated between
Pamir-Alay and Pamir (Tab. 6). The lowest similarity was found between Pamir and
Tien Shan (Jaccard index = 9.39). Our comparative analysis revealed 11 species that
are used in folk medicine across all the major Central Asian mountain systems along
with the different cultures of Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, and Afghans (Fig. 8).
Medicinal food plants and sustainability
Besides their medical applications, two plant species are frequently used as aromatic
plants for food seasoning. Bunium persicum (UV = 0.8, IAR = 0.57) was, with the
exception of cultivated dill (Anethum graveolens), observed to be the most utilized
local condiment. Bunium persicum is well-known to the study area population and it
Tab. 6 Geographical comparison of medicinal plant species documented in Leilek district (Kyrgyzstan) and neighboring regions
based on available ethnobotanical studies.
Region and reference
Geography
(mountain system)
No. of
recorded
genera
No. of
recorded
species
No. of
identical
genera
No. of
identical
species
Jaccard
index for
genera
Jaccard
index for
species
Gorno Badakhsan
Oblast (Tajikistan)
and Badakhsan Province, Afghanistan
[11]
Afghan and Tajik

Pamirs (Pamir
Mountains)
54
58
27
13
36.99
13.68
Djizzax Province,
Uzbekistan [9]
Nuratau mountains
and Turkestan Range
(Pamir-Alay)
24
28
14
25.00
13.04
Samarqand Province,
Uzbekistan [9]
Zarafshan Range
(Pamir-Alay)
38
43
21
33.33
10.71
Toskent Province,
Uzbekistan [9]
Pskem mountain
range (Tien Shan)
27
34
13
21.66
9.09
Chatkal Biosphere
Reserve, Uzbekistan
[12]
Chatkal Range (Tien

