Page 1 of 52

REFERIGERATION ,HEATING
VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

ASSIGNEMENT

NO 1:

ADVANCEMENT AND APPLICATION OF RHVAC

WRITTEN BY:

SHABAZ KHAN LODHI

13-ME-

H.MUHAMMAD HAMID

13-ME-

55
61
MUHAMMAD TARIQ
FARHAN ISHTIAQUE

SUBMITTED TO:

DR MUZAFFER ALI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING UET TAXILA

13-ME-59
13-ME-60

Page 2 of 52

CONTENTS
Abstract
Chapter 1
Introduction of R and HVAC
Chapter 2
Advancement in Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning
2-1 introduction of various aspects of natural
refrigeration(early times)
2-1.1
Use of ice transported from colder regions
2-1.2
ice harvesting
2-1.3
Use of ice produced by nocturnal cooling
2-1.4
Use of evaporative cooling
2-1.3
Cooling by salt solutions
2-2 Introduction of historical aspects of various artificial
refrigeration methods,namely
2-2.1
Non cyclic refrigeration
2-2.2
Cyclic refrigeration
2-2.3
Vapor compression cycle
2-2.4
Vapor absorption cycle
2-2.5
Gas cycle
2-2.6
Thermoelectric refrigeration
2-2.7
Magnetic refrigeration
2-2.8
Other methods
2-2.9
Fridge gate
2.2 Introduction of air conditioning history
2.21 A Brief History
2.22 Evaporative cooling
2.3 Introduction of Advancement in Air conditioning Systems
2.31 Mechanical Systems
2.32 Electrical Systems
2.33 Thermal Systems
2.34 Hybrid Systems

Chapter 3
Application of Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning
3-1 Significant Uses

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3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
3-10

Air Conditioning of Medium-Sized and Large Buildings

Industrial Air Conditioning
Residential Air Conditioning
Air Conditioning of Vehicles
Food Storage and Distribution
Food Processing
Chemical and Process Industries
Special Applications of Refrigeration
Conclusion

Chapter 4Manufacturers
4.1 Local Manufacturers
4.2 International Manufacturers
4.3 specification of any 3 Manufacturers

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Abstract:

This report gives a knowledge of refrigeration and air

conditioning that how different devices of refrigeration and air conditioning

are invented and what type of advancements have come in this field. It
also gives a brief information about the techniques and methods used by
our ancestor in early ages to cool their rooms and freshen up their food
products. Basically short summary of refrigeration and air conditioning
field and introduces to the readers the manufacturers of refrigerators and
air conditioners and their specifications.
1. Introduction to R and HVAC: R and HVAC are
abbreviations of refrigeration, heating , ventilation and air conditioning.
Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in
controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is traditionally driven by
mechanical work but can also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity,
laser or other means. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but
not limited to industrial freezers, cryogenics, and air conditioning. Heat
pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may
be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning
units. Refrigeration has had a large impact on industry, lifestyle,
agriculture and settlement patterns. The idea of preserving food dates
back to at least the ancient Roman and Chinese empires. However,
mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last
century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. The
introduction of refrigerated rail cars contributed to the westward
expansion of the United States, allowing settlement in areas that were not
on main transport channels such as rivers, harbours, or valley trails.
HVAC (heating, ventilating/ventilation, and air conditioning) is the
technology of indoor and vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal is to
provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. HVAC system
design is a sub discipline of mechanical engineering, based on the
principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer.
Refrigeration is sometimes added to the field's abbreviation as HVAC&R or
HVACR, or ventilating is dropped as in HACR (such as the designation of
HACR-rated circuit breakers)
Ventilating or ventilation (the V in HVAC) is the process of exchanging or
replacing air in any space to provide high indoor air quality which involves
temperature control, oxygen replenishment, and removal of moisture,
odours, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other

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gases. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture,

introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, and prevents
stagnation of the interior air.
HVAC is an important part of residential structures such as single family
homes, apartment buildings, hotels and senior living facilities, medium to
large industrial and office buildings such as skyscrapers and hospitals, on
board vessels, and in marine environments, where safe and healthy
building conditions are regulated with respect to temperature and
humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.

2-1

Natural refrigeration

In olden days refrigeration was achieved by natural means

such as the use of ice or evaporative cooling. In earlier times, ice was
either:
1. Transported from colder regions,
2. Harvested in winter and stored in ice houses for summer use or,
3. Made during night by cooling of water by radiation to stratosphere.
In Europe, America and Iran a number of icehouses were built to store ice.
Materials like sawdust or wood shavings were used as insulating materials
in these icehouses. Later on, cork was used as insulating material.
Literature reveals that ice has always been available to aristocracy who
could afford it. In India, the Mogul emperors were very fond of ice during
the harsh summer in Delhi and Agra, and it appears that the ice used to be
made by nocturnal cooling. In 1806, Frederic Tudor, (who was later called as
the ice king) began the trade in ice by cutting it from the Hudson River
and ponds of Massachusetts and exporting it to various countries including
India. In India Tudors ice was cheaper than the locally manufactured ice by
nocturnal cooling. The ice trade in North America was a flourishing
business. Ice was transported to southern states of America in train
compartments insulated by 0.3m of cork insulation. Trading in ice was also
popular in several other countries such as Great Britain, Russia, Canada,
Norway and France. In these countries ice was either transported from
colder regions or was harvested in winter and stored in icehouses for use in
summer. The ice trade reached its peak in 1872 when America alone
exported 225000 tonnes of ice to various countries as far as China and
Australia. However, with the advent of artificial refrigeration the ice trade
gradually declined.

