1999

VAV systems:
review of current guidance
and research
RJ Oughton and DJG Butler
BRE Environmental and
Fire Dynamics Centre

constructing the future

BRE
Garston
Watford
WD2 7JR

Prices for all available

BRE publications can be
obtained from:
CRC Ltd
151 Rosebery Avenue
London EC1R 4GB
Tel: 0171 505 6622
Fax: 0171 505 6606
email:
crc@construct.emap.co.uk

BR 371
ISBN 1 86081 298 8

Copyright BRE 1999

First published 1999
Printed from supplied
camera-ready copy

Published by
Construction Research
Communications Ltd
by permission of
Building Research
Establishment Ltd
Requests to copy any part of
this publication should be
made to:
CRC Ltd
PO Box 202
Watford WD2 7QG

Reports on CD
BRE material is also published quarterly on CD
Each CD contains:
BRE reports published in the current year
(accumulating throughout the year)
A special feature:
usually a themed compilation of BRE publications
(for example on foundations or timber decay)
The CD collection gives you the opportunity to build a
comprehensive library of BRE material at a fraction of
the cost of printed copies.
As a subscriber you also benefit from a 20% discount
on other BRE titles.

For more information contact:

CRC Customer Services on 0171 505 6622

Construction Research Communications

CRC supplies a wide range of building and
construction related information products from
BRE and other highly respected organisations.

Contact:
by post: CRC Ltd
151 Rosebery Avenue
London EC1R 4GB
by fax:
0171 505 6606
by phone: 0171 505 6622
by email: crc@construct.emap.co.uk

CONTENTS
1

Introduction..........................................................................................................iv

Outline design guidance......................................................................................1

2.1 The overall design.........................................................................................1
2.2 Provisional design targets ............................................................................2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4

Air distribution systems components..............................................2

Fans; supply air, return air, fresh air and relief fans...................2
System controls..................................................................................3
Indoor air quality...............................................................................3

List of publications reviewed...............................................................................5

Reviews and interpretations..............................................................................10

iii

1. Introduction
VAV air conditioning systems are considered to be more energy efficient than many other
types of air distribution system because they have the potential to minimise fan energy
consumption at part load operating conditions. However, previous work by BRE for
DETR has shown that the predicted energy savings are not being achieved in practice due
to various factors, including, incorrect fan static pressure sensor location, use of
inefficient fan speed control methods and system installation effects.
This report presents the results of a critical review of a number of papers, reports and
relevant guidance documents on variable air volume (VAV) air conditioning systems
published in the UK and USA. In each case an abstract is given with an interpretation of
the main points of each document.
The report concentrates on the role of the building engineering services designer who has
responsibilities for the complete package, including the construction commissioning,
testing and maintenance of the installation.
Because of the need to increase awareness of design techniques for enhancing the energy
efficiency of VAV air conditioning systems, each review focuses on identifying specific
and definitive design information as opposed to general comment.
The publications covered are listed in Section 3 in the order in which they are presented
in the review. The publications are also segregated under the publishing body responsible
for them. The review abstracts and interpretations are presented in Section 4 of this
report.

iv

2. Outline design guidance

This section presents outline design guidance drawn from the reviews summarised in
Section 4.

2.1

The overall design

The key to effective design is attention to detail. Getting the concept right is one thing,
but unless this is carried through into detail design - and, beyond, into commissioning, the
full operational benefits will not be realised.
Overdesign or oversizing of components in VAV systems can, possibly, be more
detrimental for VAV systems than for other modes of air conditioning. An oversized fan,
for example, will never run at its design performance while an oversized terminal will
always operate with a measure of turn-down, which automatically introduces unit damper
resistance into the supply fan duty (see Review No 2 and No 4).
While this review is directed mainly towards fan energy economics, it must be recognised
that mechanical cooling energy can also be significant. Hence, in the design specification
of VAV supply air temperatures for the mechanical cooling mode of operation, an energy
analysis of both fans and the cooling plant should be conducted to determine an optimum
supply air temperature (see Review No 31).
Where low temperature air distribution is considered to reduce the size of the supply (and
return) air fans and to reduce distribution duct sizes, the associated energy penalties must
be recognised and properly assessed. These could include reduced cooling plant efficiency
and higher fan assisted terminal (FAT) fan power (see Review No 21D and No 31).
Similarly, thermal storage can incur penalties in heat exchange inefficiencies and in
pumping power (and associated pump heat gains). To ensure true viability, these
penalties must be offset against the potential benefits which, generally, centre on
electricity supply tariff structures (see Review No 21C).
Finally, what might be termed Ten Golden Rules for VAV System Design have been
extracted from one of the papers reviewed (see Review No 21A). These are:
1. Keep designs simple and limit the size of the supply systems and the number
of floors served by each system.
2. Use a minimum of 3 l/sm2 of supply air at full load.
3. Provide means of pre-occupation fresh air flush of the building.
4. Ensure a minimum fresh air supply volume during all occupied hours.
5. Provide separate perimeter heating system (but avoid simultaneous heating
and cooling.
6. Select supply fans to complement system characteristics.
7. Avoid the use of multiple fans in one system.
8. Avoid the use of return air fans.
9. Take care with ductwork design.
10. Realise the critical importance of VAV terminal choice.

2.2

Provisional design targets

These Provisional Design Targets are presented as preliminary outline best practice
guidance under a series of sub-headings, each relating to a particular aspect of VAV system
design.

2.2.1

Air distribution systems components

The significant contributors to efficiency in this part of system design include:

2.2.2

the use of duct loops or duct ring main systems in distribution system design
(see Review No 5);
an awareness of the System Effect Factor in airflow through, and ductwork
connections to, Air Handling Units (AHUs) and of design techniques to
minimise this (see Review No 13);
the need for ductwork distribution systems to serve mixed accommodation
zones to give high load diversities and , therefore, good VAV performance (see
Review No 1);
the tendency for certain combinations of duct fittings to exert a multiplying
effect on resistance (see Review No 7) and the need to avoid these;
the significance of air filter resistance on overall supply air system resistance
and the need to reduce this (eg possibly by the use of electrostatic filtration)
(see Review No 15);
the need to use similar diffuser outlets on terminal unit distribution systems
(see Review No 1);
an awareness of the non-linear characteristics of opposed blade and parallel
blade dampers and the scope to improve this by the use of a complex damper
comprised of both types (see Review No 8);
the need to appraise the use of sections of constant size ductwork in duct loop
system designs (see Review No 5);
the relative merits of pressure independent and pressure dependent VAV
terminal units and the availability of VAV terminals incorporating induction
principles to maintain zone air supply flow rates under low heat load
conditions (see Review No 7 and No 15).

Fans; supply air, return air, fresh air and relief fans
Factors which the designer needs to take into account include the following:

the advantages of aerodynamic inlet and outlet features for fans (see Review
No 13);
how the use of double inlet double width (DIDW) units housed in AHU plenum
chambers reduces fan efficiency (see Review No 10);
the increasing relevance of fan and fan motor heat gain as fan speed is
progressively reduced (see Review Nos 10, 11 and 15);
the relative merits of return air and relief air fans and applications which
favour one or the other (see Review No 23);
the different types of variable speed drive available and the inferiority of
some of these (see Review No 15);
the advantages and disadvantages of different modes of return fan speed
control (see Review Nos 38, 39 and 45);
the need to ensure adequate arrangements for fan drive motor cooling during
prolonged periods of low speed running (see Review No 14);

2.2.3

the recognition that fan assisted terminal (FAT) VAV units can add
significantly to the total system fan power (see Reviews Nos 21D and 30);
an appreciation of the importance of supply air system static pressure control
to fan energy economy (see Review No 4).

System controls
Designers need to consider system control requirements at the start of the design
procedure and to pay particular attention to the following:

2.2.4

the importance of supply air system static pressure being minimised; this
requires DDC at each terminal (see Review No 4);
the scope for and advantages of varying the supply air temperature (see
Review Nos 16, 21E and 31) for differing seasons;
the need to regulate the building static pressure, and how this may vary under
the influence of wind and buoyancy pressures, particularly for high rise
buildings, and how this may cause hunting in a control system (see Review
Nos 32 and 33);
the effects of mixed air flow stratification on the control of heat exchangers
in air handling units and means of improving control (see Review No 18);
the need to shield air temperature sensors (in AHUs) from radiant effects (see
Review No 18);
the need to know the response time of VAV terminal units and variable speed
drive (VSD) fans, and to ensure that these are properly matched (see Review
No 7);
an understanding of the sensitivity of water-to-air heat exchangers to water
velocity (see Review No 37);
an appreciation of the relevance of commissioning tolerance to space
temperature control and the need to minimise the use of too tight limits (see
Review Nos 2 and 18);
the desirability of varying the space temperature control set-point with
different values for heating, free-cooling and mechanical cooling performance
modes (see Review No 45);
the options for regulating economiser (or free-cooling) cycle performance
(see Review Nos 20 and 45);
the need for minimum face air velocities (say, 5 to 7.5 m/s) to improve
damper control (see Review No 20);
the potential benefits of night-purging to reduce the initial temperatures in a
building during cooling mode operation;
the fact that VAV benefits do not apply during start-up (ie temperature pulldown) and the consequent need to minimise this.

Indoor air quality

To make proper design provision for adequate indoor air quality, designers need:

to establish the relationship between cooling air demands and fresh air
demands for all zones served by a system (such as by means of a design
schedule), recognise the requirements of critical zones and make the system
design or controls ensure that these are satisfied (see Review Nos 22, 23, 24,
25 and 41);

Note: A 5 stage step-by-step guide to selecting outdoor air design supply rates is
given in Review No 22.

to select a sound and reliable means of regulating fresh air supply for all stages
of system turn-down (probably, by means of separate fresh air and cooling air
AHUs) (see Review Nos 22 and 27) and by DDC at the terminals;
not to become too concerned about short-term under provision of design
fresh air volumes to all zones (provided these are short-term) (see Review No
27);
to understand the limitations of air flow velocity measurements (where these
are used to regulate fresh air volume flow rates) and to use measurement of
actual fresh air flow rather than the difference between supply and return air
flow rates (see Review Nos 25 and 28);
to appreciate that, where CO2 measurement is used for indoor air quality
control, the response rate is slow and measures must be applied to take
account of this (see Review No 42);
the potential need for ductwork cleaning (and the need to be able to inspect
all ductwork internally) during the operational life of the system to sustain air
quality (see Review No 1).

3. List of publications reviewed

Pub
Ref

Title

Author(s)

Publisher and
type of
publication

ISBN
number

No pages

Date

Page
number
(in this
report)

Commissioning of VAV systems in buildings

C Parsloe et al

0 86022 2705

40

1991

10

The Commissioning of Air Systems in buildings

J Kew et al

0 86022 2314

59

1989

11

Oversized air handling plant

J R J Brittain

0 86022
464463 5

12

1997

12

S Wang & J Burnett Hong Kong

Poly Univ
I Khoo, G J Levermore, UMIST

21

1998

14

Variable air volume air conditioning systems:

Optimal reset of static pressure set point
Duct looping in VAV and other ventilation
systems
VAV air conditioning system under reduced static
pressure control
VAV terminal units 1: Steady state models

BSRIA Application
Guide 1/91
BSRIA Application
Guide 3/89
BSRIA Guidance
Note 11/97
BSERT Vol 4 98

VAV Terminal units II: Dynamic model

Split decisions: air

10

Supply fan energy savings on VAV air

conditioned buildings

5
6

15

D S L Tung and S Deng Hong

Kong Poly Univ
I Khoo, G J Levermore, K M
Letherman, UMIST
I Khoo, G J Levermore and K M
Letherman, UMIST
Andrew Giles, BSRIA

BSERT Vol 2 97

1997

17

BSERT Vol 3 98
pp 155-61
BSERT Vol 3 98
pp 163-69
Building Services
Journal May 1998

1998

18

1998

20

1998

20

D Butler, BRE

Building Services
Journal May 1998

(pp 12,
13)
2
(pp
51,52)
2

1998

21

11

Duct looping in VAV systems

I Khoo, G J Levermore, K M
Letherman UMIST

Building Services
Journal Oct 1998

12

Fan and duct work installation guide

Fan Manufacturers
Assoc (FETA)

13

Fans and systems: fan application manual

14

Fan application guide

Air Movement
Control Assoc Inc,
Illinois
Fan Manufacturers
Assoc (FETA)

15
16

HEVAC guide to good practice: Air handling

units
Beating the Blahs for VAV

17

Whats really wrong with VAV systems?

D Int-Hout, P Berger - Krueger

Manuf Co

18

Sensor errors in VAV systems

J Y Kao National Bureau of

Standards, Maryland

19

From constant to variable: a retrofit

G A Johnson Borg Warner Air

Cond, York

20

VAV designing and controlling an outside air

economiser cycle

G Avery Kele & Assoc

Memphis

21

Variable Air Volume: A forum

(6 no independent authors opinions)

V K Gupata, D Int Hout, M M

Roberts, D J Wessel, H
Brickman, W Woeldner

HEVAC Assoc
R T Tamblyn Eng Interface
Ltd, Ontaria, Canada

ASHRAE Journal
Sept 1983 Vol 25
No 89
ASHRAE Journal
Dec 84 Vol 26
No 12
ASHRAE Journal
Jan 85 Vol 27
No 1
ASHRAE Journal
Jan 85 Vol 27
No 1
ASHRAE Journal
Dec 86 Vol 28
No 12
ASHRAE Journal
Ug 87 Vol 29
No 8

(pp
55,56)
2
22

1998

22

1993

22

24

1981

23

UDC 697 92

48

1981

24

UDC 697 912

31

1992

24

(pp 4254)
4
(pp 3638)
3
(pp 100104)
5
(pp 107114)
8
(pp 2630)
5
(pp 2231)
20

1993

25

1984

26

1985

27

1985

28

1998

28

1987

30

UDC
697.922.2

22

Outdoor air and VAV systems

J W Roberts Knott & Roberts

Eng Assocs, Durham, N Carolina

23

Estimating the indoor air quality and energy

performance of VAV system

H J Sauer, R H Howell Univ

Missouri and South Florida

24

Integrating VAV zone requirements with supply

fan operation

25

Outdoor airflow control for VAV systems

M Warren, L K Norford ASI

Controls, Massachusetts Inst
Tech
G J Janu, J D Wenger C G
Nesler Johnson Controls Inc

26

The causes and unwanted results of Aerodynamic

System Effect

C R Vanderburgh, J A Paulauskis
BVA Sys Ltd Ontario Hospital
Building Equip Corp, St Louis

27

Indoor Air Quality: a design parameter

W J Coad, McClure Eng Assoc,

St Louis

28

Controlling minimum ventilation volume in

VAV systems

J P Kettler York International

Berkeley

29

Retrofit of a constant volume air system for

variable speed fan control

G A Johnson Borg Warner Air

Cond, York

30

Fan energy use on VAV systems

31

Control of supply air temperature and outdoor air

flow and its effect on energy use in a VAV system

P W Brothers Univ of
Colorado; M L Warren
Lawrence Berkeley Lab
L K Norford, A Rabi, RH
Socolow Princeton Univ

ASHRAE Journal
Sept 91 Vol 33
No 9
ASHRAE Journal
Jul 22 Vol 34
No 7
ASHRAE Journal
Apr 93 Vol 35
No 4
ASHAE Journal
Apr 95 Vol 37
No 4

ASHRAE Journal
June 96 Col 38
No 6
ASHRAE Journal
May 98 Vol 40
No 5
ASHRAE Trans 84
Vol 90 Pt 2B
ASHRAE Trans
1986
Vol 92 Pt2B
ASHRAE Trans
1986
Vol 92, Pt 2B

(pp 2630)
5
(pp 4350)
8
(pp 4346)
4
(pp 6268)
7
(pp 2429)
6

1991

34

1992

35

1993

36

1995

37

1994

38

(pp 3947)
9
7

1996

40

1998

40

(pp 20112)
12
(pp 1929)
11
(pp 3045)
16

1984

41

1986

41

1986

41

32

VAV system volume control using electronic

strategies

G V Atkinson Atkinson
Electronics Ltd

33

Decoupling supply and return fans for increased

stability in VAV systems

34

Retrofit double duct fan system to a VAV system

L H Alcorn, Voltec Inc

P J Hunter, Allehbeny Power
Service Corp
G Shavit, Honeywell Inc,
Arlington Heights

35

VAV system with inverter driven AHU for high

rise office building in tropical climates a case
study
Importance of flow transmitter selection for return
fan control in VAV systems

L Lo Relcon Inc
Ontario Canada

37

Transient response of a closed loop VAV system

38

Saving fan energy inn VAV systems: Part 1

Analysis of a variable speed drive retrofit

39

Saving fan energy on VAV systems: Part 2

Supply fan control for static pressure
minimisation using DDC zone feedback
Research and development of a home use VAV
system

M Zaheer-Udin, P A Goh
Concordio Univ, Montreal
Canada
S L Englander New England
Power Service Co; L K Norford
Mass Inst Tech Cambridge
S L Englander New England
Power Service Co & L K Norford,
Mass Inst Tech Cambridge
T Okada, Y Sashimo, T
Yokushawa, H Igareshi
Mitsubishi Electric Corp, Japan
S A Mumma, P J Bolin
Pennsylvania State Univ