Shan)
94
117
24
13
20.69
8.44
Leilek district,
Kyrgzystan
Turkestan Range
(Pamir-Alay)
46
50
N/A
N/A
N/A
The Author(s) 2016
N/A
23 of 31
possesses significant economic value when commercialized [up to 500 KGS (Kyrgyzstan Som) nearly 10 USD per kg]. Its seeds are sundried, stored, and sold regularly
at local and regional markets. Because of its high economic profitability there is a
strong effort among local people to collect as many seeds as possible. After being
dried, the seeds are sold immediately, or in many cases they are stored and sold during the wintertime, when the market price increases considerably. According to some
informants, it is also traded across the border with Tajikistan, where it is extremely
popular but less abundant in nature.
Angelica ternata (UV = 1.3, IAR = 0.5), another aromatic species with extensive
medicinal effects, is used as a popular condiment especially for seasoning soups. In
comparison with B. persicum it grows at a higher altitude (above 3000 m a.s.l.) and
is less abundant. Therefore, the gathering of this species is more difficult and less
common, unlike B. persicum. Perhaps due to the lower abundance, A. ternata was
observed to be consumed within households rather than sold on markets. However,
both species might be under pressure due to extensive gathering.
Discussion
Ethnomedicinal knowledge and health sovereignty in the Turkestan Range
Although arid and semi-arid environments are considered less biologically diverse,
people have evolved various life strategies to cope with such environments, often extensively utilizing local plant resources [36]. The provision of proper health services
in the mountainous areas of Kyrgyzstan is challenging, but TK of medicinal plants
provides important options for health sovereignty in the mountains of Central Asia
[12]. It is considered that the persistence of TK is directly related to its continuous use.
A partial loss of TK due to Soviet influence has been observed in the Leilek district,
especially a decrease in the spiritual value and use of plants. We noticed that the use
of Peganum harmala and Juniperus semiglobosa for fumigation with a sacred meaning
had importance in the past, while currently its spiritual value is no longer recognized
and people were rather ashamed to speak about it.
While searching for informants using a snowball method, we briefly asked lay
people about the medicinal plants they know. Almost all were familiar with several
common medicinal plants and their medicinal use. They were also aware of more
plants having medicinal properties, however, they had unfortunately forgotten their
medical applications. According to Kassam [4], the transfer of knowledge of medicinal plants in the former Soviet republics may even skip a generation of people who did
not use these plants during the Soviet period. Kassam [4] demonstrated the difference
between the Afghan and Tajik sides of the Pamir Mountains. The author observed that
the traditional ecological knowledge on the Afghan side of the Pamir Mountains was
not lost to the same extent as the Tajik side, which was influenced by the Soviet Union
rule. In the Turkestan Range, the TK is nowadays under threat again because of high
unemployment, urbanization, and the adoption of western lifestyles especially attractive to younger generations. Along with the erosion of ethnomedicinal knowledge,
communities also lose their access to natural/complementary health care. While hospitalization is an important option, high costs, limited access and the lack of medical
professionals put Central Asian societies at risk [12]. Although access to public health
care is improving in Kyrgyzstan, the affordability of modern health care remains a
widespread problem [37]. The practical wisdom to use medicinal plants as an alternative or in combination with conventional health care systems underpins the resilience
of rural communities [2].
Major ailment categories and their herbal treatment
Tab. 4 gives a picture of the most widespread health problems treated by medicinal
plants in the study area. Looking at the ailment categories, GISD has also been documented as the most common category in other studies from Central Asia [1113].
The Author(s) 2016
24 of 31
This might be explained by the fact that sanitary problems and a significant lack of
drinking water are common in most Central Asian countries [18]. Interviewees distinguished a remarkably wide array of gastro-intestinal problems. Among those, the
most frequently mentioned were stomachaches and gastritis. Hippophae turkestanica
is particularly popular for the treatment of both ailments.
The second most commonly treated ailment category in the study area is circulatory
system disorders (CSD), which corresponds with national health report [37], stating
that cardiovascular diseases are the leading causes of death in Kyrgyzstan. Our study
has documented 21 medicinal plant species helping people with cardiovascular disorders (ICF = 0.58). Hypertension, as the most frequent, is lowered mainly by herbal
infusion from Artemisia absinthium L., Angelica ternata, Dracocephalum stamineum
Kar. & Kir., and a tincture prepared from Rhodiola gelida. Nevertheless, according
to the FL, Heracleum sphondylium subsp. montanum and Conioselinum vaginatum
were determined as the most preferred species within this category. Contrary to our
results, in Uzbekistan the treatment of cardiovascular diseases is not much reflected
in folk medicine [11,13]. As pointed by Penkala-Gawcka [6] the treatment of certain
categories might be interconnected with knowledge acquisition from media sources