2-1.1 Transportion of ice

In ancient times ice was transported
from colder regions to hotter regions for different purposes. Ice was

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transported through ships and later on by trains and now by road vehicles
and airplanes. In figure 2-1.1 first ice ship is shown which was used to
transport ice and also food products from one region to another region.

Fig 2-1.1

2-1.2

Ice

harvesting

Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate

foods due to a lack of ice-storehouses and iceboxes. As these two things
became more widely available, individuals used axes and saws to harvest
ice for their storehouses. This method proved to be difficult, dangerous, and
certainly did not resemble anything that could be duplicated on a
commercial scale. Ice harvesting in Massachusetts is shown in figure 2-1.2:

Fig 2-1.2

Despite the difficulties of harvesting ice, Frederic Tudor thought that he

could capitalize on this new commodity by harvesting ice in New England
and shipping it to the Caribbean islands as well as the southern states. In
the beginning, Tudor lost thousands of dollars, but eventually turned a profit
as he constructed icehouses in Charleston, Virginia and in the Cuban port

Page 7 of 52

town of Havana. These icehouses as well as better insulated ships helped

reduce ice wastage from 66% to 8%. This efficiency gain influenced Tudor
to expand his ice market to other towns with icehouses such as New
Orleans and Savannah. This ice market further expanded as harvesting ice
became faster and cheaper after one of Tudors suppliers, Nathaniel Wyeth,
invented a horse-drawn ice cutter in 1825. This invention as well as Tudors
success inspired others to get involved in the ice trade and the ice industry
grew.
Ice became a mass-market commodity by the early 1830s with the price of
ice dropping from six cents per pound to a half of a cent per pound. In New
York City, ice consumption increased from 12,000 tons in 1843 to 100,000
tons in 1856. Bostons consumption leapt from 6,000 tons to 85,000 tons
during that same period. Ice harvesting created a cooling culture as
majority of people used ice and iceboxes to store their dairy products, fish,
meat, and even fruits and vegetables. These early cold storage practices
paved the way for many Americans to accept the refrigeration technology
that would soon take over the country.

2-1.3 Use of ice produced by Nocturnal Cooling

The art of
making ice by nocturnal cooling was perfected in India. In this method ice
was made by keeping a thin layer of water in a shallow earthen tray, and
then exposing the tray to the night sky. Compacted hay of about 0.3 m
thickness was used as insulation. The water looses heat by radiation to the
stratosphere, which is at around -55 C and by early morning hours the
water in the trays freezes to ice. This method of ice production was very
popular in India.

2-1.4 Evaporative Cooling

As the name indicates, evaporative cooling is
the process of reducing the temperature of a system by evaporation of
water. Human beings perspire and dissipate their metabolic heat by
evaporative cooling if the ambient temperature is more than skin
temperature. Animals such as the hippopotamus and buffalo coat
themselves with mud for evaporative cooling. Evaporative cooling has been
used in India for centuries to obtain cold water in summer by storing the
water in earthen pots. The water permeates through the pores of earthen
vessel to its outer surface where it evaporates to the surrounding,absorbing
latent heat in part from the vessel, which cools the water. It is said that
Patliputra University situated on the bank of river Ganges used to induce

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the evaporative-cooled air from the river. Suitably located chimneys in the
rooms augmented the upward flow of warm air, which was replaced by cool
air. Evaporative cooling by placing wet straw mats on the windows is also
very common in India. The straw mat made from khus adds its inherent
perfume also to the air. Now-a-days desert coolers are being used in hot
and dry areas to provide cooling in summer.

2-1.5 Cooling by Salt Solutions

Certain substances such as common salt,
when added to water dissolve in water and absorb its heat of solution from
water (endothermic process). This reduces the temperature of the solution
(water+salt). Sodium Chloride salt (NaCl) can yield temperatures up to -20
C and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) up to - 50 C in properly insulated
containers. However, as it is this process has limited application, as the
dissolved salt has to be recovered from its solution by heating

2-2

Artificial refrigeration methods

Refrigeration as it is known these days

is produced by artificial means. Though it is very difficult to make a clear
demarcation between natural and artificial refrigeration, it is generally
agreed that the history of artificial refrigeration began in the year 1755,
when the Scottish professor William Cullen made the first refrigerating
machine, which could produce a small quantity of ice in the laboratory.
Based on the working principle, refrigeration systems can be classified as
vapour compression systems, vapour absorption systems, gas cycle
systems etc.

2-2.1 Non cycle refrigeration

This refrigeration method cools a contained
area by melting ice, or by sublimating dry ice.Perhaps the simplest example
of this is a portable cooler, where items are put in it, then ice is poured over
the top. Regular ice can maintain temperatures near, but not below the
freezing point, unless salt is used to cool the ice down further (as in
a traditional ice-cream maker). Dry ice can reliably bring the temperature
well below freezing.