36

40
41

Real time on line optimisation of VAV system

control to minimise the energy consumption rate
and satisfy ASHRAE Standard 62 1989 for all
occupied zones

R B Smith Smith Eng Inc,

Madison

ASHRAE Trans
1986
Vol 92 Pt 2B
ASHRAE Trans
1988
Vol 94 Pt 1
ASHRAE Trans
1989
Vol 95 Pt 1
ASHRAE Trans
1990
Vol 9 Pt 1
ASHRAE Trans
1990
Vol 96 Pt 1
ASHRAE Trans
1991
Vol 97 Pt 2
ASHRAE Trans
1992
Vol 98 Pt 1
ASHRAE Trans
1992
Vol 98 Pt 1
ASHRAE Trans
1992
Vol 98 Pt 2
ASHRAE Trans
1994
Vol 100 Pt 1

(pp 4657)
12
(pp 148491)
9
(pp 63541)
7
(pp 120917)
9
(pp 121823)
6
(pp 37897)
10
(pp 1932)
16
(pp 37897)
10
(pp 1339)
7
(pp 16879)
12

1986

42

1988

43

1989

44

1990

45

1990

45

1991

46

1992

47

1991

49

1992

49

1994

50

42

Minimum outside air control methods for VAV

systems

D M Elovitz Energy Economics

Inc, Nantack

43

Minimum ventilation for VAV systems: fan

tracking vs workable solutions

J P Kettler York International

Corp

44

Optimal control of duct pressure in HVAC

systems
Terminal regulated air volume (TRAV) systems

H Li, C Ganesh, D R Munoz

Colarado School of Mines
T Hartman Hartman Co Seattle

Measured energy consumption of variable air

volume fans under inlet guide vane and variable
speed drive control
The economics of relief fans vs return fans in
variable volume systems with economiser cycles

D M Lorenzetti, L K Norford.
Massachusetts Inst Tech,
Cambridge
C C Kalasinsky. Ferriers
&Kalasinsky Assoc, Norton Mass

ASHRAE Trans
Symposia

Comparative performance tests on prototype VAV

and CAV air conditioning systems under
simulated load conditions
Effect of component size on VAV system
performance

A Ameen, A K Soon. Nanyang

Tech Inst, Singapore

ASHRAE Trans
1989

H J Sauer, W W Delp, S
Ananlapantula. Uni of Missouri

ASHRAE Nov
1994

50

Energy cost and IAQ performance of ventilation

systems and controls

D Mudarru

ASHRAE Trabs
1996

51

VAV fan energy savings in practice

D J G Butler. BRE Limited

52

Are you certain you understand the economics for

applying ASD systems to centrifugal loads?
Variable Air Volume systems for environmental
quality

W L Stebbins. Hoechst
Celananes Corp. Rock Hill SC
S Chem, HCY & Assocs
S Demster, K J D Services

BRE Limited,
March 1998
Energy Engineering
Vol 91 Part 1 1994
McGraw Hill, NY
1996

45
46
47
48
49

53

ASHRAE Trans
1995
Vol 101 Pt 2
ASHRAE Trans
1995
Vol 101 Pt 2
ASHRAE Trans
ASHRAE Trans

ASHRAE Trans
1988

0-07-011085-9

(pp 6138)
6
(pp 62530)6

1995

51

1995

52

(pp 17074) 5
(pp 17074) 5
12
(pp 168179)
10
(pp14671476)
4
(pp 8588)
8
(pp 175182)
10
(pp 151
to 160)
9

1997

52

1997

53

1992

54

1988

55

1989

55

1994

56

1996

58

1998

59

20 (pp2544)
373

1994

60

1996

61

4. Reviews and interpretations

The following Reviews comprise a summary of the salient points derived from the papers,
guidance documents and other documents dealing with VAV systems. Each Review
includes an Interpretation which attempts to highlight and, where appropriate, to develop
the content of the publication.
4.1

Review No 1 Commissioning of VAV systems in buildings

C Parsloe et al. Application Guide 1/91 BSRIA

The Guide primarily covers commissioning of VAV systems but includes the linked
aspects of design and installation. It is presented in three parts, the Design and
Installation of Commissionable Systems and the Commissioning Procedures themselves.
Part D covers the need for reporting of particular features of the construction
programme, the use of checklists to ensure adequate communication between the designer,
installer and the commissioning specialist and exemplar pro-formae for use in the
commissioning process.
Part A, Design, recognises that the designer may derive technical support from a
commissioning specialist but does not make specific recommendations in this respect.
It recognises that, for successful commissioning the designer must provide adequate
information on his concept and design objectives and must define the responsibilities of
other parties involved in the works. The way in which such information should be
provided is outlined and the need is stated for the designer to spell-out technical
information on matters such as Codes or standards to be followed, the air distribution
system diversity, the VAV terminal unit details, the means of regulating and controlling
the system and the acceptable tolerances on performance.
A sub-section of Part A covers fan selection, VAV terminal units and ductwork system
design provisions to improve system performance. This recommends that ductwork
branches should be self-balancing as far as possible and that each branch should serve a
mix of accommodation so that diversity can be exploited to the maximum. It also
notes the need to consider interaction between supply and extract fans throughout their
range of modulation and to ensure outlet diffusers servicing. VAV boxes have similar
characteristics. The notes on fan selection highlight the need to ensure operation on the
stable section of the performance curve and the need to allow a margin on the
maximum output. The need to consider a further margin for the fan static pressure
controller is also noted. It is recommended that VAV terminal units are provided with
easy access to all components, built-in facilities for accurate air flow measurements and
scope for re-setting maximum and minimum air volumes and for over-riding these pre-set
limits, as appropriate.
Part A concludes with some general remarks on the need for easy access to plant and
components and recommends design tolerances for the commissioning of VAV systems.
Part B, Installations, is concerned mainly with the management and control of site
procedures during installation. It makes reference to the importance of ductwork
cleanliness during installation (but not in the operational life of the system) and to the
need to test completed ductwork systems for air leakage.
Part B concludes with inspection requirements and highlights the need for the installation
to be left by the installer in a proper state of readiness for commissioning.

10

Part C deals with the organisation and planning of commissioning, the measuring
techniques and instrumentation, both preferred and second-choice, the site testing of VAV
terminal units and the commissioning procedures themselves which are broken down into
five stages:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(ix)
(x)

proving the supply and return air fans;

testing the supply air distribution and VAV terminals;
setting the supply fan to its design duty;
regulating the return air system and fan;
setting-up the fresh air/exhaust air proportions.

(The various factors influencing the accuracy of air flow measurements are detailed under
item A4.1 in Part A of the Guide.)
A flow-chart is provided to rationalise and simplify this sequence.
Interpretation
Apart from the recommendation of design tolerances, Part A offers no definitive design
guidance. Also, no mention is made of:

the various means of regulating fan performance;

any limitation on the fan turn-down ratio that may be applied;
the relevance of fan heat gains at low system air volume flow rates (where the fan
and its drive motor are mounted in the air stream);
the effects of low operating speeds on fan drive motors;
the cleaning of ductwork systems which is being considered increasingly in
connection with air quality and hygiene;
the use of ring main duct distribution systems.

The fundamental requirements for the commissioning procedures described in Part C are
acknowledged to derive from the requirements declared by the designer. The detailed
techniques comprising the procedures are concerned mainly with the measurement of airvolume flow rates and air pressures in the system and do not impart design information as
such. Notwithstanding this, it is desirable for a designer to have a good understanding of
the commissioning process. The designer must also be able to deal promptly and
competently with any queries which may arise during commissioning. The better his
understanding of the process, the more effectively will he meet this requirement.
The Guide supersedes an earlier Technical Memorandum on the same subject published by
BSRIA (TM2/88, A procedure for commissioning Variable Air Volume systems).
4.2

Review No 2 - The Commissioning of Air Systems in Buildings

J Kew et al. Application Guide 3/89, BSRIA

As with Review No 1, the Guide is presented in four parts. Part A deals with system
design, Part B with installation and Part C with the actual commissioning procedures in
detail. Part D covers documentation and reporting and offers a series of exemplar pro
formae for the recording of commissioning data.
The document is well illustrated and provides details of a range of proprietary instruments
which may be applied in commissioning. Guidance on how to use the instrumentation is
also given. This detailed guidance seems superior generally to that included in Review No
1 above.
With the exception of the greater detail given on instrumentation on Part C, the content
of each part of the guide is broadly similar to that given in Review No 1. The sub-section

11

on Ductwork System Design offers a number of recommendations directed to effective

aerodynamic principles in air distribution.
These include the recognition of static regain at duct section changes and the use of
turning vanes to reduce turbulence at changes of direction. The use of dampers for air
flow regulation is discussed and opposed blade units are said to give the best results.
Interpretation
Implicitly, the complete Guide is directed at constant volume system designs and, as a
result of this, there appears to be no specific coverage of VAV systems.
In ductwork design, there is a traditional discipline of the designer providing full details of
the air volume flow rate, velocity and pressure drop (see Figure 1 below) for each section
of ductwork on the system schematic. While it may be argued that this is time
consuming, for the designer, these data are useful in confirming the self-balancing nature
of the ductwork design and in investigating airflow irregularities which may be
encountered in commissioning. The Guide makes no mention of this discipline.
Figure 1 Example of designers ductwork design specification on system
schematic

Rectangular/flatted oval duct sizes

(a x b mm)
(Equivalent diameter (mm))

Air volume flow

rate (l/s)
Air velocity (m/s)

Pressure drop / unit length

(Pa/m)

600
250 x 250

250 x 250
(280)

9.6

1.26

900 x 600

7500
15.0

4.3

900 x 600
(805)
1.22

800 x 600

6900
15.0

800 x 600
(761)
1.26

Review No 3 - Oversized Air Handling Plant

J R J Brittain Guidance Note 11/97 BSRIA

This Guidance Note recognises the tendency to oversize building services plant and
equipment for a variety of reasons, generally associated with shortcomings in the design
process or in the evaluation of the design risk. Amongst the origins for this oversizing
are listed the inherent principles of design calculations, the use of design safety margins,
stock sizes of proprietary equipment and performance changes made at later stages of the
design process.
The paper concentrates on air handling plant as it contends that this is responsible for
55% of the services energy consumption in a typical office building (EEO data).

12

The paper is more concerned with dealing with an operational situation where plant is
oversized. While the design trends leading to oversizing are identified, no
recommendations are given for dealing with and improving these techniques.
Some useful lists are provided. These include:
(i)

Air supply volume yardsticks for

- offices 1.4 l/s/m3
- retail stores, halls, theatres 2.1 l/s/m3
- restaurants 3.1 l/s/m3

(ii)

Implications of plant oversizing

- increased capital costs;
- increased energy consumption
- difficult plant control
- occupant discomfort (eg from poor temperature control, excess air
movement etc)
- reduced plant life (eg due to cycling and operating outside optimum
efficiency)
- increased space requirements.

Pointers towards air handling plant oversizing are also provided based on the assessment
of plant operational parameters. Some circumstances are referred to where the
investigation of marginal oversizing of plants may not be justified (eg fans oversized by
less than 35%).
Case studies of plant oversizing are provided for a constant air volume (CAV) system and
a VAV system. This review deals with the latter only. Based on some initial indications
of plant oversizing, plant performance monitoring under summer design conditions is
recommended and a procedure for doing this is described. The procedure describes
techniques for assessing oversizing of supply and extract fans, VAV terminal units and
heating and cooling coils. Tabulated data are provided for estimating potential savings
where the fan oversizing factors are 10% or 50% with a terminal unit oversize of 10%,
estimates being provided for air volume flow rate regulation by speed controlled drives,
fan guide vane control and air damper adjustment. The estimated savings are confined to
fan drive energy saving and take no account of the associated potential savings in thermal
energy and on maximum electrical demand tariffs. The table indicates scope for fan
energy savings approaching 90% in the worst cases presented.
Finally, guidance is given on the implementation of measures to remedy plant oversizing.
These include simple routines such as matching plant operating times to hours of
occupation. For VAV systems, the importance of the minimum setting for the system
static pressure control is stressed, consistent with sufficient operating pressure being
maintained at all terminal units. In discussing the turn down ratio of VAV terminal units,
the Guidance recommends consulting the proprietary manufacturer where the turn down is
likely to go below 10%.
Interpretation
The guidance regarding ensuring the lowest feasible setting for the system static pressure
control set point could, and indeed, should comprise an essential requirement in any VAV
commissioning procedure. The initial installation of multiple pressure sensors in a system
would provide scope for discriminating between sensor locations and their settings during
commissioning to secure an optimum pressure setting. The cost penalty for providing
multi sensors initially should not be high but their subsequent addition could be both costly
and disruptive to the construction programme (or, later, to building occupancy).

13

4.4

Review No 4 - Variable air volume air conditioning systems: Optimal

reset of static pressure set point
S Wang and J Burnett, Hong Kong Polytechnic University BSERT Vol 4 1998

This paper describes research work comprising measured data derived from one floor of a
46 storey commercial centre in Hong Kong followed by simulated tests of a range of
operating conditions. These simulations were based on a value setting for the VAV
pressure sensor and a re-set value based on the relative demands of the VAV terminals
which arranged for the highest demand unit to have its control damper fully open.
Equations were developed to determine the VAV fan power consumptions based on
simulated variable data derived from the measurements taken of system resistances
upstream and downstream of the pressure control sensor and of the fan and drive motor
efficiencies. The pressure control sensor in the installation was located about two thirds
of the main duct length from the air handling units. It was noted that the pressure setpoint of the controller should be the minimum required under full load or slightly higher
than this.
The actual floor of the building was provided with 40 VAV terminal units while the
simulated model used 8 terminals. The simulated model was arranged to take account of
the time response delay due to the thermal capacity of the ductwork system.
Modelling was carried out in 2 exercises, each exercise having 3 modes of pressure sensor
set-point control. Exercise 1 (presumably) used design values for the solar, equipment
and lighting and occupant heat gains while, in Exercise 2, the lighting and equipment heat
load was reduced by 20%. The three control pressure set-point modes were:
(i) Static pressure constant at 650 Pa;
(ii) optimum static pressure assuming even distribution of cooling load between
terminals;
(iii) optimum static pressure assuming demand of critical terminals 20% above the
average terminal demand.
By resetting the control pressure to match prevailing part-load conditions, energy savings
of from 10% to 20% are claimed with uneven load distribution between the terminals.
This would increase to 20% to 25% with even loading of the terminal units. It is
concluded that these loadings can be achieved without undermining in any way the air
supply distribution and the resulting comfort conditions.
By projecting the assumptions for the particular building measured for the research,
average daily energy savings of 15 kWh per AHU are suggested. For the complete
building, this would aggregate to a saving of almost 428 MWh for a 310 day working year.
As well as energy efficiency benefits it is noted that other advantages arise such as reduced
noise at terminals due to more open damper settings.
Interpretation
The indicative potential savings are of considerable significance, both in terms of energy
costs and of CO2 production. Furthermore, the paper claims that, where stand-alone
controls are installed for each terminal, the necessary strategy for control pressure reset
can be developed with limited penalty in the way of first cost.
There are considered to be some possible practical shortcomings in the assumptions made
for VAV terminal performance. Firstly, even load between terminals is considered to be
highly improbable in practice, even in open plan accommodation (due to local cooling
load variations). Also, dependent on the composition of the cooling load and the relative

14

magnitude of the heat loads from solar, occupancy lighting and equipment sources, the
20% discrepancy assumed for terminal outputs could be optimistic.
One highly relevant design issue not brought out in the conclusions is the potentially
critical effect of oversizing. An oversized terminal unit, for example, will require turndown even to match its actual maximum load. This would have repercussions throughout
the whole system, both in terms of plant and duct sizes but, more particularly, in
operational energy efficiency.
In a similar vein, it follows that the practice of commissioning a VAV duct system to
design maximum volume flow rate will only be effective if the design estimates reflect the
actual operating conditions. Operational performance should be monitored over a
representative period and the control pressure reset to give best results for the actual
maximum air volume flow rate.
4.5

Review No 5 - Duct looping in VAV and other ventilation systems

I Khoo, G J Levermore, K M Letherman and M Yau UMIST

The paper compares simulated fan energy consumption for radial duct distribution
systems and for duct loop (or ring main) duct systems. Two comparisons are made; one
for a small system having 6 terminals and one for a large system with 24 terminal units.
It is stated that the design of duct loops can be deduced easily by network analysis.
Each of the terminal unit zones is assumed to be 10 m x 10 m and the maximum supply
air volume flow rate is taken as 800 l/s (ie 8 l/s/m2). The static pressure at the inlet to
each terminal is taken as 67 Pa, this being deemed to include the pressure losses of the
unit, a header box, 5 m of flexible duct and slot diffuser outlets. Other assumed
parameters, all based on maximum air distribution requirements, include duct air velocities
between 10 and 15 m/s for high velocity distribution and, for the low velocity design, a
pressure drop of 1 Pa/m using standard circular duct diameters in each case.
Each leg of the duct loop was of symmetrical size to distribute one half of the maximum
air volume flow rate, again at a pressure drop of 1 Pa/m.
Each leg of the duct loop was a constant size throughout its length. To offer further
comparisons of the significance of distribution duct sizes, trials were conducted with loop
legs sizes 1 and 2 standard diameters less than the 1 Pa/m size.
The paper refers to the static pressure control sensor being positioned between two
thirds and three quarters down the main index run. Also it is noted that, for duct loop
designs, network analysis is required to arrive at a sensor location which will not lead to
starvation of air flow when terminal unit dampers are fully open.
Reference is also made to terminal unit polling with digital controls to ensure optimum
setting of the static pressure control (see Review No 4 above).
The energy savings resulting from the use of a duct loop are quoted for both full and part
load operation. The best figure in each case derives from the largest duct diameter loop
(based on 1 Pa/m). The most favourable figures are savings of 35% and 33% respectively
for a high velocity duct system and 19% and 16% respectively for a low velocity system.
For the loop with 2 standard diameter reduction these figures reduce to 24% and 6%.
A two branch radial system is noted to perform badly by comparison with a single branch
radial system, energy consumption under part load being 70% higher.