and also official doctors during and after the Soviet Union rule.
According to Ibraimova et al. [37], the second and third most fatal health problems
are cancer and respiratory diseases, respectively. In addition, Kyrgyzstan is among the
27 highest multidrug-resistant tuberculosis burden countries in the world [38]. For
the treatment of tuberculosis only one plant species (Arnebia euchroma) was reported
by our informants. This species obtained the highest FL (83%) in the category of infections/infestations (INF) and according to internationally available literature sources
it is pharmacologically a very interesting species [39]. This plant has been known in
the neighboring Himalayas since ancient times and used as natural dye for silk as well
as various food products. Shikonin, a remarkable naphthoquinone-based compound,
was found in the roots of A. euchroma. Shikonin has a current value of 4000 USD per
kilogram (wholesale price) and possesses antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inammatory,
and wound-healing properties [39].
Concerning infectious diseases in the study area, the most prevalent was influenza,
which is treated predominantly by Ziziphora pamiroalaica. Afterwards, respiratory
and throat disorders (RTD; ICF = 0.6) are very frequent. The most cited respiratory
health problems, coughs and angina, are treated by Ferula kokanica and Z. pamiroalaica mostly in the form of an infusion. As previously mentioned, Kyrgyz people
also chew resin extracted from the stem of F. kokanica. Only a limited number of
studies on F. kokanica are available, focusing mainly on the presence and activity of
terpenoid coumarins [40]. Traditional medicinal use of Z. pamiroalaica in Kyrgyzstan
was previously reported as the treatment of tachycardia, gastralgia and heart disorders
[8]. In Uzbekistan Sezik et al. [11] recorded the current use of Z. pamiroalaica as a
sedative and for hypotensive purposes. While many studies have shown significant
antimicrobial activity of Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. there exist only one laboratory
assessment of Z. pamiroalaica, showing even higher antioxidant activity compared to
Z. clinopodioides [41]. Despite obtaining the highest FL in the category of RTD, Juniperus semiglobosa has not been previously reported to treat ailments in this category.
Eisenman et al. [7] found that branches of Juniperus spp. are burned in Central Asia
to produce a pleasant odor and to treat rheumatism.
The most culturally important botanical families and plant species
Based on our data and the results of other authors [1113], currently the most represented botanical families of medicinal plants used in Central Asia are Asteraceae
and Lamiaceae, followed by Apiaceae and Rosaceae. This could be related to the long
scientific discussion that medicinal plants are not a random selection of the available
flora, but that specific botanical families are used more extensively than others (see
e.g., [42]). As we did not make an inventory of the floristic composition of the gathering habitats, we cannot demonstrate whether or not there could be a relationship
between medicinal plant species richness, over- or under-representation of botanical
families and the overall floristic diversity.
The Author(s) 2016
25 of 31
Certain medicinal plants with high UV are known to have been used for a long
time in traditional Central Asian medicine, and some are used almost worldwide, e.g.,
Plantago major and Hypericum perforatum L. Syrian rue (Peganum harmala) is one
of the most phenomenal Central Asian medicinal plants [7]. It has a broad range of
medical uses and it has been reported in all of the ethnobotanical studies in Central
Asia [1113]. Ziziphora pamiroalaica the herb of the wild goat with the highest UV
has been recorded in Pamir-Alay and Pamir but not in Tien Shan, where other species
of the genus Ziziphora are used.
Apart from several reports on Ferula kokanica dating from the Soviet eras pharmacological screening, there is not much recent information available. Inula orientalis
was previously reported to be used in Uzbekistan [11,13], but is utilized in more different ailment categories in our study area. Rhodiola gelida is also used in the Pamir
Mountains [11]. Different authors stated that the roots of Rhodiola genus have become
popular, particularly since the Soviet period (e.g., [43]). Although undocumented by
recent ethnobotanical studies, Angelica ternata is known to be used in Tajikistan [44].
Despite obtaining a high UV, Euphorbia monocyathium seems to be a newly discovered medicinal plant species, with any available records on its traditional medicinal
use in previously published literature.
Collection patterns, sustainability and the role of gathering environments
In order to develop appropriate systems for the sustainable use of plant resources, it is
crucial to understand how the traditional use of plants influences biodiversity in these
ecosystems [45]. Although many ecosystems are resilient and have survived a long
history of human disturbance, they can be pushed beyond recovery through habitat
destruction or overexploitation [23].
We have documented different acquirement patterns for medicinal plants in comparison to the study of Kassam et al. [12]. In Afghan-Tajik Pamir 46% of medicinal
species are gathered exclusively in the wild, while in the Turkestan Range 86% are
gathered entirely from the wild. This means that our study area shows a very poor or
almost no practice of the cultivation of medicinal plants. As pointed out by Rokaya et
al. [31], this situation may, in the long term, lead to the depletion or even extinction of