2-2.2 Cyclic Refrigeration

This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a lowtemperature space or source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with
the help of external work, and its inverse, the thermodynamic power cycle.
In the power cycle, heat is supplied from a high-temperature source to the
engine, part of the heat being used to produce work and the rest being

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rejected to a low-temperature sink. This satisfies the second law of

thermodynamics.
A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the
refrigerant as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates
through a refrigerator. It is also applied to heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning HVACR work, when describing the "process" of refrigerant flow
through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or split system.
Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to cool a living space
or storage volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature heat source
into a higher temperature heat sink. Insulation is used to reduce the work
and energy needed to achieve and maintain a lower temperature in the
cooled space. The operating principle of the refrigeration cycle was
described mathematically by Sadi Carnot in 1824 as a heat engine.
The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverseRankine vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, although absorption heat
pumps are used in a minority of applications.
Cyclic refrigeration can be classified as:
1. Vapor cycle, and
2. Gas cycle
Vapor cycle refrigeration can further be classified as:
1. Vapor-compression refrigeration
2. Vapor-absorption refrigeration

2-2.3 Vapor Compression Cycle

The vapor-compression cycle is used in
most household refrigerators as well as in many large commercial and
industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram of
the components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration system.
The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram[46] as
shown in Figure 2-2.3. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such
as Freon enters the compressor as a vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the
vapor is compressed at constantentropy and exits the compressor as a
vapor at a higher temperature, but still below the vapor pressure at that

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temperature. From point 2 to point 3 and on to point 4, the vapor travels

through the condenser which cools the vapor until it starts condensing, and
then condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at
constant pressure and temperature. Between points 4 and 5, the liquid
refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a throttle valve)
where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and autorefrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid. The vapour
compression cycle is shown in figure 2-2.3a

jkdjfkdfjkfFigure 2-2.3a
Refrigeration

Vapor Compression

2-2.4 VAPOR ABSORPTION CYCLE(Absorption

refrigerator)
In the early years of the twentieth
century, the vapor absorption cycle using water-ammonia systems was
popular and widely used. After the development of the vapor compression
cycle, the vapor absorption cycle lost much of its importance because of its
low coefficient of performance (about one fifth of that of the vapor
compression cycle). Today, the vapor absorption cycle is used mainly where
fuel for heating is available but electricity is not, such as in recreational
vehicles that carry LP gas. It is also used in industrial environments where
plentiful waste heat overcomes its inefficiency.
The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except for the
method of raising the pressure of the refrigerant vapour. In the absorption
system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber which dissolves
refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid pump which raises the pressure and
a generator which, on heat addition, drives off the refrigerant vapor from

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the high-pressure
liquid. Some work is needed by the liquid pump
but, for a given quantity of refrigerant, it is much smaller than needed by
the compressor in the vapor compression cycle. In an absorption
refrigerator, a suitable combination of refrigerant and absorbent is used.
The most
common combinations are ammonia (refrigerant) with
water (absorbent), and water (refrigerant) with lithium bromide
(absorbent).

2-2.5 Gas Cycle

When the working fluid is a gas that is compressed and expanded but
doesn't change phase, the refrigeration cycle is called a gas cycle. Air is
most often this working fluid. As there is no condensation and evaporation
intended in a gas cycle, components corresponding to the condenser and
evaporator in a vapor compression cycle are the hot and cold gas-togas heat exchangers in gas cycles.
The gas cycle is less efficient than the vapor compression cycle because
the gas cycle works on the reverse Brayton cycle instead of the
reverse Rankine cycle. As such the working fluid does not receive and reject
heat at constant temperature. In the gas cycle, the refrigeration effect is
equal to the product of the specific heat of the gas and the rise in
temperature of the gas in the low temperature side. Therefore, for the same
cooling load, a gas refrigeration cycle needs a large mass flow rate and is
bulky.
Because of their lower efficiency and larger bulk, air cycle coolers are not
often used nowadays in terrestrial cooling devices. However, the air cycle
machine is very common on gas turbine-powered jet aircraft as cooling and
ventilation units, because compressed air is readily available from the
engines' compressor sections. Such units also serve the purpose of
pressurizing the aircraft

2-2.6 Thermoelectric Refrigeration

Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux
between the junction of two different types of materials. A Peltier cooler,
heater, or thermoelectric heat pump is a solid-state active heat pump which
transfers heat from one side of the device to the other, with consumption
of electrical energy, depending on the direction of the current. Such an
instrument is also called aPeltier device, Peltier heat pump, solid state
refrigerator, or thermoelectric cooler (TEC). It can be used either for heating

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or for cooling, although in practice the main application is cooling. It can

also be used as a temperature controller that either heats or cools.
This technology is far less commonly applied to refrigeration than vaporcompression refrigerationis. The primary advantages of a Peltier cooler
compared to a vapor-compression refrigerator are its lack of moving parts
or circulating liquid, very long life, invulnerability to leaks, small size, and
flexible shape. Its main disadvantages are high cost and poor power
efficiency. Many researchers and companies are trying to develop Peltier
coolers that are both cheap and efficient.The thermoelectric refrigeration
system is shown in figure 2-2.6:

jsdjfjdfjdfj Figure 2-2.6a

Refrigeration System

shows the Thermoelectric

A Peltier cooler can also be used as a thermoelectric generator. When

operated as a cooler, a voltage is applied across the device, and as a result,
a difference in temperature will build up between the two sides. When
operated as a generator, one side of the device is heated to a temperature
greater than the other side, and as a result, a difference in voltage will build
up between the two sides (the Seebeck effect). However, a well-designed
Peltier cooler will be a mediocre thermoelectric generator and vice versa,
due to different design and packaging requirements.
2-2.61

Operating Principle

Thermoelectric coolers operate by the Peltier effect (which also goes by

the more general name thermoelectric effect). The device has two sides,
and when DC electricity flows through the device, it brings heat from one
side to the other, so that one side gets cooler while the other gets hotter.
The "hot" side is attached to a heat sink so that it remains at ambient
temperature, while the cool side goes below room temperature. In some

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applications, multiple coolers can be cascaded together for lower

temperature.As shown in figure 2-2.61,the working principle of this
refrigeration.