15

The paper concludes that, as well as providing scope to save considerable fan energy, a
loop duct design will reduce the duct size requirements and save considerable ceiling void
space.
Interpretation
In practice, systems can have many more terminal units per floor than the 24 assumed
for the large system. Also, floor layouts often tend to require floor distribution by two
or more branches. Hence, the reference to poor performance of two branch radial
systems suggests very significant scope for energy savings by the use of ring main duct
designs on large systems.
Bearing in mind the embodied energy in sheet metal ductwork and the traditional cost on
a unit weight basis, the suggestions in the paper of using constant size ring main duct has
to be questioned. It is agreed, however, that as the most remote terminals are
approached, there is less and less scope for diversity to be applied to the design maximum
air volume flow rate. For this it would seem prudent to oversize marginally the remote
sections of the loop but not to maintain the initial branch duct size throughout the loop.
This would help to ensure the l air flow direction around the loop keeps to the optimum.
The view expressed in the paper that the loop system layout saves considerable ceiling
void space does not seem a sound argument as the volume occupied by the two loop ducts
must be greater than that taken up by a single radial duct. It does, however, mean that
individual duct sizes would be smaller.
With regard to the location of the pressure control sensor and the network analysis
required to determine this, it may be equally effective to provide more than one sensor
and to select the one that gives the best pressure distribution to all units to use an
optimum combination of two or more sensors on an averaging basis.

16

4.6

Review No 6 - Variable air volume air conditioning system under

reduced static pressure control
D S L Tung & S Deng. Hong Kong Polytechnic University. BSERT Vol 2 1997

The principle of this paper is similar to that of Review No 4, being concerned with the
re-setting of the VAV system control.
The paper reports on a series of field studies of two floors of a building served by a VAV
system, the work being conducted prior to occupation. The gross area of each floor was
about 23,000 ft2 (2140 m2) and four 15 kW heaters were used to simulate the internal
cooling load (approx 3.5 W/m2 assuming net floor area 80% of gross).
The VAV installation had been refurbished to replace inlet vane control of fan
performance with a variable speed drive.
The range of VAV terminals on each floor required minimum static pressures of from 2
Pa to 14 Pa and the original control pressure setting was 620 Pa. As part of the field
trial, this was reduced to 370 Pa.
Each VAV terminal was provided with a low airflow alarm setting. The control regime
was arranged such that, if a number of units (typically three) gave a low airflow alarm, the
static pressure would be increased by 5% at 60 sec intervals until the alarm stopped. If
only a minimum number of units gave a low air flow alarm (typically, a single unit) the
static pressure would be reduced. Again, a static pressure sensor was located at about two
thirds of the main supply air duct run.
The tests recognised that manual resetting of the control pressure was not feasible if
frequent adjustment was needed. Also, precise pressure control could not be achieved
without adding an electronic control system. This would incur added capital cost but,
based on the fan energy savings indicated in the trials, a 2.5 year payback on net present
value method was estimated.
Fan energy savings at the maximum terminal unit air flow were around 10% while at the
minimum flow rate (66% of max) savings had increased gradually to about 32%. At
system start-up and during the period of temperature pull down, fan energy consumption
showed little change. However, when the 60 kW simulated heat load was switched off,
energy consumption reduced by as much as 40%. Based on other trials conducted, this
figure was taken as an indication of the average energy saving potential under part load
conditions.
Interpretation
The principal conclusion, as for Review No 4, is that static pressure reset can offer
significant fan energy savings.
The estimated on-cost of the necessary controls and the associated payback period
underlines the attractiveness of this concept.
The minimal saving potential during temperature pull down following system start-up is
logical but, of course, would only apply given the proviso that the control pressure had
been commissioned correctly. The time taken to achieve temperature pull-down also
affects the relevance of this point and would be likely to vary from building to building.
The comment regarding the feasibility of manual reset of control pressure is interesting.
It suggests that, where full regulation of control pressure re-set is not feasible for
whatever reason, worthwhile energy savings could probably be made by seasonal manual

17

re-setting. This would best be done on a measured basis by actually checking best and
worst case terminal static pressures at various stages of actual overall load turn down.
(See comment on Review No 31 below).
4.7

Review No 7 - Variable air volume terminal units 1: Steady state

models
I Khoo, G J Levermore, K M Letherman, UMIST. BSERT Vol 3 1998

(Note that four of the eight illustrations are incorrectly numbered and captioned.)
The paper reviews the scope for improving techniques for modelling VAV terminal units.
Units from 22 different manufacturers were assessed, including over 50 different models
or types, and a general lack of definitive information available from the manufacturer on
pressure loss coefficient characteristics over the range of damper positions was found.
Another important factor influencing airflow performance is noted; namely, the effect of
closely coupled duct fittings which can result in the aggregate resistance being as much as
27% greater than the summation of the theoretical or measured resistance of the
individual fittings.
Two basic types of VAV terminal units are classified; a pressure-dependent unit where any
inlet pressure fluctuation causes a variation in air volume flow rate and a pressureindependent unit which uses a multi-point flow-averaging grid to measure air velocity and
to amend the flow rate damper position accordingly.
The flow grid measures total and static pressures and determines the difference as velocity
pressure. Constant velocity pressure is maintained by two hot wire anemometer sensors
located at the inlet and the throat of a venturi and calibrated to a fixed temperature
difference.
Typical response time incompatibilities between fan speed modulation and VAV unit
damper settings are noted. The fan speed tends to adjust quickly to duct system pressure
variations whereas the response of the terminal damper is slower. The paper notes that
the supply fan may therefore hunt. It is noted that a dead band in the VAV unit
damper control minimises the hunting of this device.
Two different types of VAV terminal were reviewed:
(i) One pressure dependent unit type (TU1) had curved damper blades, the gap for air
flow between these being varied by linear actuation, a mechanical stop being
provided to prevent complete closure of the gap. As the primary air flow passage
progressively closes, so induction airflow inlets at each side of the unit
progressively open, thereby maintaining a nominally constant total air flow.
(ii) Two pressure independent units, one (TU2) with a two blade opposed movement
damper and one (TU3) with one fixed and one moveable perforated blade, the
geometry of both being designed to move from fully open to fully closed.
The damper authority for all models was 0.1.
It is noted that loose linkages in the damper actuation mechanism can cause hysteresis
and, indeed looseness was found in some as delivered proprietary units assessed.
The laboratory test system comprised a backward curved centrifugal fan with a stepless
variable speed drive delivering air to a VAV terminal unit through a system of ductwork.
The ducting was fitted with airflow straighteners and lengths of straight duct to improve

18

accuracy of air flow measurement. Pitot static tubes and orifice plates were used for
airflow measurements.
Models for each of the VAV unit types were determined from their measured
performance. For TU1, the damper setting could not be assessed due to blade curvature
and non-proportional movement so performance was plotted against actuator operating
time (in seconds).
For TU2 and TU3, performance was plotted against damper angle.
Plotted performances of TU2 and TU3 were compared against the damper model
developed by Legg and used by other investigators to model VAV terminal operation.
Quite considerable and non-linear variations were found.
The paper concludes by suggesting the adoption of the models developed and recommends
that VAV unit manufacturers be encouraged to provide more technical detail for their
products, including pressure loss factor equations.
Interpretation
The value of improved modelling in research to lead to a better understanding of VAV
terminal unit and system performance is not disputed. In actual system design, however,
the attention which can be dedicated to precise considerations of this nature will depend
on the terms of appointment of the designer. Unless a client is prepared to meet what
could be a considerably increased design fee for what may be only a marginal
improvement in, say, operational energy efficiency, these potential improvements are
unlikely to be pursued.
An acceptable, practical compromise would be the transformation of this knowledge into
simple design rules which could be applied quickly and easily.
There are two other more incidental pieces of information in the paper. Firstly, the
matter of increased duct resistance resulting from a closely spaced succession of duct
fittings. This situation is very likely to be encountered where final connections to a
terminal unit have to be arranged in a very limited space. Where particular combinations
of successive fittings are known to result in increased resistance which is predictable, this
could be allowed for in system design by the use of a multiplying factor (eg the effect of
duct bends in series in different formats was covered in this way in earlier editions of the
CIBSE Guide but no longer appears in Table C.4.35). Secondly, the issue of compatibility
of response time for motor speed control and VAV damper regulation. Given data on
responses by the manufacturer it would be desirable, and simple, to incorporate some form
of time delay to give better co-ordination of response. Even though the paper suggests
that the use of a dead band in the VAV terminal control reduced hunting, poorly related
responses must result in control deterioration.
The noted incompatibility of damper models widely used to simulate VAV terminal unit
performance is a matter for research concern.

19

4.8

Review No 8 - Variable-air-volume terminal units II: Dynamic model

I Khoo, G J Levermore, K M Letherman, UMIST. BSERT Vol 3 1998

This paper extends the coverage of Review No 7 to examine and to model the
operational, modulating performance of a VAV terminal. A description in detail is given
on the way in which operational performance was measured and how this was reflected in
the modelling applied. The VAV terminal chosen for the tests was unit TU3 (see Review
No 7 above). This choice was made because both the linear characteristics and the
hysteresis in the damper mechanism were inferior to that of TU2 and, hence, gave
greater potential for the investigation of performance irregularities.
The findings highlighted points of interest including:
(i) difficulties due to poor sensitivity of instrumentation at low flow rates;
(ii) a period of approaching 10 secs for the damper actuator to reach a steady rate
of movement;
(iii) a variation in damper hysteresis between opening and closing mode (3o to 7o
respectively), a compromise of 3o being selected for modelling.
At low flow rates (30 l/s demand) the measured performance of the terminal volume flow
rate was shown to follow a cycle of about a 10 sec period between 60 l/s and zero flow
rate. The model was able to reflect this accurately in frequency but to a lesser magnitude
(50 l/s to 10 l/s).
The paper noted that poor terminal unit damper authority and design contribute to
unstable operation which can be exacerbated by interaction with the fan speed control.
The poorest control was shown to arise at damper angles between 31.5 o and 40.5o (45o
fully closed) representing 30% to 10% of design volume flow rate. (Dependent on design
turn-down ratios this may, or may not, be critical.)
Interpretation
The findings of the paper highlighted the inherent weaknesses in trying to control VAV
terminal performance below 30% of maximum duty. The required turn-down is
application related and will depend on how the cooling load is comprised. Again, there is
an implicit disadvantage in oversizing a VAV terminal and, where product ranges present
problems in matching the required duty, marginal undersizing would seem a more sensible
option. The designer, however, would have a duty of care to explain this strategy fully to
the client, including the likely extent, if any, of environmental control shortcomings
which may result.
4.9

Review No 9 - Split decisions: air

A Giles, BSRIA. CIBSE Journal, May 1998

The article presents a global market survey covering 94 countries for air conditioning
products. UK is placed 9th for water chillers and 6th for small air conditioning units. The
European part of the survey approximates generally to the 20%/80% rule; that 20% of
the participants account for 80% of the activity.
Other details shown by the survey are that 80% of the water chiller market is for air
cooled units (this being fairly attributed to fears of legionellosis) and that 50% of the air
handling unit market is for duties in the range of 2350 l/s to 4250 l/s air volume flow rate.
In variable air volume terms it states that the concept had lost market share to fan coils,
chilled ceilings and a variety of other systems but does not quantify this loss.

20

Interpretation
In energy efficiency terms, perhaps the worst news from this survey is the dominance of
air cooled water chillers which have inferior refrigerating efficiency to equivalent
evaporatively cooled units. The general fears of legionellosis expressed in the paper
seem to fail to recognise that, for ordinary risk buildings (eg offices and other similar
workplaces) well maintained evaporative cooling systems entail negligible risk to health
and well being of occupants and others.
The data on dominant AHU sizes suggests that design guidance concentrating on this
range of system duties could be more fruitful.
While VAV may be losing ground in current markets, a large number of such systems have
been installed in the past decade and, no doubt, many of these would be capable of
improved and more energy efficient performance.
4.10

Review No 10 - Supply fan energy savings in VAV air conditioned

buildings
D Butler, BRE. CIBSE Journal May 1989

The paper presents a general review of VAV technology with some field notes on actual
problems encountered in buildings and on in-situ monitoring of fan operation.
The importance of the static pressure control sensor is recognised and it is stated that, in
practice, its final position may be determined by trial and error during commissioning.
Also, it is noted that, under part load operation, there may be scope for reducing the
control pressure set point, thereby gaining further savings in fan energy provided this
does not starve any terminals of their required air volume flow rate.
Fan speed variation, and blade pitch modulation on axial fans are recognised as the most
energy efficient means of performance regulation. It is also noted that cost and
engineering compromises affect the design of the fan section of AHUs and undermine
the optimum fan efficiency that is otherwise achievable under factory test conditions.
The first field monitoring of fan performance was carried out with the system pressure
control sensor only 10 m from the fan outlet. The fan air volume flow rate decreased by
up to 50% during the tests but the measured energy input only reduced by a similar 50%
which was much less than predicted. The explanation of this was felt to be due to the
close proximity of the sensor to the fan outlet but may also be affected by the AHU fan
enclosure geometry undermining the expected fan law relationships.
The second field monitoring was carried out on an inlet vane control fan with the system
pressure sensor only 5 m from the fan outlet and, in this case, the fan power consumption
remained constant despite a volume flow rate reduction of 50%. The fan motor rating in
this case was 75 kW, the fan volume flow rate being 24 m3/s.
The fan problem encountered in the field was that of an extract fan impeller running
inadvertently in reverse rotation and supplying unfiltered air to the building.
Also, many instances were encountered where operating staff were unable to effectively
work the building BEMS which highlights the complexity of some installations.
It was noted that BRECSU guidance attributed 25% to 30% of building energy
consumption to fans.

21

Interpretation
The reported field monitoring tends to stress the great importance of commissioning for
VAV systems and the need to allow time at this stage to examine and resolve system
operational problems or irregularities.
4.11

Review No 11 - Duct looping in VAV systems

I Khoo, G J Levermore and K Letherman, UMIST. CIBSE Journal, October
1996

This article is a precis of Review No 5 above.

Only two points emerge from this precis which have not been covered in Review 5
above:
(ii) the statement that the supply air volume of 800 l/s to a 10 m x 10 m module
which, assuming a ceiling height of 2.5 m resolves to 3.2 l/s/m3; (excessive by
comparison with rule of thumb in Review No 3).
(ii) that the efficiency of the fan and the drive motor have been excluded from the
energy considerations.
Interpretation
Based on the two points above, the following comments are appropriate:
(i) the supply air volume per unit volume of the accommodation is over double the
rule-of-thumb indicator for offices suggested in the BSRIA paper on oversizing
(see Review No 3);
(ii) with regard to fan efficiency generally, industry standards (as reflected by SS M&E
100 published by DOE) typically quote figures of 75% for a fan under ideal
conditions and 50% for a fan in an AHU. With a fan power of 50 kW, this
entails the acceptance of a heat pick-up of 25 kW from fan inefficiency alone,
the drive motor inefficiency being additive to this if it is mounted in the
airstream.
4.12

Review No 12 - Fan and Ductwork Installation Guide: Fan

Manufacturers Association
Fan Manufacturers Association, 1993 (22 pp)

From the introduction to the guide, it is understood that the object was to investigate
installation effects of ductwork fittings located in close proximity to a fan outlet. The
introduction states that the magnitude of this effect is generally not known but that it
results in a consequently large increase in capital and running costs and the system does
not operate at its design condition.
The objectives of the research were stated as being to establish by experimental
measurement the effect of commonly used, fan connected ductwork fittings and to collate
test data for the use of systems ductwork designers. The test procedure is summarised
briefly.
The background to System Flow Effect is not described. The results of the tests
conducted are presented more in the manner of a test report.
Also, the number of duct fittings subjected to testing appears to be limited.
Excellent illustrations are provided as Appendices. (The Appendices comprise 12 pp of
the 22 pp total.)