plant resources. This could possibly happen if the plant species are harvested in large
amounts especially for sale.
Although we raised awareness of intensive and frequent collection of Angelica
ternata and Bunium persicum, the collecting of leaves, seeds and fruits is likely to
have a rather small impact on the overall populations [23]. Contrarily, although less
intensively gathered, the collection of Arnebia euchroma, Euphorbia monocyathium,
and Rhodiola gelida roots should be done with caution regarding the long-term sustainability of harvest practices.
Basically, plant availability and richness are considered as shaping drivers of ethnobotanical knowledge [32]. Moreover, there is a hypothesis that readily available and
apparently visible plant species are of higher cultural importance [32,46]. Martin [22]
adds that longer travel distances decrease the utilization of remote plant resources.
Nonetheless, this claim is accepted for tropical humid environments, whereas in arid
areas it is not evident [46]. The results of a study conducted by Ladio et al. [47] in
the arid Patagonia region of Argentina, however, support the hypothesis that the use
of medicinal plants is primarily based on the utilization of species belonging to the
nearest ecological environments. Also, Thomas et al. [48] positively correlated the accessibility and usefulness of plant species in the arid zone of the Bolivian Andes.
In our study we assume that the question of distance depends mostly on the usefulness and additional value of particular species. In the Turkestan Range, characterized as a semi-arid region, vegetation resources are rather scarce and do not provide
a wealth of non-timber forest products as is the case for tropical forest zones. On
the other hand, both villages investigated are positioned at the junction of different
vegetation zones, indicating a common livelihood strategy that helps communities
to be more flexible and resilient through the use of more diverse floral and faunal
elements [49]. In the present study, medicinal plant species diversity was highest in
anthropic environments. These sites are often characterized by a high productivity
The Author(s) 2016
26 of 31
rate and the availability of useful plants [47], and medicinal species in particular [50].
Yet our results partially contradict the hypothesis that readily available and also apparent medicinal plants from disturbed sites are of higher cultural importance. Even
though nearby environments provide more medicinal species, a total UV is slightly
higher for the fewer species collected at distant sites. Accordingly, average UV for species from distant environments reached significantly higher values (MannWhitney
test, p < 0.05), demonstrating their crucial role in the local folk medicine. These results
could reflect a methodological approach including only key informants, who practically, but not exclusively, appreciated medicinal species growing naturally at higher
altitudes.
There is also evidence from the Mapuche community in northwestern Patagonia,
which was found to obtain the most useful medicinal plants at more distant gathering
sites [51]. In seasonal dry forests of Brazil, Albuqeurque et al. [52] found that despite the studied community knowing more medicinal species of the disturbed areas,
people prefer to use species of native vegetation from remote areas.
There is a divergent understanding of gathering environments cultural importance
among ethnobotanists [52]. Some authors tend to only look at a number of species
acquired in particular environments in the context of supply source, regardless of the
species cultural importance. We argue that only considering a number of useful plant
species in gathering environments does not truly reflect their cultural importance. It
is necessary to realize that one medicinal species could be much more useful than the
other. Therefore, calculating the average values of indices which represent the cultural
importance of species (in our case UV) in particular environments, accompanied by
their sum resulting in a total cultural value for a given environment, may further shed
light on the profound question of the sociocultural and ecological circumstances of
plant gathering (Fig. 5, Fig. 6). Phillips et al. [53] reported, how average values can
reveal significantly different results than the proportion of useful species expressed
as a percentage. Our results showed that average consensus (IAR) for species in particular environments may disclose the level of agreement for gathering sites. Further
analysis of gathering environments floristic composition as well as the inclusion of lay
people into the research objectives could further confirm these patterns for semi-arid
mountainous environment in Central Asia.
Cross-cultural comparison of mountain systems
A geographical-cultural comparison showed a close relationship between species
used in Pamir-Alay and the Pamir Mountains, which might be explained by the interconnection and similar ecological conditions of both areas. The remarkable level of
concordance between genera, as well as species used in the Leilek district and Badakshan region in Pamir, is primarily the result of similar natural conditions and a nearly
equal number of species documented thus far.
Furthermore, Kassam et al. [12] found a significant number of Kyrgyz nomadic
pastoralists, who interact with other ethnic groups in the Pamir and thus might disseminate traditional Kyrgyz knowledge. On the other hand, the Tien Shan Mountains
are home to a greater number of plant species and a higher level of endemism [13].