Ffdfdfsdkl
Figure 2-2.7a Operating principle of
Thermoelectric Refrigeration

2-2.7 Magnetic Refrigeration

Magnetic refrigeration is a cooling technology based on
the magnetocaloric effect. This technique can be used to attain extremely
low temperatures, as well as the ranges used in common refrigerators.
Compared to traditional gas-compression refrigeration, magnetic
refrigeration is safer, quieter, more compact, has a higher cooling
efficiency, and is more environmentally friendly because it does not use
harmful, ozone-depleting coolant gases.
The effect was first observed by French physicist P. Weiss and Swiss
physicist A. Piccard in 1917. The fundamental principle was suggested
by P.Debye (1926) and W. Giauque (1927). The first working magnetic
refrigerators were constructed by several groups beginning in 1933.
2-2.71

The Magnetocaloric Effect

The magnetocaloric is a magnetothermodynamic phenomenon in which a temperature change of a suitable

material is caused by exposing the material to a changing magnetic field.
This is also known by low temperature physicists
as adiabatic demagnetization. In that part of the refrigeration process, a
decrease in the strength of an externally applied magnetic field allows the
magnetic domains of a magnetocaloric material to become disoriented
from the magnetic field by the agitating action of the thermal energy
(phonons) present in the material. If the material is isolated so that no

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energy is allowed to (re)migrate into the material during this time, (i.e., an
adiabatic process) the temperature drops as the domains absorb the
thermal energy to perform their reorientation. The randomization of the
domains occurs in a similar fashion to the randomization at the curie
temperature of a ferromagnetic material, except that magnetic
dipoles overcome a decreasing external magnetic field while energy
remains constant, instead of magnetic domains being disrupted from
internal ferromagnetism as energy is added.
One of the most notable examples of the magnetocaloric effect is in the
chemical element gadolinium and some of its alloys. Gadolinium's
temperature increases when it enters certain magnetic fields. When it
leaves the magnetic field, the temperature drops. The heating of
gadolinium is shown in the following figure 2-2.7a

jfjdfjdfjd

jsdflksdlk Figure 2-2.7a is Showing heating of galodinium material by

which cooling is produced

2-2.8
Other Methods

Other methods of refrigeration include the air cycle machine used in

aircraft; the vortex tube used for spot cooling, when compressed air is
available; and thermoacoustic refrigeration using sound waves in a
pressurized gas to drive heat transfer and heat exchange; steam jet
cooling popular in the early 1930s for air conditioning large buildings;
thermoelastic cooling using a smart metal alloy stretching and relaxing.
Many Stirling cycle heat engines can be run backwards to act as a
refrigerator, and therefore these engines have a niche use in cryogenics. In

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addition there are other types of cryocoolers such as Gifford-McMahon

coolers, Joule-Thomson coolers, pulse-tube refrigerators and, for
temperatures between 2 mK and 500 mK, dilution refrigerators.

2-2.9 Fridge Gate

The Fridge Gate method is a theoretical application of using a single logic
gate to drive a refrigerator in the most energy efficient way possible
without violating the laws of thermodynamics. It operates on the fact that
there are two energy states in which a particle can exist: the ground state
and the excited state. The excited state carries a little more energy than
the ground state, small enough so that the transition occurs with high
probability. There are three components or particle types associated with
the fridge gate. The first is on the interior of the fridge, the second on the
outside and the third is connected to a power supply which heats up every
so often that it can reach the E state and replenish the source. In the
cooling step on the inside of the fridge, the g state particle absorbs energy
from ambient particles, cooling them, and itself jumping to the e state. In
the second step, on the outside of the fridge where the particles are also at
an e state, the particle falls to the g state, releasing energy and heating the
outside particles. In the third and final step, the power supply moves a
particle at the e state, and when it falls to the g state it induces an energyneutral swap where the interior e particle is replaced by a new g particle,
restarting the cycle.

2.2 Introduction of Air conditioning and its

Advancement
Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, A.C., or A/C) is the process of
altering the condition of air by removing heat andhumidity to achieve a
more comfortable interior environments, typically with the aim of
distributing the conditioned air to an occupied space such as a building or a
vehicle to improve thermal comfort and indoor air quality. In common use,
an air conditioner is a device that removes heat from the air inside a
building or vehicle, thus lowering the air temperature. Thecooling is
typically achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but
sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can
also be made based on desiccants.
In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of
technology that modifies the condition of air (heating, cooling,
(de-)humidification, cleaning, ventilation, or air movement). However,
in construction, such a complete system of heating, ventilation, and air

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conditioning is referred to as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

(HVAC as opposed toAC).