22

Interpretation
The background to System Effect Factor stems from the airflow at a fan outlet having
distorted velocity profile. With a centrifugal fan, the effect of the scroll is to generate a
higher air velocity at the outside surface of the scroll. This velocity profile distortion is
accentuated by the drag effect of air friction on the scroll/duct surfaces.
Similarly, with an axial fan, the in-duct fan motor results in a dead area in the velocity
profile, further distortion again being caused by surface friction on the fan casing.
Additionally, the fan scroll of the centrifugal unit imparts a twist to the airflow so that,
if a direction change is imposed on it which does not follow that twist, there will be a
tendency to greater turbulence and, hence, higher resistance to airflow.
If a straight length of duct is provided at the fan outlet, the velocity profile will gradually
resolve into a symmetrical form but the frictional drag will still apply at duct surfaces.
The manner in which the results are presented in this publication makes them less suitable
as design guidance material and further interpretation may be needed to facilitate this.
Similar reasoning applies to the airflow at fan inlets.
4.13

Review No 13 - Fan Application Manual, Part 1, Fans and Systems.

Air Movement and Control Association Inc, Illinois, USA in October 1981.

The topic of installation effect of system flow effect is covered thoroughly and logically
in this Manual. In this case, the phenomenon is referred to as the System Effect Factor.
The data in this Manual highlight the importance of generally known aerodynamic
effects such as bellmouth duct entries, parallel versus opposed dampers, duct branches and
direction changes ranging from mitre bends to aerofoil turning vanes. System Effect
Factors are attributed to various fitting types used commonly in ductwork system design.
The rule of not positioning duct fittings immediately at the fan outlet is not universal.
From first-hand experience it can be said that a linear silencer fitted at the fan outlet also
works as an airflow straightener and minimises or eliminates the system effect.
Most other fittings installed at the fan outlet will seriously undermine fan performance
such that the effect is not recoverable.
The manner in which the results are presented makes them less suitable as design guidance
material and further interpretation may be needed to facilitate them.
The manual is well illustrated and easy to understand.
Interpretation
The compilation of the Manual makes it ideal for use as a guide to ductwork system
design. Bearing in mind that plant room space is, typically, at a high premium, the
guidance is well illustrated and easy to understand and, would make a massive contribution
to improving ductwork design.
(See also Review No 26 below.)

23

4.14

Review No 14 - Fan Application Guide

Fan Manufacturers Association/Hevac Association, 1981

The Guide describes how a fan works and outlines the various types of fan available and
their typical performance characteristics. The measurement of pressures and air volume
flow rates is described and various types of ducted fan are illustrated together with
attributed alpha factors to enable entry loss coefficients to be calculated.
Fan laws are presented and the square relationship of system airflow to resistance is
described. The effect of changes in air density on fan performance is also covered.
Methods of fan performance control are discussed, speed control being described as one
of the most efficient methods. Series and parallel operation of fans is also covered.
A number of illustrations are provided of poor and improved design features related to
fan design but the effects of these features are not quantified.
Sections are included on ordering a fan, noise and vibration, electric motors and starters,
the essentials of fan installation and trouble-shooting. A final Appendix deals with Noise
in fan installations.
Interpretation
It is considered that much of the content of the Guide would be covered in education and
training for building services engineers and would, generally, be reasonably well understood
by designers.
The trouble shooting section appears to be comprehensive and it would be useful to add
the hints to commissioning check lists as general guidance.
The content is not specifically aimed at VAV systems and, hence, is of limited relevance
in this respect.
4.15

Review No 15 - HEVAC Guide to Good Practice: Air handling units

(AHU)
Hevac Association, 1992

The Guide presents advice on the selection of AHUs with separate sections covering the
various component parts.
The disadvantages of blow through units are noted as: higher pressure losses resulting from
the fan discharge into a low air velocity plenum: increased length of the unit due to the
need for uniform air flow over AHU components and greater potential for air leakage.
The sole advantage is that fan/drive heat gains do not undermine directly the supply air
cooling potential.
Hints in the Guide warn against added fan energy costs due to high resistance filters.
It is noted that air conditioning terminal units may constitute a constant pressure element
of an air distribution system which otherwise would conform to the pressure volume
square law relationship.
A comprehensive section (4pp) is provided on variable duty fans and includes relevant
and useful information on types of speed variation and a comparison between the
options. Notes on variable speed options are provided including cautions on drive motor

24

overheating when boosting above synchronous speeds and dos and donts (7) are
included.
A section is provided on Local System Effects covering the effect on air flow and system
resistance of various duct fittings and system geometries.
General requirements for commissioning and maintenance are provided as separate
sections.
Interpretation
The paper makes specific mention of the fan energy penalty incurred by high resistance
filters (see also Review No 4 above).
A reasonable section on Variable Speed Options is provided. While warning is given
regarding the risk of motor overheating at speeds in excess of synchronous, no similar
warning is given regarding prolonged low speed operation where the self contained motor
ventilating provisions become progressively less effective. Also, on this matter, the heat
pick-up from drive motors in the airstream will become progressively more significant at
lower running speeds. As well as the air volume flow rate decreasing, the motor
inefficiencies progressively increase so that the air temperature increase can become
much more significant.
The maintenance requirements included in the paper make no mention of variable speed
drives. These clearly require maintenance attention and guidance independent of
manufacturers instructions would be helpful.
4.16

Report No 16 - Beating the Blahs for VAV

R T Tamblyn, ASHRAE Journal, Sept 1983 pp 42-45

The paper deals in broad terms with the advantages of VAV systems in energy efficiency
terms being undermined by shortcomings in air quality and air movement velocities. The
latter effect is claimed to result in temperatures feeling up to 1oC warmer.
It is recommended that ever improving standards of building construction and thermal
insulation and of lighting technology result in a decreasing design need for supply air.
Field studies were carried out to examine the effect of low heat loads on VAV air supply.
Design variables were shown to have only a minor and predictable effect on space air
movement. While no criteria exist for space air movement a design norm of 4 ac/h was
suggested (but not substantiated) which equates to 3 l/sm2 (1.51 l/sm3 for 2.6 m ceiling
height).
The typical model programme showed that, throughout the year air supply rate never
exceeded 2 ac/h, perimeter zones being worst served because they were in negative heat
balance for two thirds of the year.
The paper questions why low air flow should result in discomfort and concludes this is due
to proliferation of contaminants.
Solutions proposed are the seasonal resetting upward of the VAV supply air temperature
of 12.8oC when 3 l/sm2 would result in overcooling. Also, the use of perimeter and
interior zoning of VAV systems was highlighted as a desirable feature both economically
and for health reasons. The resetting of minimum stops on terminal units was
deprecated.

25

Interpretation
Because of the age of this paper it would seem that the recommendations towards
perimeter and interior zoning have been a common design feature for sometime.
The supply air temperature reset would be quite simple to arrange on a seasonal basis but
would present difficulties in applying to all terminals. Some form of averaging would,
therefore, seem appropriate. As this measure would undermine directly fan economies it
should be applied only where consistent occupant complaints indicate a need.
4.17

Review No 17 - Whats really wrong with VAV systems?

D Int-Hout, P Berget. ASHRAE Journal, December 1984 pp 36-38

Pollutant concentrations, occupant complaints and energy concerns are quoted as the
chief criticisms of VAV systems (which have been used widely for 15 years ie since
1969).
In reviewing the predominant stagnant air complaints it is noted that the relevant
ASHRAE standard (55-1981) states There is no minimum air motion required for
comfort. Also, it states that where air temperatures are too high comfort may be
enhanced by increasing air movement although optimum comfort level is only achieved
at low air speed and proper temperatures. Comfort standards also indicate that at 25.6oC
(78oF) air temperatures, air movement speeds of around 0.2 to 0.3 m/s are required to
achieve comfort and, even then, this requires no radiant effect and low relative
humidities. The Air Diffusion Performance Index of diffusers is relevant to the air
stagnation problem.
The developing science of building diagnostics is seen as an increasing necessity to resolve
system operational problems. Commissioning is a must and needs to be thorough and not
once over lightly. The need to document and record all adjustments and changes to
systems is stressed and the need for after sales service from design teams to be provided
as standard.
Interpretation
The paper is largely defensive and, while identifying potentially weak features in the VAV
concept, offers no definitive recommendations for improved design criteria. Some of the
problems identified (eg control shortcomings) are not limited to VAV systems.

26

4.18

Review No 18 - Sensor Errors: some possible sources, suggested

remedies
J Y Kao, ASHRAE Journal, January 1989 pp 110-104

The paper notes that human comfort does not demand strict tolerance on space
temperature but, nonetheless, recognises the importance of examining and understanding
the effect of automatic control errors.
The computer programme BLAST is used to simulate 10 intermediate floors of an office
building with a 30.5 m x 30.5 m floor plate. For the purposes of the tests, negative error
implies a controlled element operating at a temperature lower than that intended and
positive error means the opposite.
Data are plotted for the following sources of energy waste:
1. wasted cooling energy due to sensing errors of outside and return air temperature and
outside and return air dew point temperature;
2. heating and cooling energy waste from sensing errors in mixed air temperature;
3. heating and cooling energy waste from sensing errors of cooling coil off-air
temperature.
The annual wastage effect of some of these sensing errors is expressed in percentage
terms (eg of cooling) per degree of error, as much as 7.2% per oF being quoted (13% per
o
C).
The most prominent source of error is that of stratification of airflow streams through an
AHU and multiple or averaging sensors are recommended as a potential remedy.
The need to shield sensors from radiant effects is stated and, with regard to the general
quality of sensors, a thorough and definitive specification is quoted as the only way of
ensuring that this is adequate.
The importance of calibration is stressed, set point drift being stated to be dependent on
sensor quality and the environment in which the sensor operates.
Interpretation
The details of this paper spell-out and emphasise the importance of attention to detail in
automatic control. This applies to design, installation, commissioning, witnessing and
acceptance as well as to operation and maintenance.
Even for well designed installations, air stream stratification is difficult to eliminate or
control and the advice in the paper regarding multiple averaging sensors is, therefore,
appropriate.
Although the paper rightly states that strict tolerances on controlled conditions are not
necessary, it is important to know what the control system is doing and to be able to rely
on this. Good quality sensors and regular checks for set-point drift are, again, rightly
stated as the best measures.
In actual practice, there appears to be no problem in having highly skilled professionals
working on control system concepts. Too often, however, the more detailed aspects
which are equally, if not more important, seem to be delegated to junior staff lacking in
competence, judgement and authority.
The quantification of potential losses in energy effectiveness may help to promote
action on the various aspects of control system engineering.

27

4.19

Review No 19 From constant air to variable a retrofit

accomplishment
G A Johnson, ASHRAE Journal, January 1985 pp 107-114

The paper describes how the two air handling systems on the first floor of a three storey
office building were converted from a Constant Air Volume (CAV) system to a VAV
system without terminal units.
Air diffusion to the conditioned accommodation continued to be through ordinary circular
diffusers. Air distribution to the conditioned spaces suffered no degradation and no
dumping was reported at 50% turn-down of design air volume flow rate.
The fan inverter drive speed was controlled from space temperature sensors, using PI
control. The supply air temperature was maintained constant.
Fan energy savings varied month-to-month, presumably influenced by average outdoor air
conditions, the cycle pattern differing slightly for each AHU. The minimum fan power
reduction (achieved in May for both AHUs) was 40% while the best results, a 62% and
65% energy reduction, were achieved in December and January respectively.
Interpretation
The proposition in the paper has to be viewed as a compromise rather than a pure VAV
design.
Nevertheless, two points stand out and are worthy of note:
(i) the magnitude of the fan energy savings (probably around 50% over the year);
(ii) the robust performance capability of the ordinary circular diffuser outlets
suggesting that costly outlets may not be necessary to ensure good air diffusion
over a wide performance range. (It is noted, however, that many VAV systems
may require greater than 50% turn-down at some stage of their operation.)
4.20

Review No 20 - VAV: Designing and controlling an outside air

economiser cycle
G Avery, ASHRAE Journal, December 1986 pp 16-30

The paper sets-out to identify and analyse the interaction of controlled variables. It
appears that for a VAV system with a return fan the following controlled variables are
interactive with one another:

the
the
the
the
the
the

supply fan speed;

return fan speed;
supply duct static pressure
mixed air temperature (ie outside and return air mix);
wind pressure effect on the exhaust
air flow characteristics of the outside air and return air dampers.

Attention is drawn to the importance of the fresh air and return air dampers having
identical characteristics as any difference in resistance will distort the required mixing
ratio and the system air volume flow rate. Laboratory experiments conducted on
opposed blade dampers showed that the damper resistances at 50/50 setting had increased
by a factor of 3 from the near open/near closed positions. The same tests on parallel
blade dampers showed a decrease in resistance of about 25% in the 50/50 setting. This led
to the proposal of an ideal damper for the air mixing role as a combination of opposed
and parallel blade units.

28

On the matter of damper authority, the need to achieve air velocities over the damper of
the order of 7.6 m/s is noted. Other measurements carried out show that, if air velocity is
boosted by inserting a correctly sized damper in a duct blank-off panel (ie an abrupt
contraction) this has the effect of increasing the damper resistance by a factor of 7 for
the same air velocity.
The paper states that the use of return air fans in VAV systems is undesirable and explores
various design options for dispensing with the return air fan. These include:
a counter balanced relief damper;
a small relief air fan regulated from a static pressure sensor within the building;
a small relief air fan regulated from air flow grids in the fresh air and relief air
ducts to give matched air volume flow rates.
A major condition for dispensing with the return air fan is the need to ensure that the
resistance of the return air duct route (including the return air mixing damper) is the same
as that of the outside air duct route (again, including the mixing damper).
Control of the minimum outside air flow rate is also noted as an important requirement.
Means of achieving this are:

a small fan in the minimum outside air supply duct interlocked with the main
supply fan;
a flow measuring station in the minimum outside air supply duct to regulate the
minimum outside air damper setting to maintain constant flow irrespective of
supply fan speed (only suitable where supply air flow rate variations are small).

Interpretation
The data on ideal damper combinations and characteristics and the resistance of
dampers in blank off panels once again stresses the importance of air flow considerations
to system resistances. (The factor of 7 quoted in the paper will vary with the ratio of
areas of the main duct and the reduced size damper. Based on an AHU face air velocity of
2 m/s, the effect of an abrupt contraction to 7.6 m/s face velocity and an immediate
abrupt expansion afterwards would be to generate an aggregate damper resistance factor of
1.13 as against 0.2 for the damper alone, a ratio of 5.56) (see CIBSE Guide Section C
Table C 4.3.5.)
In looking at the recommended avoidance of the return air fan it is concluded that the
aggregate resistances of the supply ductwork and the return ductwork will be the same for
a given air flow rate, irrespective of whether this is driven by the supply fan only or
jointly by a supply and return fan. The proposal must, therefore, hinge on the difficulty
of regulating the return air fan to track the supply air fan performance.
On the face of it, the prospect of equalising the resistance of return air path (which, in a
large building could be lengthy) with that of the outside air path resistance, seems remote.
This would need to be examined for a particular design and a decision made on the
practicability.
The importance of precise control of minimum fresh air volumes to energy economy has
been appreciated in other applications (eg computer room air conditioning). This paper
is also clearly concerned about outside air flow rate regulation for parts of the economiser
cycle other than minimum fresh air. A point of practical concern in this context is the
use of a control parameter. Typically, wet bulb temperature is used for the function as
its trends practically parallel that of the enthalpy of moist air. However, this only
works if the sensor is kept wetted to actually react to wet bulb temperature. Careful
monitoring of sensor performance is needed to check this feature.

29

4.21

Review No 21 - A Variable Air Volume Forum: six engineers express

opinions
ASHRAE Journal, August 1987 pp 22-31

Each authors paper is summarised below under the title given in the Forum
4.21.1 Review No 21A - Despite Popularity, problems do exist
V K Gupta
Seven problems are stated as typical VAV shortcomings:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

uneven temperatures and lack of RH control;

uneven air distribution and stagnation;
lack of fresh air, especially mid-season;
disappointing energy savings;
poor sequencing of supply and return fans;
air flow rates sometimes difficult to balance;
difficult to operate and maintain.

Ten simple design recommendations are made to counter these problems:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)

keep designs simple and limit the size of the supply systems and number of
floors served;
use minimum of 3 l/sm2 of air supply at full load;
provide means for pre-occupation fresh air flush of building;
ensure minimum fresh air volume at all occupied hours;
provide separate perimeter heating arrangements;
select supply air fans to complement system characteristics;
avoid use of multiple fans in one system;
also, avoid use of return air fans;
take care with ductwork design;
realise the critical importance of VAV terminal selection.

Interpretation
The importance of good air distribution and diffusion is also noted.
The ten golden rules provide an excellent concise and practical design guide. Some are
regularly taken into account by designers (eg separate perimeter heating, minimum
outside air assurance). Others are less commonly recognised (eg provision for preoccupation fresh air flush, limitation of system size).
Avoidance of return air fans is, again, mentioned.

30

4.21.2 Review No 21B - A move towards digital controls

D Int-Hout
The paper highlights potential control problems and sets out the advantages of direct
digital control (DDC) in addressing these.
A number of control problems are listed together with appropriate DDC remedies
including the following:

sensing and control for VAV terminals serving multiple areas use multiple DDC
thermostats with discriminatory control response;
changing heat load constituents, personal computers leading to system overload in
local areas DDC allows zone load monitoring to assess over and under loaded
areas and provide data for a rebalancing strategy.
stuffiness, the most common VAV problem, is firmly identified as thermal in
origin rather than a matter of air movement. Proportional control exacerbates
the thermal problem by causing temperature control offset. DDC controls at set
point.