The Pamir Mountains, with 58 species, showed 17 species in common with Tien Shan
(out of 140 species) as well as 17 species in common with Pamir-Alay, from significantly fewer medicinal species used in there (90). However, this comparative analysis
should be considered as preliminary and might be limited by the level of research
effort in particular regions and sometimes unspecified methodological factors such
as gender issues.
Considering plant parts used, in the Afghan-Tajik Pamir proportions are very
similar, however there is a slightly higher rate of root use compared to Kyrgyz PamirAlay. In western Tien Shan, Uzbekistan [13], proportions are comparable to our study,
except Uzbeks utilize a greater proportion of flowers. In a more complex study in Uzbekistan [11], authors documented a high number of medicinal species from which
underground parts are used. The use of herbaceous species and underground organs
is likely to increase with the aridity of the environment [47].
The Author(s) 2016
27 of 31
Concerning local plant names, various Kyrgyz folk names are similar to those in
Uzbekistan, with more similarities found with the Uzbek parts of Pamir-Alay than
with the Uzbek Tien Shan. In general, our informants used Kyrgyz folk names. They
were aware of Russian names predominantly for the typical species of Russian pharmacopoeia, nevertheless also for culturally important species, which are occasionally
translated into Russian (e.g., Euphorbia monocyathium is named (Ayuuvot)
in Kyrgyz and sometimes is called in Russian (Medvedi koren), both
meaning the bears root).
Health hazard aspects of some medicinal species
Although there is no information on Angelica ternata available in internationally published literature sources, Nuraliev [44] reported a harmful effect of this species on
human health. The plant is quite common in the Tajik mountains, and its roots or
aerial parts are prepared in dried form as tea or added to dishes as a condiment. Some
folk healers apply the aqueous extracts of the roots and aerial parts to treat hypertension and heart disease [44]. According to a later study [54], the ability of A. ternata
to both lower blood pressure and increase the risk of blood clotting at the same time
creates favorable conditions for the formation of blood clots causing venous thrombosis, heart attacks and a number of other fatal diseases. This herb can be particularly
dangerous for people who have previously had heart attacks, suffer coronary heart
disease or diabetes. Accordingly, it is hazardous to use A. ternata in cardiology, as an
anti-diabetic drug, or as an herbal tea or dietary supplement.
Conclusions
Currently, medicinal plants in the Turkestan Range are predominantly used for common health problems, while serious health disorders are rather treated with conventional healthcare. However, the related expenses and the geographical isolation are
pushing the community to rely extensively on natural resources.
The wild habitats of the Turkestan Range were found to be major pools of medicinal plants, with 86% of taxa gathered entirely from the wild. The results of this study
show that plant species with a high cultural importance are not only found in nearby
ecological environments, but even in distant sites which have a comparatively lower
diversity in medicinal plant species gathered.
This is the first ethnobotanical study performing a quantitative and comparative
analysis in the geographical context of Central Asia. The highest degree of species
similarity was found with medicinal plants traditionally used in the Pamir Mountains.
The present study uncovered two novel (Euphorbia monocyathium, Polygonum hissaricum) and several less-known medicinal plants (Conioselinum vaginatum, Corydalis
fedtschenkoana, Dracocephalum stamineum, Rosa ecae).
In the often-overlooked and poverty stricken regions of the Central Asian mountains with a low development perspective, ancestral knowledge may be particularly
crucial to the resilience of the poorest population undergoing rapid socioeconomic,
cultural and environmental changes.
The results of this study may contribute to biodiversity conservation, the preservation of national bio-cultural heritage, the understanding of folk medicine to allopathic
medical workers, and to community resilience and development. Subsequent studies,
especially ethnobotanical market surveys, could generate further important information on the amount of plant material collected and sold, gathering frequency, and
species prioritization. On the other hand, ecological studies of the gathering environments could assess to what extent wild plants collection influences the respective
vegetation communities.
This study contributes to filling the gap in documentation of Central Asian indigenous knowledge, which if studied by modern ethnobotanical approaches, is capable
of identification of neglected and underutilized plant species.
The Author(s) 2016
28 of 31
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge all those people who participated in our study by sharing their
invaluable traditional knowledge. We are thankful to Bekmat Masaidov, local coordinator of
our expeditions, who ensured the first contact and familiarization with the community in the
study area. Georgy Lazkov and Vclav Zelen provided additional consultation regarding the
morphological characteristics of some species. Michaela Hrabalkov helped with drawing of
the study area map.
References
1. Unnikrishnan PM, Suneetha MS. Biodiversity, traditional knowledge and community
health: strengthening linkages. UNU-IAS policy report. Yokohama: United Nations University and United Nations Environment Programme; 2011.