2.21 A brief History

1758 :All liquid evaporation has a cooling effect. Benjamin "I invented
everything" Franklin and Cambridge University professor John Hadley
discover that evaporation of alcohol and other volatile liquids, which
evaporate faster than water, can cool down an object enough to freeze
water.1820: Inventor Michael Faraday makes the same discovery in
England when he compresses and liquifies ammonia.1830s At the Florida
hospital where he works, Dr. John Gorrie builds an ice-making machine that
uses compression to make buckets of ice and then blows air over them. He
patents the idea in 1851, imagining his invention cooling buildings all over
the world. But without any financial backing, his dream melts
away.1881 After an assassin shoots President James Garfield on July 2,
naval engineers build a boxy makeshift cooling unit to keep him cool and
comfortable. The device is filled with water-soaked cloth and a fan blows
hot air overhead and keeps cool air closer to the ground. The good news:
This device can lower room temperature by up to 20 F. The bad news: It
uses a half-million pounds of ice in two months and President Garfield still
dies.More: Crown Molding Cutting & Installation Guide1902 Willis Carrier
invents the Apparatus for Treating Air for the Sackett-Wilhelms
Lithographing and Publishing Co. in Brooklyn, N.Y. The machine blows air
over cold coils to control room temperature and humidity, keeping paper
from wrinkling and ink aligned. Finding that other factories want to get in on
the cooling action, Carrier establishes the Carrier Air Conditioning Company
of America.1906 Stuart Cramer, a textile mill engineer in North Carolina,
creates a ventilating device that adds water vapor to the air of textile
plants. The humidity makes yarn easier to spin and less likely to break. He's
the first to call this process "air conditioning."1914 Air conditioning comes
home for the first time. The unit in the Minneapolis mansion of Charles
Gates is approximately 7 feet high, 6 feet wide, 20 feet long and possibly
never used because no one ever lived in the house.1931 H.H. Schultz and
J.Q. Sherman invent an individual room air conditioner that sits on a window
ledgea design that's been ubiquitous in apartment buildings ever since.
The units are available for purchase a year later and are only enjoyed by
the people least likely to work up a sweatthe wealthy. (The large cooling
systems cost between $10,000 and $50,000. That's equivalent to $120,000
to $600,000 today.)1939 Packard invents the coolest ride in town: the first

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air-conditioned car. Dashboard controls for the a/c, however, come later.
Should the Packard's passengers get chilly, the driver must stop the engine,
pop open the hood, and disconnect a compressor belt.More: Ceiling Tiles
Installed Easily & Step By Step1942 The United States builds its first
"summer peaking" power plant made to handle the growing electrical load
of air conditioning.1947 British scholar S.F. Markham writes, "The greatest
contribution to civilization in this century may well be air-conditioningand
America leads the way." Yet somehow people still say a brilliant new idea is
"the best thing since sliced bread."1950s In the post-World War II
economic boom, residential air conditioning becomes just another way to
keep up with the Joneses. More than 1 million units are sold in 1953
alone.1970s Window units lose cool points as central air comes along. The
units consist of a condenser, coils, and a fan. Air gets drawn, passed over
coils, and blasted through a home's ventilation system. R-12, commonly
known as Freon-12, is used as the refrigerant.1994 Freon is linked to ozone
depletion and banned in several countries. Auto manufacturers are required
to switch to the less harmful refrigerant R134a by 1996. Brands like
Honeywell and Carrier develop coolants that are more environmentally
friendly.2003 In "Hey Ya," Andre 3000 raps, "What's cooler than being
cool? Ice cold!" They aren't talking about air conditioning.

2.22 Evaporative Cooling

Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling. The business
of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became
popular towards the late 19th century. This practice was replaced by
mechanical ice-making machines.
The basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in
ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with
trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the
window. This process also made the air more humid, which can be
beneficial in a dry desert climate. In Ancient Rome, water
from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of certain houses to cool
them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use
of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season.

fjdsfjsdlfd

Figure 2.22a Working of Evaporator Cooler

Page 18 of 52

The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan (fl 180) of the Han
Dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m
(10 ft) in diameter and manually powered. In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r.
712762) of the Tang Dynasty (618907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Tian) built
in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having waterpowered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of
water from fountains During the subsequent Song Dynasty (9601279),
written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more
widely used. Now a days evaporator cooler are used, the evaporation
cooling works like as in figure shown:

2.3 Introduction of Advancement in Air conditioning

systems

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Conventional systems for cooling and heating of buildings consume large

amounts of energy produced by the burning of fossil fuels. This results in
vast quantities of greenhouse gases being emitted to the atmosphere and
has serious consequences in terms of global warming, environmental
damage, e.g., acid rain and detrimental effects on human health such as
asthma. At Earth Summits in Rio de Janeiro, Kyoto and recently
Johannesburg, pressure has gradually been brought to bear on national
governments to act in an attempt to control greenhouse gas emissions, and
the Kyoto Summit secured a commitment from EU countries to achieve an
8% reduction in CO2emissions compared to the 1990 level by 20082012.
So development of new environmentally-friendly technologies will be vital
to achieve these targets.
On the other hand, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been used as working
fluids in conventional air conditioning systems for over 60 years. However,
these refrigerants are known to deplete the ozone layer and contribute to
global warming . Environment concern about CFCs, HCFCs and some of
their replacements , has prompted research to identify new technologies to
provide an alternative to conventional vapor compression systems.
For refrigeration and building air conditioning there are several available
refrigeration systems. These systems can be classified in three main
categories according to the final energy used to operate them: electrical
systems, thermal systems and hybrid systems, as is shown in Fig 2.3a .
While in the first category the input energy for operation of the system is
electricity (high grade energy), in the second one the driving force can be
any kind of thermal energy (low grade energy). The third one is composed
of several energy forms that are used together in order to provide
increased system efficiency as well as greater balance in energy supply.