The paper makes the interesting and true observation that people can complain about
their environment to no avail but computers quit and the management response is
immediate.
The cost of DDC is recognised as higher than for pneumatic control and is unlikely ever
to be a cheaper option. It allows ease of control refinements such as night set back, resets for minimum temperatures and warm-up on system start, and these, together with
better control, result in long-term cost effectiveness.
Interpretation
Designers need to provide supportive arguments for DDC control to deter clients from
simply opting for the lowest first cost solution.
4.21.3 Review No 21C - Opportunities exist to improve design
M Roberts
The paper talks about perceived first-cost cutting design solutions using parallel and series
fan assisted VAV terminals to compensate for variations in system pressure and avoid the
use of more expensive pressure independent terminal units. It notes that parallel fan
assisted terminals are often applied to very large zones to minimise terminal costs as well
as ductwork, pipework, electrical and control distribution costs.
Fan assisted terminals (FAT) also produce constant air discharge velocities at outlets,
helping to minimise down-draught problems and to maintain air movement in the space.
Changing air discharge velocities, particularly when resulting from abrupt changes of fan
speed, can also lead to noise sensitivities with occupants.
Duct design is, again, identified as important to system efficiency. Careful design using
spiral wound ducting with good quality fitting and applying static regain techniques can
produce distribution systems which are inherently self-balancing, result in lower noise
levels and are cheaper in first cost.
The need for an industry standard for VAV terminal unit rating and performance is
stressed as an aid to highlighting the significant differences between proprietary
manufacturers.

31

Interpretation
The advantages of low temperature supply air, particularly when combined with thermal
storage, are noted.
This is the first item in over twenty papers reviewed to mention FAT units. Design
motivations for their use, however, are not really covered. The apparent disadvantages
of their use include undermining system energy efficiency and, possibly, higher noise
levels, the need for electrical power distribution to terminals and increased first costs and
maintenance costs. In order to offset these drawbacks, a designer needs to consider
carefully and evaluate the positive reasons for the use of FAT terminals.
Duct system design (often delegated to junior engineers) again features as an important
factor.
The need for designers to be able to rely on the quoted performance of selected terminal
units is paramount and industry standards and certification schemes leading to this must be
beneficial. Against this, however, it has to be recognised that, in UK, the support for
certification schemes is, generally, very poor. The cheapest equipment option is often
selected and the adage you get what you pay for seems to be ignored.
With regard to low air temperature systems, the need for excellence in diffuser outlet
performance is accentuated. Also, in one sense, thermal storage introduces additional
potential inefficiencies and the advantages in USA may result from electricity supply
tariff structures.
4.21.4 Review No 4.21D - Electronic controls revolutionise VAV
D J Wessel
Stuffiness is, again, referred to as a VAV problem but is coupled with the federal
temperature regulation of 78oF (25oC).
The advantages of DDC (covered in 21B above) are detailed and the motivation for low
temperature air systems is defined as minimising the size of the fan and distribution
system. FAT circulation of air from the ceiling void with heat pick-up from space gains
and lighting can reduce building balance temperatures to less than 1oC.
The paper quotes that an average airflow of 70% (of design flow rate) represents savings
in fan energy of 65%.
Interpretation
The motivation for FAT units as described here would also reduce the potential savings in
primary fan energy from speed reduction (as a direct result of the smaller fan). Against
this, however, the base load itself would be smaller in proportion to the space/supply air
temperature difference. Also, the fan power used at each FAT would represent an energy
penalty which would be constant and could be significant.
The quoted fan energy saving is based simply on the fan laws for variable speed drives.
The actual energy saving will be underminded by deteriorating motor efficiencies as speeds
reduce.

32

4.21.5 Review No 21E - Understanding the basics is essential

H Brickman
The fundamental principle of VAV is noted as attempting to control space dry bulb
temperature, humidity and air movement by the direct control of supply air dry bulb
temperature. (This applies to many other air conditioning system types.)
It notes that, in perimeter zones with a high solar load component, variations in air
volume flow rate from VAV terminals can be substantial. For perimeter zones, the paper
advocates heating by perimeter radiation programmed to compensate for transmission
heat losses.
Variation of air supply temperatures up to conserve refrigeration, say, or down to
improve fan economies will possibly have adverse side effects on comfort parameters not
directly controlled (eg relative humidity or cold air dumping).
Reference is made to design principle variations such as two fan dual duct VAV and return
air by-pass VAV. These innovative concepts are not described.
Interpretation
In rightly focussing on the importance of fundamentals, this paper tends to draw
attention to the need to consider the building heat load profiles. Trends continue to
influence this. Equipment loads seem to become ever greater and lighting loads are
reducing as technology improves. Additionally, there are influences such as the ill
considered and unfortunate commercial considerations on potential lettability which
tend to set excessive standards for equipment heat loads. Nonetheless, the constitution of
the heat load is a corner-stone for design decisions and graphical representation can be
helpful in interpreting influencing factors.
Variation of supply air temperature in VAV systems seems a useful design option and
should be kept in mind in developing particular concepts.
4.21.6 Review No 21F - Recent increases in scope and reality
W Waldner
The message of the paper is that the fundamental advantages of the design needs and
criteria for VAV systems remain as originally defined in the late 1960s. The scope for
refinements of the system to extend its range of potential applications continues to
increase.
Reference is made to outlet diffusers with internal induction provisions to reduce the
cooling differential (also referred to in Review no 7 above).
The potential for condensation on start-up (eg on outlet diffusers) in environments with
high ambient dew point temperatures is noted.
Some description is offered of the application of VAV designs to once through air systems
such as required for sophisticated applications (eg hospitals, laboratories etc). For this
type of application there is scope for controlling the air pressure in the conditioned space
at the same time as maintaining control over system duct pressure.
The importance of explaining operational features (such as control dead bands) to
occupiers is stressed.

33

Interpretation
The bulk of this paper is concerned with specialist applications outside the mainstream of
VAV applications.
As well as tempering supply air temperature differentials, internal induction provisions in
VAV terminals can help to minimise the adverse effects of reductions in primary air
volume flow rates.
4.22

Review No 22 - Outdoor air and VAV systems

J W Roberts, ASHRAE Journal, September 1991

The introduction to the paper details the requirements of ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 for
outdoor ventilation rates per person. The standard increased these rates per person from
5 cfm (2.35 l/s) to 15 cfm (7.08 l/s) with 20 cfm (9.44 l/s) being recommended for office
applications.
Assuming a fixed setting of the air mixing dampers to give 20% fresh air and assuming
also the operation of an economiser cycle for fresh air supply, a Table of minimum
supply air volumes per person is provided. This is based on both 7.08 l/s and 9.44 l/s per
person.
It is noted that DDC techniques would also allow VAV terminals to be programmed with a
minimum air volume flow rate which would allow the minimum or recommended outside
air supply rate. It is noted that these air supply rates may require reheat but that the use
of a reheat coil may be avoided. This is subsequently proposed by the use of FAT VAV
units drawing warm air from ceiling voids to provide free reheat.
A step-by-step design procedure is proposed as follows:
(a) calculate room cooling loads and required cooling air flows;
(b) calculate total cooling load with recommended outside air per person; check
whether this matches all exhaust air flows and is sufficient to pressurise building;
(c) determine minimum primary air flows at each terminal to ensure sufficient outside
air (economiser cycle will provide 100% outside air under certain mid-season
conditions);
(d) compare minimum primary air flows for each terminal with required cooling air
flow. Decide whether outside air ratio needs to be increased;
(e) re-calculate primary air flows for each terminal and determine re-heat
requirements in each case.
The capability of VAV terminals to cycle to total shut off of primary air is noted and
stated as being more of a problem for perimeter zones than for internal areas (due to
transmission heat loss potential).
Interpretation
The paper addresses an important element of VAV design which has a strong link with
indoor air quality. While it is not seen as pressingly important to meet minimum fresh
air supply rate recommendations at all times, it is clearly undesirable for accommodation
to suffer prolonged periods of low rates of fresh air provision. The step-by-step design
procedure offers a reasonable means of evaluating the outside air ventilation situation and
developing the design to offer a practicable optimum solution.
With DDC control of terminals it would, perhaps, be possible to reschedule the supply air
temperature to an increased average value to allow a set minimum fresh air ratio to be
applied constantly. With this arrangement, larger air volumes (and, hence, more outside

34

air) would be delivered by terminals at the short-term periods where delivered fresh air
would fall below minimum recommended levels.
(Note: The statutory minimum outdoor air supply level for UK is 4.72 l/s per person.
CIBSE recommendations for offices are from 8 to 12 l/s per person.)
4.23

Review No 23 - Estimating the indoor air quality and performance of

VAV systems
H J Sauer and R H Howell. ASHRAE Journal, July 1992 pp 42-50

The paper reports on an ASHRAE Research Project on the control of outside air and
building pressurisation in VAV systems.
The fundamental operating characteristics of VAV systems of varying outside air quantity
not only with the outside air temperature but, also, with the cooling requirements is noted
as resulting in negative building pressurisation under some part load operating conditions.
This leads to 'assisted and increased infiltration.
A programme was used to model accurately seven operational options:
A return air fan with capacity control regulated from:
(i) supply air capacity control (duct static pressure)
(ii) building pressure
(iii) measured differential supply and return air volume flow rates.
A relief fan with capacity control regulated from:
(iv) building pressure
(v) outside air damper position
(vi) pressure ratio across return air damper and outside air injection fan (or
barometric dampers similarly regulated)
(vii) no return fan or relief fan; building pressure regulated by motorised or
barometric relief dampers.
The research, described in detail in the paper, indicated that none of the seven options did
a perfect job. In all cases the sensitivity to proper sizing of components, especially fans
and dampers, was shown to be high. The designer has scope, however, to semi-optimise
system performance by tweaking the various system components.
The results suggest mileage in further investigation of the following favourable options:

regulating return air and outside air dampers from outside air volume flow rate
sensor;
control of return air fan from same sensor;
control of exhaust fan from same sensor;
control of return air fan linked to ratio of fixed and general exhaust;
need to decouple minimum outside air control system from building pressurisation
system.

Interpretation
Although the results are qualified by the need for further investigation (as are most
research reports!) the above methods of system regulation showed up as favourable. The
control proposals are logical and would be practicable to implement.

35

Yet again, the need for care in the selection of fans and dampers is stressed. This implies
also that the manufacturers quoted performance data for these items will be achieved in
actual practice and points to some form of independent certification of equipment.
4.24

Review No 24 - Integrating VAV zone requirements with supply fan

operation
M Warren and L K Norford, ASHRAE Journal April 1993 (pp 43-46)

This paper is similar in concept to the paper in Review No 6 above.

The paper reports on a project in which eight VAV system supply fans were retrofitted
with variable speed drives and a DDC static pressure reset strategy. The two largest
supply fans served 53 and 77 office zones. The other fans served 8 to 21 zones.
Individual fan power ranged from 1.5 to 93 kW.
Each supply fan was controlled to a static pressure setpoint by a PID controller which
controlled the variable speed fan drive. The static pressure input was provided by a
pressure transducer in the supply duct. Because the static pressure setpoint reset was based
on actual conditions in the zones, it was not necessary to locate the transducer in the
furthest branch of the index duct, as is required with fixed static pressure control.
Static pressure reset control works as follows. Each VAV terminal is provided with a low
air flow alarm setting. The controller polls each VAV terminal unit and if several units
(typically three) give a low airflow alarm, the static pressure is increased by 5% at 60
second intervals until the alarm stops. If only a minimum number of units give a low flow
alarm (typically, a single unit) the static pressure is reduced.
Monitoring of one of the supply fans after implementation of the static pressure reset
strategy showed close tracking of fan power with static pressure. Fan power and static
pressure variation throughout the day closely followed the building cooling load. The data
was used to estimate the average power savings from the static pressure reset strategy
compared with conventional fixed static pressure control. The results showed average
power savings of around 20% for fans running during occupied hours only, and 37% to
42% savings for fans running 24 hours a day.
Interpretation
The principal conclusion, as for Reviews 4 and 6, is that static pressure reset can offer
significant fan energy savings.
No costs are given but the Review 6 suggests paybacks as low as 2.5 years might be
possible. If a new system is being installed with fans that already have inverter drives and
with DDC terminals, then the extra cost of the static reset strategy should be fairly
marginal.
The energy savings will be dependent on the duration that the system is operated at low
air supply volumes. Obviously, systems that operate for 24 hours a day will experience
large savings. Savings will be low during temperature pull-down following system start up.
An important comment was made in the paper that the ability to reset static pressure
depends crucially on having VAV terminals that can regulate air flow across a reasonable
range of pressures.
It is implied that the static pressure sensor location is not critical. This would overcome
a major design and commissioning difficulty of conventional systems in which static
pressure sensor location is critical but is difficult to determine precisely.
(See also comment on Reviews 4 and 6 above).

36

4.25

Review No 25 - Outdoor airflow control for VAV systems

G J Jane, J D Wenger and C G Nesler, ASHRAE Journal April 1995 (pp 62-68)

The paper reiterates some of the aspects of outdoor air control already reviewed in other
papers. These include building pressurisation to minimise infiltration and consequent
draughts and to ensure all incoming air is drawn from known filtered locations. In this
context, it condemns return fan tracking of the supply fan speed as this does not
provide volume matching or control of building pressure.
With regard to the need for fresh air supply for occupants to meet specified minima it
adds the need for a base level ventilation to counteract contaminants generated by the
building and its occupants. Carbon dioxide monitoring, while providing some indication
of occupancy trends, would not pick up or respond to these other sources of
pollution/contamination. Also, the paper notes it can take hours for CO2 generated by
constant occupancy to reach an equilibrium concentration. It is also noted that higher
metabolic activity rates from occupants would produce more CO2.
Clearly, constant outdoor air ratios will not meet these ventilation requirements. The
paper quotes a measured example where a 50% turn down in total air supply results in the
outside air supply reducing to 56% of the design level.
A requirement to measure outdoor air volume flow rate is stated. The methods for this
are stated as pitot flow stations, thermistor arrays, pressure drop across a fixed orifice and
vortex shedding meters. Outside air flow rate measurement challenges include the range
of temperatures, low velocities and convoluted duct designs encountered in systems.
It is concluded that make-up air regulation for building static pressure control must be
independent of the system static load considerations. It also suggests CO2 monitoring to
supplement ventilation based on scheduled occupancy levels to take account of actual,
higher than expected occupancies (or CO 2 rates).
In addition to other facets of outdoor air control, system designs for cold climates must
also include frost protection provisions.
Interpretation
The requirement for base rate ventilation to counter indoor air contamination from
building services is acknowledged as logical and necessary but would be difficult to
estimate.
The time taken for CO2 levels to stabilise is also acknowledged. (In effect, this is the
opposite to decay rate of contaminants in industrial ventilation.) Provided CO 2 levels are
controlled (well below) Threshold Limit Values, this is not seen as detrimental.
In classical control terms, the regulation of outdoor air volume flow rate doubtless has
many difficulties. What is required for economic operation of systems with no risk to the
well being of occupants, however, is repeatable, reproducible and consistent control rather
than precise accuracy. This should be achievable from the methods available and can be
checked carefully during commissioning and during operation, if necessary.

37

4.26

Review No 26 - The causes and unwanted results of aerodynamic

system effect
C R Vanderburgh, J A Paulsuskis, ASHRAE Journal, February 1994 (pp 24-29)

This paper presents a discursive coverage of System Effect Factor (SEF) (see Review No
12 above).
The two main side-effects of SEF are quoted as unwanted extra pressure drop and extra
noise. A pie chart, see Figure 2 below, shows that these adverse effects can be substantial
and comprise more than 50% of the workload of the fan.
Figure 2 Breakdown of total fan workload

allowed for
by engineer or
consultant

Allocated to
silencing
more or less
but usually
overlooked

Essential to duct
elements, coils,
filters etc

Silencer system
effects

Other system
effects

Fan system
effects

more or less
depending on
system design
more or less
depending on
system design

It is noted that, for each fan, there is an optimum (duct) configuration and fan speed to
get the best out of the unit in terms of least noise and energy input. Other key
considerations are good aerodynamic flow into its inlet and from its outlet.
Fan noise is broken down into rotational flow noise, vortex flow noise and vibrational
noise or duct rumble from sheet metal panel pulsations. Given poor aerodynamic
conditions, these components interact with one another. Anything up to 20 dB penalty
can be encountered.
Laboratory or works testing of fans minimises SEF as long, straight duct lengths are used.
SEF must be taken into account at an early design stage. To minimise SEF, the ductwork
system design must be approached from aerodynamic principles and the architect often
resists the additional space needed (sic). To postpone addressing SEF until the fan-duct
system is installed can be extremely costly and can still result in noise levels greater than
desired.
Dependent on the operating point selected for the fan, the extra resistance due to SEF
can result in operation on an unstable section of the characteristic curve.
Interpretation
Generally as Review No 12 above.

38

4.27

Review No 27 - Indoor Air Quality: a design parameter

W J Coad, ASHRAE Journal June 1996 (pp 9-47)

The paper contends that the speed of change in technology has outstripped the scope of
society to keep pace with it. One of the results of this is that most environmental
systems are not operated to meet the intentions of the designer. This, in turn, has
resulted in the birth in the early 1980s of the Air Quality Industry.
The performance deficiencies often found with VAV systems are:

poor mixing of supply and room air;

inadequate room air circulation;
air dumping;
reduced ventilation as load decreases.