2. Quave CL, Pardo-de-Santayana M, Pieroni A. Medical ethnobotany in Europe: from field
ethnography to a more culturally sensitive evidence-based CAM. Evid Based Complement
Alternat Med. 2012;2012:156846. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/156846
3. Mamedov N, Gardner Z, Craker LC. Medicinal plants used in Russia and Central Asia for
the treatment of selected skin conditions. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 2015;11:191222.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J044v11n01_07
4. Kassam K-A. Viewing change through the prism of indigenous human ecology: findings from the Afghan and Tajik Pamirs. Hum Ecol. 2009;37(6):677690. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1007/s10745-009-9284-8
5. Stickley A, Koyanagi A, Richardson E, Roberts B, Balabanova D, McKee M. Prevalence
and factors associated with the use of alternative (folk) medicine practitioners in 8 countries of the former Soviet Union. BMC Complement Altern Med 2013;13(1):83. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-13-83
6. Penkala-Gawcka D. The Way of the shaman and the revival of spiritual healing in postSoviet Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Shaman. 2014;22:(12):3559.
7. Eisenman WS, Zaurov ED, Struwe L, editors. Medicinal plants of Central
Asia: Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. New York, NY: Springer; 2013. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3912-7
8. Alimbaeva PK, Goncharova AV. Dikorastushchie lekarstvennye rasteniia Kirgizii. Frunze:
Kyrgyzstan; 1971.
9. Vandysheva VI, Yusupova , limbaeva PK. Lekarstvennye rasteniia Kirgizii i perspektivy ich ispolzovaniia. Frunze: Ilim; 1977.
10. Kendgebaeva NV, Ganybaeva MA. Lekarstvennye rasteniia Kyrgyzstana v narodnoi
meditsine. Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. 2009;10:99103.
11. Sezik E, Yesilada E, Shadidoyatov H, Kulivey Z, Nigmatullaev AM, Aripov HN, et al. Folk
medicine in Uzbekistan. Toshkent, Djizzax, and Samarqand provinces. J Ethnopharmacol.
2004;92(23):197207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.02.016
12. Kassam K-A, Karamkhudoeva M, Ruelle M, Baumflek M. Medicinal plant use and health
sovereignty: findings from the Tajik and Afghan Pamirs. Hum Ecol. 2010;38:817829.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10745-010-9356-9
13. Egamberdieva D, Mamadalieva N, Khodjimatov O, Tiezzi A. Medicinal plants from Chatkal Biosphere Reserve used for folk medicine in Uzbekistan. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2013;7(1):5664.
14. MEP. Kyrgyz Republic biodiversity strategy and action plan. Bishek: Ministry of Environmental Protection; 1998.
15. UNDP. United Nations development program in Kyrgyz Republic, State Agency on Environment Protection and Forestry. Bishek: Under the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic;
2008.
16. UNEP, UNDP, OSCE, NATO. Environment and security: transforming risks into cooperation, Central Asia Fergana/Osh/Khujand area [Internet]. 2005 [cited 2016 Feb 8]. Available from: http://www.grida.no/files/publications/envsec/ferghana-report-eng.pdf
17. Fitzherbert A. Kyrgyzstan, country pastures/forage resource profiles [Internet]. Rome:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2000 [cited 2016 Feb 8]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Counprof/PDF%20files/Kyrgyzstan.pdf
18. UN. Kyrgyzstan, environmental performance reviews. Second review synopsis. Economic Commission for Europe, Committee on Environmental Policy. New York, NY:
United Nations; 2009.
The Author(s) 2016
29 of 31
19. Kharin N. Vegetation degradation in Central Asia under the impact of human activities.
New York, NY: Springer; 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0425-1
20. Heinrich M, Edwards S, Moerman ED, Leonti M. Ethnopharmacological field studies: a critical assessment of their conceptual basis and methods. J Ethnopharmacol.
21. Tongco MDC. Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobotany Research and Applications. 2007;5:147158.
22. Martin GJ. Ethnobotany: a methods manual. London: Earthscan; 2004. (People and Plants
Conservation Series).
23. Cunningham AB. Applied ethnobotany. London: Earthscan; 2004. (People and Plants
Conservation Series).
24. Alexiades MN. Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research: a field manual. New York,
NY: The New York Botanical Garden; 1996.
25. Chellappandian M, Mutheeswaran S, Pandikumar P, Ignacimuthu S, Duraipandiyan V.
Quantitative ethnobotany of traditional Siddha medical practitioners from Radhapuram
Taluk of Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;14(2):540547.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.07.014
26. Amiguet TV, Arnason JT, Maquin P, Cal V, Vindas PS, Poveda L. A consensus ethnobotany of the Qeqchi Maya of southern Belize. Econ Bot. 2005;59(1):2942. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1663/0013-0001(2005)059[0029:ACEOTQ]2.0.CO;2
27. Cook FEM. Economic botany data collection standard. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 1995.
28. Heinrich M. Ethnobotany and its role in drug development. Phytother Res.
2000;14(7):479488.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1099-1573(200011)14:7%3C479::AIDPTR958%3E3.0.CO;2-2
29. Trotter R, Logan M. Informant consensus: a new approach for identifying potentially
effective medicinal plants. In: Etkin NL, editor. Plants in indigenous medicine and diet:
biobehavioural approaches. New York, NY: Redgrave Publishers; 1986. p. 91112.
30. Friedman J, Yaniv Z, Dafni A, Palewitch D. A preliminary classification of the healing