Page 20 of 52

Figure
2.3a shows the
classification of systems

of Air

conditioning

Recently the second group (thermal systems) has been receiving increasing
interest from both the commercial market and research. This is mainly due
to the fact that thermal systems represents smaller ozone depletion
potential and smaller contribution to greenhouse effects than electrically
operated refrigeration plants, using synthetic refrigerants used in the
systems operated electrically (leakage rates vary from 5% to 25% of the
total charge). Also as they are thermal operated instead of electrically
operated, the CO2 emissions are lower. As an example, for the same
quantity of final energy, burning natural gas in a boiler releases
0.21 kg CO2/kW h to the environment while electricity releases
0.68 kg CO2/kW h. Electricity production in a traditional power plant
powered by fossil fuels involves several stages of power conversion, first
chemical energy to thermal then mechanical and finally electricity. There
are losses associated to each conversion process as well as to the grid
connection and electricity transport which all contribute to the higher
emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere [5]. The International Institute of
Refrigeration has estimated that approximately 15% of all electricity
produced worldwide is used for refrigeration and air-conditioning processes
of various kinds [6]. Due to this difference in CO2 emissions, to regional
shortage of electricity that forces the price of electricity to high levels,
there are economic incentives in several countries to the replacement of
electricity, as final energy, with thermal energy, which makes more
appealing the thermal operated refrigeration systems. The third kind of
systems is a symbiosis of several form of energy supply to the refrigeration
systems. There are also some miscellany refrigeration systems that are still
under development.

Page 21 of 52

This work presents a review of the classical systems for cooling as well as
the new ones that emerged from recent research, discussing their general
operating principles as well as their applications. Focus will not be given to
individual components of the systems as they change very often in design
in order to achieve even better optimal efficiency.

2.31 Development in Mechanical

Modern air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the
19th century, and the first large-scale electrical air conditioning was
invented and used in 1902 by American inventor Willis Carrier. The
introduction of residential air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the
great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States.
In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a chemistry professor
at Cambridge University, conducted an experiment to explore the principle
of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object. Franklin and Hadley
confirmed that evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol and
ether) could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the
freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a
mercury thermometer as their object and with a bellows used to speed-up
the evaporation. They lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb
down to 14 C (7 F) while the ambient temperature was 18 C (64 F).
Franklin noted that, soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0 C
(32 F), a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb
and that the ice mass was about 6 mm (14 in) thick when they stopped the
experiment upon reaching 14 C (7 F). Franklin concluded: "From this
experiment one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a
warm summer's day"
In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that
compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied
ammonia was allowed to evaporate. In 1842, Florida physician John
Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air
for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped to
eventually use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of
buildings. He even envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool
entire cities. Though his prototype leaked and performed irregularly, Gorrie
was granted a patent in 1851 for his ice-making machine. Improved process
for the artificial production of ice. His hopes for its success vanished soon
afterwards when his chief financial backer died; Gorrie did not get the

Page 22 of 52

money he needed to develop the machine. According to his biographer,

Vivian M. Sherlock, he blamed the "Ice King", Frederic Tudor, for his failure,
suspecting that Tudor had launched a smear campaign against his
invention. Dr. Gorrie died impoverished in 1855, and the idea of air
conditioning went away for 50 years. Dr gorris ice machine is shown in the
figure 2.23-a

fifikdf

Figure 2.31a Gorris ice Machine

James Harrison's first mechanical ice-making machine began operation in

1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong
(Australia). His first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854, and
his patent for an ether vapor compression refrigeration system was granted
in 1855. This novel system used a compressor to force the refrigeration gas
to pass through a condenser, where it cooled down and liquefied. The
liquefied gas then circulated through the refrigeration coils and vaporized
again, cooling down the surrounding system. The machine employed a
flywheel and produced 3,000 kilograms of ice per day.The model of ice
machine of Sir Jhon Harrison is shown in figure 2.23-2

Page 23 of 52

ffFFfjsjdlk

Figure 2.31b Sir Jhon Harrison Ice Machine

Though Harrison had commercial success establishing a second ice

company back in Sydney in 1860, he later entered the debate over how to
compete against the American advantage of unrefrigerated beef sales to
the United Kingdom. He wrote: "Fresh meat frozen and packed as if for a
voyage, so that the refrigerating process may be continued for any required
period", and in 1873 prepared the sailing ship Norfolk for an experimental
beef shipment to the United Kingdom. His choice of a cold room system
instead of installing a refrigeration system upon the ship itself proved
disastrous when the ice was consumed faster than expected.

2.32 Electrical Systems

The electrical systems can be subdivided according to the working fluid
used for its operation e.g., vapor, air and CO 2 (see fig 2.3a). While the first
one is based on the vapor compression cycle, the second one is based on
the inverse of the JouleBrayton cycle and the third one on the trans-critical
cycle. Besides these systems, there is the thermoelectric refrigeration
system that, unlike the other ones, accomplishes its objective, the cooling,
in a more direct manner.
The major part of refrigeration systems operated electrically are based on
the vapor compression refrigeration cycle and , which is composed of four

Page 24 of 52

basic components: evaporator, compressor, condenser and expansion

valve, as shown in fig 2.32a

Figure 2.32a Showing the four main

components(evaporator,compressor,condensor and expansion valve

Dry air may serve as a refrigerant in a mechanical compression system. In

these systems the refrigeration is accomplished by means of a noncondensing gas. The cycle is based on the reverse of the Joule-Brayton
cycle which have four basic components: two heat exchangers, one
compressor and one turbine . One of the heat exchangers absorbs heat
from the place to be cooled down, while the other one rejects heat to the
environment. For conventional refrigeration requirements, the air cycle
systems have too low coefficient of performance to compete with the vapor
compression systems. These systems are of great interest in applications
where the weight of the refrigerant unit must be kept at a minimum, for
example, in aircraft cabin cooling.