The common subjective occupant compliants of stuffiness and no ventilation are

squarely attributed to poor air quality.
The solution is to provide two entirely separate air handling units for a VAV system; a
ventilation unit to provide the required quality of outside air and to control its
temperature, humidity, dew point, air quality etc and a recirculation unit to counteract
the space heat load.
The ventilation unit could have a separate supply system or could deliver its air into the
return air side of the recirculation unit.
The air volume flow rate to each terminal could never be less than the required
ventilation rate and, to avoid overcooling, the control system would scan for the unit
calling for the least cooling and adjust (or increase) the supply air temperature to satisfy
this.
Interpretation
Separate distribution for the ventilation system would be out of the question, for
economic reasons, even for small systems.
The temperature adjustment proposal is the same as that for other papers reviewed and
would require DDC to provide the necessary polling of terminals and determining the
supply air temperature re-set.
This paper treats stuffiness as air quality related. All others reviewed classify it as a
thermal overheating problem. The latter classification seems more physiologically
consistent and logical.

39

4.28

Review No 28 - Controlling minimum ventilation volume in VAV

systems
J P Kettler, ASHRAE Journal May 1998

The author takes a careful, practical review of means of regulating ventilation air flow
rate. The initial view is that volumetric tracking presents the most accurate means of
supply and return air fan tracking. Quite apart from ventilation rate fall off when the
supply air volume reduces, there is the matter of a tolerance on the measured volume flow
rates. Examples are presented based on a tolerance of 5% (a very high commissioning
standard). These show that a minus 5% tolerance on supply air coinciding with a plus 5%
tolerance on return air can result in ventilation air deficiencies in excess of 35%!
Measuring the outdoor air volume directly has accuracy difficulties associated with the
sensitivity of instrumentation at relatively low air velocities (typically 2 to 2.5 m/s in
AHU). Allowable tolerances even as high as 10% would permit only extremely small
deviations in the measured pressure variable and, hence, would not be practicable.
An injection fan system comprising just a fan, and air flow measuring station and a
coupled regulatory damper to correct for wind effects or back pressure is one proposed
solution.
A second optional solution, referred to as Plenum Pressure Control, requires the use of a
differential pressure transducer (DPT) in the outside air stream to measure the pressure
drop across, say, a louvre and regulating damper. This pressure drop is measured at the
minimum outdoor air setting, say, during commissioning, and used as the DPT set-point.
In the event of any deviation in the DPT set-point the regulatory damper is actuated to
restore status quo. On jobs where this method has been used, pressure differentials have
varied roughly between 40 Pa and 90 Pa which is claimed to be a manageable
measurement for a DPT.
Building pressures in applications with no return fans should be controlled by a building
pressure sensor modulating a relief damper.
The paper concludes with a warning to check fan tracking and airflow measuring
arrangements which appear theoretically sound to make sure that they will work in
practice.
Interpretation
The practical exemplar of possible discrepancies resulting from what are accepted as close
commissioning tolerances is quite sobering.
Both the proposed solutions for ventilation air volume flow rate control rely on the
ideal damper combination dealt with in Review No 20 above to obtain the closest
conformance to volume control over the damper operating range.

40

4.29

Review No 29 - Retrofit of a Constant Volume air system for variable

speed fan control
G A Johnson, ASHRAE Trans 1984 Vol 90 Part 2B pp 201-212

This paper is an expanded version of the ASHRAE Journal article discussed under Review
No 19 above.
Interpretation
The principle represents a compromise improvement rather than a properly engineered
design solution.
4.30

Review No 30 - Fan energy use in variable air volume systems

P W Brothers and M L Warren

The paper comprises a report on a simulation study of three techniques for volume flow
regulation system dampers, inlet vane control and variable speed control with two
types of control algorithm.
It concludes that system dampers use 25% to 50% more energy than inlet vane control
and that speed variation uses 30% to 60% less energy than inlet vane control for a
standard 1000 m2 building.
Also, proportional plus integral control achieves 20% to 50% better savings than
proportional control alone.
Interpretation
The conclusions follow established engineering principles and are, consequently,
somewhat obvious. The percentages are, however, of interest.
The paper makes no mention of the higher first costs of the preferred technique and
control method but, clearly, the savings would achieve a very favourable pay-back in the
early stages of use.
4.31

Review No 31 - Control of supply air temperature and outdoor air

flow and its affect on energy use in a VAV system
K K Norford, A Raki, R H Socolur, ASHRAE Transactions 1986 Vol 92, Part 2B
pp 30-45

The paper reports on simulated assessments of the energy performance of an actual VAV
system serving a 12,000 m2 (assumed gross; say 10,000 m2 net) commercial office
building. The system has fan control by inlet air vanes, a heat pump refrigerating system
with a ground water sink and perimeter VAV terminals provided with hot water reheat
coils. The design fresh air volume flow rate is 9440 l/s (suggesting 9.44 l/s/person on a 1
occupant/10 m2 basis) and the maximum supply air rate is 56,600 l/s at a design
temperature of 12.8oC (say 5.7 l/sm2 max with a supply air temperature difference of
around 9oC). The supply fan heat pick-up is quoted as 1.1oC. Outdoor air supply was
regulated by an economiser system delivering full fresh air in mid season and reverting to
minimum levels in summer and winter design conditions, the cut-off temperature being
14.4oC. Equipment ratings were 105 kW for supply and return fans, 42 kW for FAT fans
and 196 kW for chillers and pumps.
The simulation showed that, adjusting the supply air temperature during summer and
winter conditions to reduce the air volume flow rate produced little in the way of savings.
In mid season weather, however, increasing the supply air temperature (by 2.8oC) to

41

15.6oC gave a substantial reduction in cooling energy for only a small penalty in fan
energy (22 MWh/a against 1 MWh/a or a 14% saving). More complex controls setting
appropriate optimum supply air temperatures for particular outdoor air temperatures
could enhance these savings.
Another simulation was the reduction of the outdoor air volume from 9440 l/s to 3860 l/s
to match the extract air rate from toilets and other areas. A prerequisite for this
reduction would have been to ban smoking in the building. This outdoor air flow at the
increased supply air temperature of 15.6oC, showed an energy saving of 11 mWh/a.
Interpretation
The potential savings indicated by considerations in this paper are impressive and
worthwhile. It is noted also that, with fan speed control as opposed to inlet vane
regulation, fan savings could be even higher but could upset the balance between fans and
the chiller in respect of overall savings.
Perhaps the most interesting technique was that of varying the supply air temperature
with the outdoor air temperature to optimise chiller energy. In this context, it is noted
that the selection of a supply air temperature difference is often arbitrary, the major
influence, perhaps, being the minimisation of the summer design supply air flow.
The proposed reduced outdoor air supply rate (estimated at 3.86 l/s person) is considered
to be low even for non-smoking accommodation. It would, therefore, be necessary to
examine the effect of prolonged ventilation at this rate on air quality in the
accommodation.
The key overall message in the paper is the need to review chiller energy alongside fan
energy and not to concentrate solely on the latter even though many sources declare fan
energy to be the dominant factor.
4.32

Review No 32 - VAV system volume control using electronic

strategies
G V Atkinson, ASHRAE Transactions 1986 Vol 92 Part 22B pp 46-57

The intent of the paper is to evaluate and describe electronic techniques used to control
various actual VAV systems. The operational aims of these controls are to the regulate
outdoor air ventilation and building pressurisation and control return fan performance in
harmony with the fixed exhaust systems (eg toilet extract etc) thus minimising return air
fan energy.
The system modelled was a dual duct VAV installation with a return air fan being a
composite of a number of systems actually tested.
Static pressure in hot and cold ducts was regulated from sensors located near the end of
the duct delivery system.
Mixed air temperature was regulated by a dual bulb thermostat measuring outdoor and
mixed air temperatures and modulating the outdoor air damper accordingly with a high
limit economiser setpoint. The relief air damper was modulated in parallel with the
outdoor air damper.
Minimum outdoor air was regulated by a PI controller reacting to a velocity probe in the
outdoor air duct. As particular exhaust fans were operated a signal was passed to increase
the outdoor air volume flow rate.

42

Velocity probes in both hot and cold ducts had their signals summed to give a total air
supply. The return fan air flow was also sensed by a velocity probe to maintain return air
flow at a pre-set differential to the supply air volume to provide building pressurisation.
Again, signals from particular exhaust fans were fed into the control system as they were
operated.
The velocity sensors used comprised twin temperature probes, one being heated at a
known rate. A minimum accuracy of 5% and a best accuracy of 2% is claimed with
repeatability better than 0.5% of span. Industrial sensors are available which are claimed
to have an even better accuracy.
The author acknowledges that close co-operation between the commissioning and
controls specialists is required to set-up these systems. It is contended that maintenance
requirements are very minimal, as electronic controls tend either to fail at an early
stage of system operation or to sustain reliability indefinitely. Also, minor signal drifts
can, generally, be corrected by trimming the potentiometer to correct the offset.
The paper claims that the control techniques outlined use standard devices and offer
simplified regulation. As a corrolary, it states that energy economies can be achieved by
saving on heating or cooling of excess outdoor air and by reducing return air fan power.
Interpretation
Although the modelling is based on a dual duct VAV system, which is not commonly used,
this does not affect the control techniques proposed.
What is of concern, however, is that the techniques are largely comparative of a number
of system functions, all of which interact one with another. Additionally, the fixed
differential built-in to the control algorithms (eg for building static pressure and particular
exhaust fan performances) can, and will, be affected by meteorological conditions. Such
effects may be significant.
Thus, irrespective of the impressive accuracy capabilities of the devices, cumulative
tolerance effects, interactions, wind pressures and outdoor/indoor temperatures (buoyancy
effects) can, surely, combine to lead to actual situations differing very considerably from
the intention of the control system.
To express the above more simply, it must always be preferable to establish control
systems offering direct regulation of the design variable than trying to fix parameters to
produce the desired result. Direct control methods would also offer more stable responses
than interactive approaches.
4.33

Review No 33 - Decoupling supply and return air fans for increased

stability of VAV systems
L H Alcorn, P J Huber, ASHRAE Transactions 1998 Vol 94 Part 1 (pp 14841492)

An alternative control algorithm is proposed for the control of return air fan
performance as a separate entity to that of the supply air fan. This is by means of
controlling the exhaust air plenum static pressure and is claimed to result in more stable
control.
In one of the two normal operational modes, the return air volume is greater than that
required by the AHU for air mixing. In this situation, the return air fan would be regulated
to provide a constant pressure in the exhaust air plenum. (The exhaust and recycled air
dampers would remain in their required setting regulated from mixed air temperature
sensors.)

43

In the second of the two normal operating modes the return air volume is insufficient to
meet the mixed air requirements. The recycled air damper would open and the exhaust air
damper would close to meet the pressure set point. As the exhaust plenum pressure
continues to drop a larger proportion of outdoor air would be admitted to compensate.
(Note: The description of the control made in the paper is limited and the above
transcription is the best approach that can be made.)
Interpretation
It is assumed that the supply air volume flow rate would continue to be regulated from the
duct mounted pressure sensor. This would provide static pressures at the VAV terminals
to enable them to function.
The logic of decoupling the return fan performance from that of the supply fan would
appear to be a reasonable approach to minimising interacting of the two systems and
possible control hunting that could result.
Return fan control from exhaust plenum static pressure, however, could have weaknesses.
Wind pressure on the exhaust louvre could not be taken into account and the concept
appears to have no provision for regulating static pressure in the building itself (although
this would have some indirect affect on the exhaust plenum pressure).
It would be necessary to examine and assess the proposal in more detail before
recommending its acceptance.
4.34

Report No 34 - Retrofit a double duct fan system to VAV system

G Shavit, ASHRAE Transcations 1989 Vol 95 Part 1 pp 635-641

A simulation study is described for assessing the energy saving potential from the
conversion of an existing dual duct constant volume system to VAV operational mode.
The system served a six storey building with a total floor area of 16,400 m2, three
separate systems delivering 36.3 m3/s, 44.8 m3/s respectively. Heating was by steam but
the type of refrigerating plant is not stated.
The simulation of the existing operation was within +2.2% of the actual electrical
consumption and 9% of the steam consumption, the latter discrepancy being explained
by the simulation not taking account of HWS heating.
The energy saving potential shown by the simulation was 7.3% reduced total electrical
consumption (ie including lighting etc) and 79.4% less steam usage. Cooling requirements
were reduced by 10% and fan energy by 47%.
The payback period to recoup retrofit costs was estimated at 1.37 to 1.72 years.
The annual cooling consumption followed a very similar profile for both modes while the
steam consumption curve for VAV operation was much less irregular having no midseason surges. Fan consumption was almost a straight line throughout the year.
Interpretation
The relevance of this paper is considered to be particular to the system type analysed.
The control mode for the internal zones which, in this case, apparently have cooling
only supply, can follow typical VAV principles.
The perimeter zones with hot and cold air distribution would seem to have less scope for
fan energy savings. Nevertheless, a 47% saving is very significant.

44

4.35

Review No 35 - VAV system with inverter driven AHU for high-rise

office building in tropical climates
L Lo, ASHRAE Transaction 1990 Vol 96 Part 1 (pp 1209-1217)

Studies were conducted to assess the viability of VAV air conditioning to a 40 storey bank
building in Hong Kong with a gross floor area of 36,000 m2 (697 m2/floor).
The system comprised separate primary (outdoor) air AHUs delivering conditioned air
throughout a separate distribution system to primary air terminal units. Cooling air is
delivered by secondary AHUs situated on each floor.
Dual duct terminal units were provided for perimeter zones with cooling-only terminals
for interior areas. Space humidity and static pressure control were provided and free
cooling night purge formed part of the concept.
Variable speed operation was applied to chilled water and secondary heating pumps as well
as to the VAV system fans.
The study concluded that variable speed operation by inverter drive was a viable option
and that night cooling was energy effective.
Interpretation
The straightfordwardness of the study and the link with tropical climate makes it of little
interest to UK applications.
4.36

Review No 36 - Importance of flow transmitter selection for return

fan control in VAV systems
R B Smith, ASHRAE Transactions 1990 Vol 96 Part 1 (pp1218-1223)

The paper concentrates on flow transmitter selection but raises the interesting and
unusual role for a VAV return for extreme emergencies to provide the system with
partial air capacity in the event the supply fan fails.
It outlines three modes of return air fan control:
(i)

regulation from building static pressure (which entails problems in selecting a

typical room and a suitable, representative outdoor location for pressure
sensors);
(ii) linking return fan performance to that of the supply fan (open loop);
(iii) comparing supply fan and return fan volume flow and providing continuous
speed reset, also taking account of building pressurisation and outside air flow
rate;
Method (iii) was selected for study in detail.
The airflow controller is required to have PID modes of control. The Instrument
Accuracy of a flow transmitter is noted to comprise the product of the reference accuracy
or basic capability of the instrument and the operational span of the application versus
the full scale range of the instrument. Additionally, it is noted that volume flow rate of
air will be subject to thermal effects over its typical operational range.
An example is given of a pressure transmitter with a reference accuracy of 0.5% full
scale, a full range span of 0 to 250 Pa operating at 5 m/s under conditions of 10oC
temperature variation would have an operational accuracy of 24% with sensors in the
supply and return air duct. These potential errors may, or may not, be cumulative.

45

Among the 10 items deemed essential for successful control of outside air and building
pressurisation are good overall system design, the selection of a differential pressure
velocity transmitter, the use of closed loop control to regulate precisely the return air fan
speed and careful selection of system dampers.
Interpretation
A salutary illustration of the effect of cumulative tolerance on actual instrumentation
readings is provided by this paper.
It suggests that accuracy of airflow control could be written into the (commissioning)
specification.
4.37

Review No 37 - Transient response of a closed loop VAV system

M Zaheer-udin and P A Goh, ASHRAE Transactions 1991 Vol 97 Part 2 (pp
373-387)

Rightly recognising the importance of efficient control strategies for improved energy
efficiency in HVAC systems the paper sets out to model responses for a face and by pass
sensible and latent cooling coil, a chiller with a buffer tank, a ductwork system, a fan and
a single zone of conditioned space. A schematic diagram of a hypothetical VAV system is
provided.
The cooling coil model comprised 8 rows of tubes and the fan drive motor inefficiency
was considered as a sensible heat gain to the air stream.
The nature of the findings were that the steady state air temperature response time for
the cooling coil was of the order of 60 seconds and that the cooling coil was sensitive to
water flow only up to a point (ie up to 0.2 kg/s in this case). (The water velocity in the
coil tubes was, apparently, not stated for this flow rate.) The zone temperature and RH
response were shown to be dependent on air volume flow rate, the response time to attain
an 11oC temperature pull down varying from about 10 mins to in excess of 25 mins.
The paper appeared to be more concerned with the close-matching of control set points
rather than response time.
Interpretation
The paper studied only a small proportion of the control responses encountered in an
operational VAV system. By and large, the results confirmed the rule-of-thumb
expectations of equipment performance (eg sensitivity of heat exchangers to fluid flow
rate only being applicable at low flows).
While the space volume was quoted (637 m3) there was no direct reference to air change
rates. These could be deduced to vary from 9 ac/h to 2.7 ac/h.
The assumptions made appear reasonably practical and in accordance with typical design
applications but there are no real surprises in the findings.
Other VAV control aspects acknowledged elsewhere to constitute problems (eg control of
outside, supply and return air volume flow rates) were not included in the study.