potential of medicinal plants, based on a rational analysis of an ethnopharmacological
field survey among Bedouins in the Negev Desert, Israel. J Ethnopharmacol. 1986;16(2
3):275287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(86)90094-2
31. Rokaya BM, Munzbergova Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from
the Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130(3):485504. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.036
32. Phillips O, Gentry AH. The useful plants of Tambopata, Peru: I. Statistical hypotheses tests
with a new quantitative technique. Econ Bot. 1993;47(1):1532. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
BF02862203
33. Gonzlez-Tejero M, Casares-Porcel M, Snchez-Rojas CP, Ramiro-Gutirrez JM, MoleroMesa J. Pieroni A, et al. Medicinal plants in the Mediterranean area: synthesis of the results
of the project Rubia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;116(2):341357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2007.11.045
34. Keusgen M, Reinhard MF, Hikmat H, Parvia AK, Furkat OK. Wild Allium species (Alliaceae) used in folk medicine of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2006;2:18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-18
35. Pieroni A, Quave CL. Functional foods or food medicines? On the consumption of wild
plants among Albanians and southern Italians in Lucania. In: Pieroni A, Price LL, editors.
Eating and healing. Traditional food as medicine. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press; 2006.
p. 101129.
36. Ladio AH, Lozada M. Patterns of use and knowledge of wild edible plants in distinct ecological environments: a case study of a Mapuche community from northwestern Patagonia. Biodivers Conserv. 2004;13(6):11531173. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000018150.79156.50
37. Ibraimova A, Akkazieva B, Ibraimov A, Manzhieva E, Rechel B. Kyrgyzstan: health system
review. Health Systems in Transition. 201113(3):1152.
38. WHO. Tuberculosis country work summary, Kyrgyzstan [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2016 Feb
8]. Available from: http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/185890/Kyrgyzstan-Tuberculosis-country-work-summary.pdf?ua=1
39. Manjkhola S, Uppeandra D, Joshi M. Organogenesis, embryogenesis and synthetic seed in
The Author(s) 2016
30 of 31
Arnebia euchroma a critically endangered medicinal plant of the Himalaya. In Vitro Cell
Dev Biol Plant. 2005;41(3):244248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/IVP2004612
40. Babekov AU, Saidkhodzhaev AI, Keneshov BM. Terpenoid coumarins from Ferula kokanica. Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 2000;36(2):220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
BF02236438
41. Xing SL, Zhang PH, Ji QL, Jia HL, Wang XH. Essential oil compositions and antioxidant
activities of two Ziziphora species in Xinjiang. Food Sci. 2010;31(7):154159.
42. Bennett BC, Husby CB. Patterns of medicinal plant use: an examination of the Ecuadorian
Shuar medicinal flora using contingency table and binomial analyses. J Ethnopharmacol.
43. Khanum F, Bawa AS, Singh B. Rhodiola rosea: a versatile adaptogen. Compr Rev Food Sci
Food Saf. 2005;4(3):5562. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2005.tb00073.x
44. Nuraliev J. Lekarstvennye rasteniia. Dushanbe: Maiorif; 1989.
45. Khan SM, Page SE, Ahmad H, Harper DM. Sustainable utilization and conservation of
plant biodiversity in montane ecosystems: the western Himalayas as a case study. Ann Bot.
2013;112(3):479501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mct125
46. Albuquerque UP, Paiva de Lucena RF. Can apparency affect the use of plants by local
people in tropical forest? Interciencia. 2005;30(8):506511.
47. Ladio AH, Lozada M, Weigandt M. Comparison of traditional wild plant knowledge
between aboriginal communities inhabiting arid and forest environments in Patagonia, Argentina. J Arid Environ. 2007;69(4):695715. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jaridenv.2006.11.008
48. Thomas E, Vandebroek I, Sanca S, van Damme P, Goetghebeur P, Douterlungne D, Arrazola S. The relation between accessibility, diversity and indigenous valuation of vegetation in the Bolivian Andes, Bolivia. J Arid Environ. 2009;73(9):854861. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.03.010
49. Turner NJ, Davidson-Hunt IJ, OFlaherty M. Living on the edge: ecological and cultural
edges as sources of diversity for social-ecological resilience. Hum Ecol. 2003;31(3):439
463. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025023906459
50. Stepp JR, Moerman DE. The importance of weeds in ethnopharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75(1):1923. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00385-8
51. Estomba D, Ladio A, Lozada M. Medicinal wild plant knowledge and gathering patterns in a Mapuche community from north-western Patagonia. J Ethnopharmacol.
52. Albuquerque UP, Silva ACO, Andrade LHC. Use of plant resources in a seasonal dry forest (northeastern Brazil). Acta Bot Brasil. 2005;19(1):2738. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/
S0102-33062005000100004
53. Phillips O, Gentry AH, Reynel C, Wilkin P, Gvez-Durand CB. Quantitative ethnobotany and Amazonian conservation. Conserv Biol. 1994;8(1):225248. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010225.x
54. Nuraliev N, Sharophova MU, Zubaydova , Rubis N. Giperkoaguliruiushchee deistvie
dudnika troichatogo (Ishima) i ego vozmozhnye opasnosti dla bolnych. In: Nuraliev et al.,
editors. Problemy fitoterapii i fitofarmakologii. Dushanbe: Irfon; 2008. p. 137143.
The Author(s) 2016
31 of 31