Page 25 of 52

The trans-critical cycle uses CO2 as working fluid and operates over the
critical point of the refrigerant. Due to the thermodynamic properties of
CO2, the vapor compression cycle and the components of the system
should differ from the ones with low pressure refrigerants. In fact, for
moderate ambient air temperatures, the pressure at which the refrigerant
rejects heat must be supercritical, with variable fluid temperature. Fig.
2.32b shows a typical trans-critical cycle. As pressure and temperature are
independent properties on the supercritical region, the system must have a
high side pressure adjustment. The COP is pressure dependent and has a
maximum value for a given high side pressure .

Figure 2.32b

Shows Typical Trans Critical Cycle

The high pressure (>100 bar), combined with the low molar mass of CO2,
reduces the volumetric flow and the dimensions of the system components
(compressor, valves, piping).
The thermoelectric refrigeration system uses directly electrical energy to
achieve a refrigeration effect without any intermediate conversion
process and , such as the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical

Page 26 of 52

energy to drive the compressor. The electrical energy, rather than the
refrigerant serves as a carrier

2.33 Thermal Systems

There are several kinds of heat driven refrigeration systems that can be
generally classified as shown in Fig. 2.3a.
In the next subsections, the principles of each one is shortly described.
2.33-1 Vapor compression systems driven by thermal engines
These systems are based on the traditional vapor compression cycle
described in Section 2, but in this case the electricity supply to the
compressor comes from a thermal engine, namely the Stirling engine,
instead of coming from the main electrical grid and. For efficient operation
the heat source should work between 650 C and 800 C. There are a few
of those engines running with parabolic solar concentrators, but these
systems are expensive and complex, as they must track the sun.
If the electrical energy supply to the vapor compression system comes from
a Rankine cycle, it is called Duplex Rankine system.

2.33-2

Absorption Systems

Absorption cooling, as a method, is as old as the vapor compression.

However it has only started to gain significant importance recently. On one
hand, because of the undesirable effects of synthetic refrigerants on the
environment and on the other hand, because of the increasing energy
prices . An absorption unit differs from the vapour compression system in
the way how the compression of refrigerant is carried out, while having in
common the other three components: the evaporator, the condenser and
the expansion valve.
Figure 2.33-2a shows the different parts of the cycle, the thermal
compressor. In the absorption cooling the compression is done using a
secondary fluid that has the capacity of absorbing the main refrigerant
flowing in the other three components. In the absorber outlet, heat is
rejected to the environment in order to carry out the absorption process.

Page 27 of 52

The result is a homogeneous liquid solution that is pumped to the

generator. The objective is to separate the two fluids using external heat .
The work of compression in the absorption system is much lower than in
the vapor compression system due to the fact that a liquid solution is
pumped instead of vapor. However a large quantity of heat at higher
temperatures (typically over 100 C) must be supplied in the generator.
These two effects together, decrease the COP value of the absorption
system, when compared to vapor compression cooling, to values below
one, typically around 0.7. COP can be increased using waste heat (found in
many industrial processes) or solar energy in the generator. Because of the
need to supply heat to carry out the compression process, this part of the
system is also called a thermal compressor in opposition to the vapor
compression system where a mechanical compressor is applied. The
absorption cooling is nowadays very common in house and camping
refrigerators as well as in air conditioning equipment.

Absorption systems can be classified according to:

Working fluid. The most popular fluids in the absorption system are
H2OLiBr (water as refrigerant and lithium bromide as secondary
fluid) and NH3H2O (ammonia as refrigerant and water as secondary
fluid). The first pair of fluids are suitable for positive temperatures in
the evaporator (water freezes below 0 C at ambient pressure) while
the second one can also be used for negative temperatures.
However the NH3H2O systems are not very common, due to their
low efficiency (average cooling COP = 0.6), high heat transfer areas
and initial cost. Research is being carried out in order do develop
different pairs.
Number of effects, that describes the number of cycles that are
connected in cascade. A single effect machine is related to a single
cycle, while a double effect unit uses the heat released in the high
pressure cycle to the low pressure generator. Thus, the energy
supply to the system is used twice and the COP of the cycle is
average doubled (typically 1.4 against the 0.7 of the single effect for
the pair H2OLiBr). The single effect system can use hot water at
about 80 C while the double effect system needs water or vapor
over 120 C that must be produced in a boiler. However, recently

Page 28 of 52

developed double effect water chillers with the pair NH3

H2O [26]have achieved a COP of about 1. Results reported for a heat
pump , indicate that values as high as 1.9 can be reached.
In spite of a fast increase in use, absorption cooling is still more expensive
and huge than the classic vapor compression systems.
A number of modifications on the basic absorption cycle have been recently
published. One of them, called PlatenMunters system (after its Swedish
inventors), the liquid pump is replaced by a third fluid, typically hydrogen.
The advantage of this solution is that it does not have any moving parts.
Another one is the steam ejector recompression absorption refrigeration
system. It is similar to a single effect lithium bromide absorption cycle, with
the difference that there is a steam ejector for enhancing the concentration
process.
A novel method, the electrochemical absorption refrigeration system was
published in 2000, and consists of four main components:

An electrochemical cell is the heat absorber, equivalent to an

evaporator in conventional vapor compression refrigeration.
A fuel cell rejects heat in a manner similar to a condenser in vapor
compression refrigeration.