46

4.38

Review No 38 - Saving fan energy in VAV systems Part 1, Analysis

of a variable speed drive (VSD) retrofit
S L Englander and L K Norfold, ASHRAE Transactions 1992 Vol 98 Part 1 (pp
3-18)

A case study carried out preceding a retrofit of VSD fan output control to replace a
variable inlet vane (VIV) regulation is described in detail in this paper.
The study building was provided with two identical VAV systems, each serving one side of
the accommodation. Both supply and return fans are backward curved centrifugal units
and two types of terminals with and without re-heat are served by the system:
(i)
(ii)

constant volume FAT units with and without re-heat;

variable volume units with and without re-heat.

75% of the units are FAT type and most have reheat provision (ie perimeter located
units predominate).
The study developed histograms of air flow rates for supply and return fans for two
systems using an hourly sampling regime. A default flow distribution for VSD fans
provided by a drive manufacturer was used to compare with the measured histograms.
The indicative post retrofit power reduction for the return fan was somewhat better than
that for the supply fan.
The system static pressure, as would be expected, exerted a strong influence on the fan
power. The terminals were provided with pneumatic controls so there was no scope for
automatic static pressure re-set. The study assumed, however, that pressure set points
could be reduced for nine months of the year by manual adjustment. There were other
irregularities regarding the system static pressure set point. The design specification, on
which the fan selection was based, had set this at 370 Pa but the commissioning specialist
had increased this setting to 625 Pa because some terminals suffered from inadequate inlet
pressures to support flow rates necessary to deal with higher than anticipated space
cooling loads in some zones. The result of this pressure change was that the fan
operating point shifted up the characteristic curve bringing this very close to the fan
manufacturers recommended limit for stable operation.
The modelled energy saving indicated a 7.7 year payback if the system continued to
operate at a 625 Pa static pressure set point or a 4.3 year payback if operation at the
design static pressure of 375 Pa could be sustained.
The paper also notes that, lowering static pressure set points in VAV installations has
little benefit.
The economic viability suffered from the drawbacks typically associated with retrofit;
that is, having to remove components as well as install replacements. Indeed, the authors
state that viability points to VSD being appropriate to all new construction but retrofit
VSD viability being probably confined to continuously operating systems, where public
utility incentives are influential or where a payback in excess of 3 years is acceptable.
Interpretation
The design interest in this paper lies outside the main stream of the authors objectives.
Namely, in the rhetoric question of why the designer allowed the static pressure set point
to be increased by 40% during commissioning. The higher than anticipated space
cooling loads could not have actually applied at the time of commissioning so they were
likely to have been the result of changes in the clients brief. Extending from this, it is

47

tempting to say that over-engineering (of which this static pressure set point decision could
be an example) results from the inherent fear of the designer of being accused of shortchanging his client. (Litigation standards in the USA are likely to accentuate this fear).
The ideal solution to localised terminal unit pressure deficiencies identified during
commissioning would be to see whether local ductwork sections or poor fittings could be
replaced to improve the situations. Failing this, potential local under-performances could be
assessed and, where these are marginal only, discussed openly with the client with a view to
an acceptable compromise. A more costly option would be to take advantage of more modern
technology and provide all terminals with DDC control.
Another notable point from the paper was that the histograms for the supply and return fans
for the same systems showed no similarity whatever (see Figure 3). Factors such as outside
air supply variations or the regulation of building static pressure may account for this.
From a statement in the paper (see Table 1) it would appear that the static pressure for
modelling the return fan was taken as 625 Pa. This is considered high for a return air system.

Figure 3 Hours run histograms for supply and return fans

300

AC- 2

Nu m be r o f ho u r s

AC -1

200

100
Tot al = 3615

Tot al = 3740

0
800

N um b e r o f h o urs

RF -1

RF- 2

600

400

200

Total = 3721

Tot al = 3699

0
0

10

15

20

25

10

15

20
3

Flo w ra t e m /s

Flo w rat e m /s

48

25

4.39

Review No 39 - Saving fan energy in VAV systems Part 2: Supply fan

control for static pressures minimisation using DDC zone feedback
S L Englander and L K Norford, ASHRAE Transactions 1992 Vol 98 Part 1 (pp
19-32)

Two methods for supply fan speed control for minimum system static pressure are
described in the paper. One, a heuristic method comprising a simple, three step procedure
(the nature of which is not described in clearly understandable terms), the second being a
discrete-time implementation of classic PI control with a rather unconventional
modification. (Again, not understandable to the reviewer.)
The authors themselves conclude that the successful operation of the heuristic method is
easy to envisage but the same cannot be said for the modified PI option.
Interpretation
The paper does not express advantages or disadvantages of the two methods considered or
attempt to quantify these.
It would be necessary to enlist the skills of a control specialist to assess the merits of this
paper and the control methods it discusses.
4.40

Review No 40 - Research and development of a home use VAV air

conditioning system
T Okada, Y Seshimo, T Yoshikawa and H Igaeashi, ASHRAE Transactions 1992
Vol 98 Part 2 (133-139)

A control method is proposed in the paper for regulating duct mounted VAV dampers in a
very small radial ducted system serving six rooms in a domestic dwelling mock-up created
in a test chamber. The system has no terminal units, the outlets being ordinary ceiling
mounted diffusers.
Interpretation
There is considered to be no justification in providing air conditioning for domestic
dwellings in the UK, particularly in view of the trends in the Building Regulations.
Proven, traditional construction techniques together with provision for solar shading and
natural cross flow ventilation are felt to be sufficient to ensure reasonable comfort levels
for such applications.
The paper is, therefore, considered not to be relevant to this Review.

49

4.41

Review No 41 - Real time, on-line optimisation of VAV system control

to minimise the energy consumption rate and to satisfy ASHRAE
Standard 62-1989 for all occupied zones
S A Mumma & R J Bolin, ASHRAE Transactions 1994 Vol 100 (pp 168-79)

ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 is stated to require a ventilation rate such that the CO2
maximum concentration does not exceed 0.10% (1000 prm). The paper sets out to
model means of achieving this at the same time as minimising energy consumption but
makes no attempt to quantify any potential annual reduction in energy usage.
The paper identifies the design fact that different zones in a building will have differing
requirements in respect of the outdoor air percentage and, at the same time, will have
differing relationships of design load to minimum load. The area with the highest outdoor
air percentage requirement is termed the critical zone.
A five zone accommodation floor of 4000 m2 was used as the model for these studies and
typical environmental design parameters and engineering criteria were used for the
simulation. Trials were run for critical zones in 1, 2 and 3 of the separate areas and for
a one hour performance at a diversity of 62% of the design cooling load, as well as for
design cooling load and for supply air temperatures of 12.8oC and 13.8oC. Under each
condition, the outdoor air supply ratio was trimmed to ensure the appropriate minimum
ventilation standard to the critical zone(s).
For each of eight combinations of conditions, as outlined above, histograms were drawn
up to represent six elements of the system energy input; overall cooling load, cooling to
offset reheat, the reheat load, fan heat gain, fan power and the space cooling load.
The differences in total energy consumption shown in these charts was very significant
but the contributory factors influencing this were numerous and complex.
The authors conclude that a worthwhile concept has been presented but that, ongoing
work is needed for its development and refinement.
Interpretation
The authors introduce the interesting issue of the critical zone in terms of outside air
requirement. Because of the economics and constraints of occupancy levels it would be
expected that the fresh air requirements for most accommodation would be broadly
similar. Also, areas such as meeting rooms where occupancy levels would be high are,
generally, for transient occupation, so ventilation standards may not be considered as
important as for longer term usages. It is, however, an important design consideration to
have a full understanding of the requirements and limitations of an application and the
assessment of occupancy levels and fresh air proportions for each zone or room served
would form part of such an understanding.
It is, therefore, considered appropriate to include such data in the schedule of design
information for the spaces served in a building. Equally, it would be important to consider
part-load operational status in this respect as well as the design load situation. The paper
does not discriminate between the options of increased supply air temperatures or the use
of terminal re-heat for helping to deal with critical zone ventilation requirements. The
favoured approach would appear to depend on the extent and degree of the problem and
would need to be assessed for each particular application.

50

4.42

Review No 42 - Minimum outside air control methods for VAV

systems
D M Elovitz, ASHRAE Transactions 1995 Vol 101 Part 2 (pp 613-618)

The comparisons between proportional outside air flow rates at design and part load are
outlined in the background to the paper. The author, amusingly, states that some
designers see this as a largely theoretical problem while even more designers dont see
the matter at all!
In reviewing the problem the author considers that, in traditional quality construction,
infiltration alone was sufficient to meet all outside air ventilation needs. The author also
notes that, until relatively recently, the pervasive smell of tobacco smoke in buildings was
sufficient to mask all other contaminant odours. Nowadays, however, trends in building
finishes, furnishings and office machinery all produce contaminants and odours and,
dependent on company policy, there may be no tobacco smoke to conceal these.
What goes on with the relief, fresh and return air dampers in the AHU plenum is seen as
critical.
Six potential methods of outdoor air control are discussed:
(i) Return/relief fan control from building pressure seems logical but has fundamental
problems. The building pressure is small and correspondingly hard to measure. The
pressure itself varies throughout a building, especially a multi-storey construction, this
variation being possibly greater than the desired control pressure. Control hunting
can occur due to wind gusts and door traffic and some control damping is, therefore,
needed to provide reasonable stability. Location of the pressure sensor at the return
fan inlet to overcome these problems will simply succeed only in controlling return
duct pressure drop.
(ii) Direct measurement of outside air is hampered by design constraints. The air inlet
duct is, typically, short and has the same dimensions as the outside air louvre and/or
the air handling unit leading to low air velocity pressures which, again, incur
measurement difficulties.
(iii)Supply and return fan tracking even if carried out by velocity pressure measurements
to maintain a constant differential (the supply fan being regulated to maintain duct
static pressure control) entails the fundamental problem of regulating two large
variables to control a much smaller third factor. Small variations in the large
variables have a much greater effect on the smaller variable. Actual measurements
taken in operational buildings with this mode of control showed significant, brief
variations in outside air flow but fairly reasonable weighted average performance over
a 2 hour period.
(iv)Carbon dioxide monitoring control is recognised as a surrogate method as other
contaminants, which may be increasingly influential in modern buildings, cannot be
identified. Also, dilution response is slow and, unless a maximum outside air limit is
arranged, quite prolonged over-ventilation could occur and have a significant adverse
effect on energy economy.
(v) Control of intake plenum pressure would necessitate a separate minimum fresh air
damper in parallel with a large economiser (free cooling) damper. The effectiveness
of this method depends on the reliability of measurement of modest pressures.

51

(vi)An outside air injection fan with a flat characteristic curve such that it functions
almost as a constant volume fan over the pressure range encountered would remove
any need to attempt to regulate intake plenum pressures. A typical propeller fan is
suggested as being suitable.
Interpretation
While the author does not suggest a favoured option he gives an excellent and concise
summary of the salient aspects of six optional methods as guidance for designers.
4.43

Review No 43 - Minimum ventilation control VAV systems: Fan

tracking vs workable solutions
J P Kettler ASHRAE Transactions 1995 Vol 101 Part 2 (pp 625-630)

This paper covers identical ground to that dealt with in Review 42 above except that it
deals only with four control options and, by the very wording of its title, effectively
dismisses one of these.
The dismissal of fan tracking is illustrated by the use of typical numerical examples of
supply and return air flow rates of 5% which are shown to lead to a 35% variation in
outside air flow. Even this analysis ignores major problems of instability in fan tracking
systems which have been identified. It is also noted that the expedient of controlling the
operating speeds of supply and return fans in sympathy with one another does not even
attempt to review delivered air volumes.
The outdoor air injection fan design can be based on duct velocities (say, of 10 m/s) to
give reliable measurement of inferred volume flow rate, the only disadvantage quoted
being the cost of added ductwork and possible retrofit difficulties.
Plenum pressure control is stated to require close Cupertino between the commissioning
specialist and the controls specialist. Measured pressure drops across dampers on jobs
where this control has been applied show values between 25 Pa and 75 Pa which are stated
to be well within controllable ranges.
The use of building pressure control of the return air fan is coupled with the use of a
pressure re-set sensor at the return fan outlet to ensure very slight positive pressure at all
times.
Interpretation
The paper presents forceful arguments for dismissing fan tracking as an outside air
regulation method. Other comment, generally, as for Review 42 above.
4.44

Review No 44 - Optimal control of duct pressure in HVAC systems

H Li, C Ganesh and D R Munez, ASHRAE Transactions Research (pp

The authors modelled a very simple VAV system with 2 air terminals and simulated
control algorithms for proportional, PI, adaptive and optimal control of duct pressure.
The control options are described mathematically only and the actual concepts remain
enigmatic.
The authors conclude that the optimal control algorithm can save 15% to 30% of the
(fan) energy consumed by a well-tuned conventional PI controller.
From the graphs shown, all control methods were capable of achieving stable duct
pressures in just over 2 minutes. The optimal control, while having the slowest response,

52

offered a gradual increase of pressure to meet the control setting compared to overshoot
from most other methods.
Interpretation
15% to 30% savings must be worthy of consideration but the cost of the control system
are not mentioned. Also, its potential response to multi-terminal unit operation (say,
100 or more units) is not discussed. Proprietary control manufacturers can be expected
to exploit this work if it is viable.
4.45

Review No 45 - Terminal Regulated Air Volume (TRAV) systems

T Hartman, ASHRAE Transactions Symposia (pp 791-799)

DDC of VAV terminal units is the fundamental theme for this paper, the abbreviation
STRAV (terminal regulated air volume) being used as a concept describer. The
motivations for the particular concept are numerous and include scope for out-of-hours
working, building pressurisation control during low occupancy hours, the use of night
purge cooling and the transfer of core heat to perimeter zones when appropriate. In this
case, the DDC system is extended to include occupancy status sensing and the control of
artificial lighting. While occupancy sensors are discussed, the thrust of this proposal
seems to centre on the simple expedient of the occupant operating a push button when he
enters or leaves the accommodation. The back-up for this situation is an automatic
shut-down provision after a period of time with no sensing of occupancy.
The terminal unit control, while still being temperature based, goes beyond the traditional
proportional control approach. The space temperature set point varies over a range with
lower settings for the heating mode, an intermediate range for mid-season free-cooling
operation and a higher range for cooling where mechanical refrigeration is applied. There
is no set minimum airflow rate, the required rate under the heating mode being related to
the correct amount of outside air provision. Similarly, the cooling airflow rate has no
fixed maximum; it increases uniformly with temperature rise from the initial cooling setpoint, remains fixed for a further 0.17 oC temperature increase and then rises to an upper
limit flow rate in the event of a further 0.1oC rise in space temperature.
The concept is not theoretical. It has been applied to a single floor of a 35,000 m 2 high
rise building and monitored against an identical, unconverted, adjacent floor. The
particular installation had FAT VAV units and was fitted with inlet vane fan output
control. The retrofit included the provision of variable speed drive, which was measured
to account for a power saving of around 15% at 50% of design air flow and the TRAV
DDC provisions which accounted for a further 38% saving.
The outcome of the monitored trial encouraged the building owner to order an extended
retrofit to the remaining 20 floors of his building, the annual metered energy
consumption for the treated floor having been recorded as 88.3 kWh/m 2 as against 179.8
kWh/m2. Additionally, the informal anecdotal reaction of occupants was significantly
favourable.
Interpretation
The paper presents a precise and practical example of a DDC success story, albeit for a
particular installation.
The part played by the push button control operation of occupants remains, intangible.
Also, the question of occupant motivation in connection with this must be a matter of
some doubt.
The control algorithm for the VAV terminals is eminently logical and practical although
the control increments (0.17oC and 0.1oC) mentioned seems small. There is, however, a

53

need to keep the overall summer/winter temperature range within a reasonable overall
band.
4.46

Review No 46 - Measured energy consumption of variable air volume

fans under inlet vane and variable speed drive (VSD) control
D M Lorenzetti and L K Norford, Massachusetts Inst Tech, Cambridge. ASHRAE
Transactions Symposia 1992

The paper notes that, although VSD is a popular retrofit measure for inverter vane
control (IVC), few actual measurements of savings have been carried out. It is noted that
US electric utilities operate conservation assistance programmes where they pay for
retrofit work and are compensated from expected savings. Estimates of savings,
typically based on (VSD) manufacturers data, therefore need to be reliable.
This research involved performance monitoring of the fans on 6 AHUs together with 2
laboratory make-up air fans (14 fans total). Data provided for each AHU system included
floor area served, supply air volume, supply air per unit area, fan motor power and fan
power per unit air volume supplied.
Based on the postulation that supply air volume flow rate tracks outdoor air temperature,
the monitored data were outdoor air temperature and fan power. Monitoring for both
IVC and VSD modes was carried out by the simple expedient of isolating the pulse width
modulation VSD control and reverting to IVC for a sufficient period for steady state
monitoring.
Two manufacturers histograms for the typical operating hours at various proportions of
full flow were used to model the estimated savings. These proprietary histograms were
markedly different, one showing a pronounced peak at 70% of full load while the other
had a broader spread ranging between 45% and 75% load with a maximum point at 55%.
Best fit curves of fan power against outdoor temperature all indicated an upward kick
with increasing temperature, the highest kick point being 71oF (21oC).
Modelled savings for individual fans ranged from 46% to 66%, the average being 58%
with savings based on the broader spread histogram being higher. The paper noted that
software used for IVC showed a linear relation between fan power and air flow and that
the classic cube relation used in the software for VSD control would not be achieved in
practice due to the static pressure control being applied (ie system characteristic changes).
The tabulated characteristics tabulated show air supplied per unit area varying between
7.1 ls/m2 and 3.56 ls/m2 and the fan power per unit air flow ranging from 0.79 KW/m3/s
to 4.26 KW/m3/s to 4.26 KW/m3/s (a 1:5.4 ratio).
Interpretation
While the estimated savings confirm the favourability of VSD control the paper does not
state what savings were achieved in the modified installation in actual practice.
The commitment of the US electric utilities to the conservation assistance programme is
highly commendable and application of a similar approach in UK could be advantageous
in promoting a team approach between the generator and the consumers.
Although the affect of the manufacturers operational flow rate histograms is not stated,
the stark difference between the two proposals is noteworthy. Turn-down on full
performance depends on the application and the constitution of the head load. While
weather data suggest the predominance of a nominal 50% load is logical there seems no
such justification for assuming a pronounced peak at 70% load.