Medical Ethnobotany Kyrgyztan

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Medical Ethnobotany Kyrgyztan

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Piotr Otrba

Elektronicznie podpisany przez Piotr Otrba

Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae

ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPER

Medical ethnobotany of herbal practitioners

* Corresponding author. Email: polesny@ftz.czu.cz

Pawera et al. / Ethnobotany of Kyrgyz medicinal plants

cultural heritage, is being irretrievably lost before it is documented, studied or even

The Author(s) 2016

Published by Polish Botanical Society

Acta Soc Bot Pol 85(1):3483

Pawera et al. / Ethnobotany of Kyrgyz medicinal plants

Material and methods

Fig. 1 Map of the study area.

The Author(s) 2016

Published by Polish Botanical Society

Acta Soc Bot Pol 85(1):3483

Pawera et al. / Ethnobotany of Kyrgyz medicinal plants

(Acanthophyllum-Stipa-Artemisia-Euphorbia-Ferula). Riverbanks are dominated by

Published by Polish Botanical Society

Acta Soc Bot Pol 85(1):3483

Pawera et al. / Ethnobotany of Kyrgyz medicinal plants

The Author(s) 2016

Published by Polish Botanical Society

Acta Soc Bot Pol 85(1):3483

Pawera et al. / Ethnobotany of Kyrgyz medicinal plants

Published by Polish Botanical Society

Acta Soc Bot Pol 85(1):3483

Allium carolinianum DC.

Amygdalus bucharica Korsh.

The Author(s) 2016

Published by Polish Botanical Society

Acta Soc Bot Pol 85(1):3483

Stomach ache, gastritis, gastric ulcer

Skin and eye

Stomach ache, digestion problems

Stomach ache, digestion problems

Spread paste made

Eat the seeds or

Attach the fresh

Eat the fresh bulb.

Drink 1 cup of tea

Drink 1 cup of tea

Pawera et al. / Ethnobotany of Kyrgyz medicinal plants

The Author(s) 2016

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.

Arnebia euchroma (Royle)

Published by Polish Botanical Society

Acta Soc Bot Pol 85(1):3483

Riparian forest, Anthropic

High blood pressure,

Use as a (medicinal) spice for

Prepare a tea from

Prepare a decoction from fresh or

Dry it shaded and

Prepare a decoction of the root in

Use as a (medicinal) spice for

Prepare a tea from

Pawera et al. / Ethnobotany of Kyrgyz medicinal plants

The Author(s) 2016

Published by Polish Botanical Society

Fractures, leg pain,

Heart pain and heart

Crush the fresh