54

The presentation of system fan power per unit air volume supplied is an interesting
characteristic with very significant relevance to energy efficiency. The fan power ratio
per unit air-flow in excess of 5:1 seems very odd and should be worthy of investigation.
The point raised regarding the maintenance of system static pressure undermining the
potential cube relationship of power savings has not been noted in other papers.
The linear relation for fan power and volume flow rate for IVC used in the software is
crude to an extent that some distortion of the results is inevitable.
4.47

Review No 47 - The economics of relief fans vs return fans in variable

volume systems with economiser cycles
C C Kalasinsky, ASHRAE Transactions, 1988

A comparative model analysis is presented between two VAV installations using an

economiser cycle, one provided with a return fan synchronised with the supply fan and
the other provided with a relief fan. The model assumes that the relief fan runs only
when the economiser cycle is in operation.
The building model was a 44 floor construction segmented into 7 zones and five different
US geographic locations were simulated.
The total system cooling usage comprising cooling energy, cooling plant auxiliary energy
and the aggregate fan energy was compared.
The energy savings were presented and were also subdivided into three components:
(i) Fan energy saved when economiser is off;
(ii) Fan energy savings from lower air volume delivered by relief fan compared to
return fan;
(iii) Savings due to relief fan not contributing to the building cooling load.
Total savings ranged from 8.5% to 6.0%, the major component bearing due to (1) and
ranging from 5.8% to 4.6%. Savings due to (3) were 0.7% or less.
Interpretation
The savings potential is relatively small but should, perhaps, not be looked upon as
negligible.
The paper does not make mention of other factors influenced by the relief/return fan
arrangement such as building static pressure and minimum outdoor air flow rate control.
(Although a pressure sensor is shown in the return air duct of the relief fan system, the
method of control is not clear).
Regulation of these features would need to be considered.
Also, these other factors would have to be considered and resolved in developing a relief
fan design.
Another consideration is that the duty which would be provided by a return fan would
have to be provided by the supply fan where the return fan is omitted from the
installation.

55

4.48

Review No 48 - Comparative performance tests on prototype VAV

and CAV air conditioning systems under simulated load conditions
A Ameen and A K Soon. Nanyang Tech Inst Singapore. ASHRAE Transactions
Y989 (pp 85-88)

A specially constructed test chamber was used to set up hypothetical air conditioning
systems, one CAV and one VAV. The AHUs serving the system were identical except
that the VAV unit was provided with fan speed control by a static frequency converter.
The space head load was simulated by electric heaters.
The power consumption of the water chilled compressor, the chilled water pump and the
AHU fan were measured for a range of test chamber heat loads from zero to around 10
kW for the VAV system.
The plotted data showed fan power savings from 60% at zero load to 6% at maximum
(9.6 kW) heat load. Savings on the VAV compressor load were plotted graphically but
not separately expressed in the paper. (These appear to be around 10% over the full
range of the space load variation.)
Energy tests for varying space load patterns were conducted with the heat load on
continuously, on and off for 30 minutes at a time and one and off for 15 minute periods.
For varying space loads the VAV savings showed a further increase.
The total energy savings for the VAV system ranges from around 6% at high space heal
load to around 24% at zero space heat load.
The paper noted that, in Singapore, VAV systems are about 20% to 30% more expensive
in terms of initial cost than in the USA.
Interpretation
The reason for the reduced compressor energy are not attributed in the paper. It is
considered that these are unlikely to be due to reduced fan heat gain unless the fan drive
motors are external to the AHU air stream. This is not made clear in the paper.
The declared best overall saving of 24% seems disappointing. A higher figure would have
been expected.
While the principle of the test seems sound, the scale of the test system was extremely
small. This would seem likely to influence the indicated fan energy savings due to the
very limited duct system.

56

4.49

Review No 49 - Effect of component size on VAV system

performance
H J Sauer, W W Delp, S Anablapantula. University of Missouri, Rolls. ASHRAE
2 Nov 1994 (pp 175-182)

Simulation studies are conducted on 6 VAV systems. Systems 1, 2 and 3 are using a return
air fan, systems 4 and 5 using a relief fan and system 6 utilising barometric relief.
The control modes also differ. For System 1, the return air fan speed is regulated from
the supply fan static pressure sensor, for System 2 the return fan is regulated from either
zone pressure or return duct pressure and for System 3, a constant supply and return air
flow differential is maintained. System 4 uses the same strategy as System 2 to control
the relief fan (ie zone or return duct pressure) while System 5 regulates the relief fan from
the economiser damper setting. System 6 is regulated by gravity or mechanical (spring)
loading of the relief damper.
Simulations were conducted to test the affect of return air duct size and damper size on
outdoor air supply to the system and on pressure levels in the building. The initial sizing
basis for dampers was a face velocity of 10.16 m/s.
The effects of the return air duct size and return air damper size on building pressure and
minimum fresh air volume are plotted graphically and discussed.
Degree of control

System
System
System
System
System
System

1
2
3
4
5
6

Return duct size

Building Pressure Fresh air supply

Return damp size

Building Pressure Fresh air supply

Very poor
Good
Good
Good
Very poor
Good

Very poor
Good
Good
Good
Very poor
Good

Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Very poor
Good
Very good

Very poor
Very poor
Very poor
Good but high
Good but high
Reasonable

The modelling shows the very significant influence on fresh air flow rate and building
pressure which can be exerted by the sizing of the return air duct and damper.
Interpretation
The paper looks at the influence of two factors return air damper and duct sizes, on 6
types of system control. It is difficult to grasp the sensitivity of these influences and at
the same time, to take due account of other factors that remain constant (eg outside air
damper and exhaust air damper).
The paper shows clearly, however, that the influences can be potentially dramatic.
From a simplified assessment of the plotted data it is tempting to say that System 6
offers the best option being the least affected by design variations of the return air duct
and damper. This, however, cannot be taken as a recommendation and careful design
analysis is, clearly, necessary.

57

4.50

Review No 50 - Energy control and IAQ performance of ventilation

systems and controls
D Mudarri, J D Hall and E Werling. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington And ICF Consulting Group, Fairfax Va. ASHRAE Transactions
1996 (pp 151-160)

A modelling programme for assessing performance of both CAV and VAV systems is
described. The aims of the programme are to assess the control of outdoor air, its
delivery to individual zones and the energy cost implications of raising outdoor airflow
rates from 2.4 l/s to 9.4 l/s person (to meet ASHRAE Standard 62-1989).
The comparisons are based on constant outdoor air fraction control, constant outdoor air
volume control and economiser control based on outdoor air temperature and enthalpy.
Data are tabulated for the number of occupied hours for which specified outdoor airflow is
achieved and for annual energy cost comparisons.
The outdoor airflow achievement for a fixed fraction of outdoor air flow is poor with
some improvement being achieved by the use of temperature controlled economiser
cycle. (No data apparent for enthalpy controlled cycle.)
Tabulated energy costs show VAV with fixed outdoor air fraction and temperature
controlled economiser cycle to be very marginally superior to VAV with constant outdoor
air and similar economiser cycle arrangements.
The paper concludes that:
VAV systems provide energy benefits over CV systems;
in VAV systems, economiser cycles have advantages in providing increased outdoor
air and energy savings (with CV systems economiser savings on cooling are
counterbalanced by heating energy penalties);
both CV and VAV systems suffer from unequal zonal air distribution which may
result in inadequate outdoor air provision, particularly in core zones;
outdoor air shortfalls result from fixed outdoor air fraction VAV systems with only
about 1/3 of the specified flow rate being delivered to core zones all year round;
VAV constant outdoor air volume with or without economiser cycle meets specified
outdoor air needs;
Raising outdoor airflows to meet ASHRAE Standard 61-1989 levels usually
increases energy levels by 6% to 10% in office buildings but this is critically
dependent on occupancy density; outdoor air requirements may render VAV
systems unworkable in assembly buildings or premises with (constant) high occupant
densities;
With existing installations, heating and cooling coil capacities need to be assessed
carefully before outdoor airflow rates are increased.
In summary, fixed outdoor air fraction VAV systems are not recommended for new
applications and constant outdoor air volume systems with economiser cycle is the best
option for cold and temperate climates.
Interpretation
The conclusions offered in the paper are definitive and offer no real scope for
interpretation. The ASHRAE outdoor air standard of 9.4 l/s person, however, exceeds
the CIBSE recommendation of 8 l/s person and the UK statutory minimum of 4.72 l/s
person. In view of this, and dependent on the volumetric space per occupant in the
accommodation, a limited shortfall in outdoor air supply may not be critical to indoor air
quality.

58

The model was based on inlet vane control (IVC) and energy benefits from variable speed
drive (VSD) control should be significantly greater.
4.51

Review No 51 - VAV fan energy savings in practice

D J G Butler, BRE Ltd. March 1998 (9pp)

The paper outlines the fan laws and notes the industry rule of thumb location for the
supply air static pressure sensor as about 2/3 of the distance between the fan and the
index terminal. Trial and error location of the static pressure sensor as part of the
system commissioning is suggested as a compromise arrangement but control cabling runs
would need to allow this order of flexibility of location. The paper also notes that, too
low a regulated static pressure could result in some VAV terminals being starved of air.
DDC control of VAV terminals is stated as a means of overcoming this potential
difficulty but it is considered that more testing of control algorithms in actual
applications is needed to confirm this concept.
Fan energy savings in practice were measured in two buildings over a short-term (1 day).
One of the buildings had inverter VSD drive of axial supply fans from a duct static
pressure sensor 10 m from the fan while the second had inlet guide vane control (IVC) of
a centrifugal supply fan from pressure sensors 5 m from the fan. The first showed fan
energy savings a little better than a direct ratio of the fan speed while the second system
performed in the same way as a constant volume system with no saving in fan energy at
reduced volume flow rates.
Reasons for these energy efficiency shortfalls were suggested as the static pressure sensor
being too close to the fan and industry data on indicative energy savings being based on
factory test fan efficiencies.
Monitoring of actual installations in other buildings showed return fan running in reverse,
a BMS installation beyond the capability of the operating staff and a duct system with an
abrupt 90o bend at the fan outlet.
(See System Effect Factor, Review 13A above.)
Concluding remarks were that fan energy consumption typically constitutes 25% to 30%
of building electricity consumption which highlighted the importance of maximising fan
energy efficiency.
Interpretation
The major factor in the poor performance of the two measured systems was, probably,
the location of the static pressure sensor too close to the fan. There will be static regain
downstream of the pressure sensor and dependent on duct system design, this could be
very significant, the net result, in any case, being over-pressurisation at all terminals.
This would necessitate terminal unit dampers being further closed than necessary to
counteract excess pressures.
With regard to the efficiency of fans in AHUs, their efficiencies will be underminded by
the design of the fan plenum enclosure. This undermining will be constant for all fan
duties and, hence, should not be responsible for any inferior performance under turn-down
conditions.

59

4.52

Report No 52 - Are you sure you understand the economics of

applying ASD systems to centrifugal loads?
W L Stebbins. Hoechst Celanses Corp, Rock Hill SC

(Note: ASD, Adjustable Speed Drives, has the same meaning as VSD, Variable Speed
Drives, the terminology used elsewhere in these Reviews.)
The paper reports of applied energy management practices over a period in excess of 20
years by Hoechst in which extensive use was made of electrical sub-metering. Also, the
use of VSDs has been adopted extensively over this period.
It is reported that, for HVAC systems, for approximately 87% of the time, the system
requires less than 70% of its maximum airflow. Typical characteristic performance
curves for centrifugal fans and for distribution systems are reproduced together with a load
profile for system fan operation.
Means of regulating fan performance are reviewed and VSD operation is related to the
Fan Laws, the cube relationship of fan speed and fan power being highlighted. The author
then states that, only fans operating with little or no static pressure (eg cooling tower
fans) will conform to this cube relationship while the power requirement will
approximate to a square function when static back pressure is present.
Using a typical fan load profile, calculations are presented for power savings based on
both cube and square relationships. Using these data, retrofit propositions for replacing
damper and IV control of fan performance with VSD are outlined showing favourable
payback periods in both cases.
Other improvements, such as DDC for terminals, are discussed. The typical costs for
stand-alone DDC are stated to range from $500 to $2500 (306 to 1530)* but, for a
large multi-point system DDC may cost less than $100 per unit (61)*.
The need to take account of motor and drive efficiencies as well as the Fan Laws is noted
but motor efficiency differences are normally minimal provided the speed range is not
too extensive.
(*4th quarter 1998 exchange rate.)
Interpretation
While, as the paper suggests, that the prudent approach is to use the square function
when developing potential savings from applying VSD, no firm reasons are quoted for
this other than the statement about static back pressure which is not explained. (In this
context the question of how the fan would see particular elements of the overall fan
resistance has to be raised.)
A prudent approach is, of course, reasonable and will help to avoid disappointment for a
client financing a project or a retrofit.
It would be preferable, however, to support this measure with rational data rather than a
simple statement. Factors contributing to a shortfall may well include a deterioration of
motor efficiency with reducing speed. This could be the result of increased motor
overheat where self-cooling is used or the relatively higher power requirement for cooling
fan power (as against drive motor power) where independent cooling is employed. With
regard to drive efficiency, this may be expected to improve as the transmitted power
decreases which would help to offset any motor efficiency decrease. In any case, proper
account should be taken of motor and drive efficiencies and of any variations in these in
predicting the economics of a proposal.

60

The draw-back in seeking data on VSD efficiency variations is that the inverter, the
motor and the drive are invariably provided by different proprietary manufacturers.
4.53

Review No 53 - Variable air volume systems for environmental

quality.
S Chun, S Demster and McGraw Hill. New York 1996 (373pp)

This textbook comprises 26 chapters in four Parts; Introduction, Design, Construction

and Operation. An abstract of key points is offered below.
Chapter 1 lists VAV advantages as energy efficiency and flexible control with
disadvantages as poor IAQ and air diffusion with added drawbacks from the use of FAT
units.
Chapter 4 favours the use of a separate outdoor air AHU although this costs more than
integrated provisions.
Chapter 5 gives a thorough coverage of VAV equipment including controls, the static
pressure sensor location again being stated as two thirds of the way down the duct system
from the fan.
Chapter 6 gives a pie chart which indicates that 52% of IAQ problems result from
inadequate ventilation. Outdoor air ventilation design checklists and design case studies
are provided.
Chapter 8 offers perimeter heating options of fan coil units (FCUs) separate ceiling
mounted FCUs, terminals with re-heat and perimeter radiation (convection more likely
to be dominant).
Chapter 9, in discussing damper selection for economiser control appears to base this on a
face (sic Force) velocity of 400 fpm (2 m/s) but Chapter 11 highlights the adverse
control effects of oversized dampers. There appears to be no recommendation of a
suitable face velocity.
Chapter 10 offers a comprehensive checklist of schematic design decisions.
Chapter 11 makes reference to duct design techniques with apparently, no mention of
System Effect Factor. It also seems to imply that static regain is confined to equal-sized
trunk ducts which is not necessarily the case.
Much of the content of Part 3, Construction and Part 4, Operation, seems more
appropriate to air conditioning systems generally and not solely applicable to VAV
installations.
Interpretation
Probably the majority of the textbook content comprises items relevant to air
conditioning installations generally rather than of exclusive relevance to VAV systems.
While a very good grounding for VAV systems is provided, it is lacking in discrimination.
Important design guidance appears to be missing and there seems also to be an absence of
hints and wrinkles derived from first hand experience.
Some good checklists are provided.
The sifting of worthwhile VAV information from this large book would be tedious and
time consuming. It would, therefore, be difficult to apply as a design guide.

61