Heat exchanger between gas streams and water flow stream.

Current pump for elevating the fuel cells voltage output to a level
sufficient for driving the electrochemical cell.

2.33-3

Absorption Cooling

Adsorption systems are similar to the absorption ones but they use a
refrigerant/adsorbent solid pair instead of a refrigerant/absorbent liquid
pair. There are several available pairs however the ammonia/activated
carbon and water/zeolite are the most frequent ones. Recent developments
in solar absorption and adsorption cooling systems showed that they can be

Page 29 of 52

implemented with a comparatively high efficiency and low manufacture and

operation costs

2.33-4

Desiccant Systems

Desiccant cooling is based on an open cycle where the cooling is done

directly in the air by changing its humidity, instead of being cooled trough
evaporators as in the other systems. A desiccant is a synthetic or natural
hygroscopic material that is able to absorb or release the humidity of the
surrounding air. The humidity absorption is followed by an increase of the
air temperature because of the latent heat released by the condensing
water. In an opposite way, the humidity absorbed by the desiccant can be
released to the air by heating the desiccant to a sufficiently high
temperature. This results in a decrease of the surrounding air temperature,
because of the water evaporation.
In a typical desiccant cooler the air to be insufflated in the space is
dehumidified as it passes through the desiccant. The latent heat is
transformed in sensible heat as the air is becoming drier and warmer. The
exhaust air from the space goes then trough an evaporative cooler
becoming more humid and colder. These two air streams flow into a heat
exchanger where the supply air is cooled to a temperature lower then the
space air temperature. Energy supply is required to heat the exhaust air
after the heat exchanger and for the regeneration of the desiccant.
The most important advantage by using desiccant cooling is that both air
temperature and humidity can be simultaneously controlled (World Health
Organization recommends a maximum humidity of 7 g/kg for healthy indoor
air). Efficiency and COP can be improved by using solar or waste energy for
the desiccant regeneration. Indirect benefices are associated with low
humidity levels, including reduced corrosion and microbial growth.

2.33-4a

Solid Desiccant Systems

Commercial solid desiccant systems are available with typical COP values
about 1. Several solid desiccant materials can be found, such as silica gel,
carbon, etc. Fig 2.33-4a shows a typical solid desiccant system as well the
psychometric chart of the air evolution.

Figure 2.33-4a Showing the Solid Desicant System

and its Graph

Page 30 of 52

In some cases, the cooler (evaporator) mounted after the thermal wheel, is
replaced by an evaporative cooler in order to avoid the use of refrigerants.

Page 31 of 52

In this case there is an increase in humidity and a decrease in temperature

after state 3.

2.33-4b

Liquid Desiccant System

The working principles of both desiccant systems is similar, however there

are some differences in the equipment design. For example, in a cooler
using liquid desiccant, the desiccant wheel is replaced by a spray chamber.
This is an important advantage, since desiccant wheels are generally large
in size in order to enhance heat and mass transfer, but makes them
relatively expensive.
A new liquid desiccant system where attention is paid only to the
differences regarding the conventional ones is shown in Fig 2.33-4b. In this
new system, the classical ventilators have been replaced by rotors with
fibers which increasing the contact surface area. As liquid is injected in the
center of the ventilators flowing over the fibers, there is also an effective
removal of air particles promoting, in this way, air cleaning. The thermal
wheel was also replaced by a more effective heat exchanger composed of
heat pipes.
The absorbent used was lithium bromide. Potassium formateHCOOKas
absorbent is also under investigation since it has a negative crystallization
temperature.

Page 32 of 52

Figure 2.33-4b

Showing the New Liquid Desiccant System

COP increases with inside temperature (Ti), however decreases with outside
temperature (Tamb) as shown in Fig2.33-4b1. These results were obtained for
a relative humidity of 50% and a heat pipe efficiency of 70%.

Figur 2.33-4b0 Showing the Relationship between

Tamb and COP

Page 33 of 52

2.33-5

Ejector

A very attractive feature of the ejector systems is that they can provide
heating and cooling simultaneously using a single heat source, such as
renewables (biomass, solar, geothermal energy) or waste heat (exhaust
gases for air conditioning a vehicle).
For air conditioning applications, the most convenient heat source is the
solar energy and : it enables summer cooling and winter heating. It is
particularly interesting for commercial buildings, where it is not necessary
to use air conditioning in the evenings, or in remote 8 places where there is
no electricity or where hot effluents are not available. In this system, the
ejector replaces the compressor of the vapor compression system. The
ejector has a venturi, a suction section, a converging section and a straight
and diverting section, Fig 2.33-5a.

Figure 2.33-5a Showing image of Ejector

Page 34 of 52

Schematic representation of an ejector cycle is shown in Fig 2.335b. QG represents the primary heat source, which would be, as mentioned
before, a renewable (e.g., solar collector) or a kombi system with a
conventional boiler. This system has no moving parts, which makes them
very reliable. There are ejector systems operating for more than 20 years
without any kind of problems.
A new prototype for combined heat and power has been developed that
consists of two circuits, a primary circuit using n-pentane as working fluid
and a secondary circuit with water (boiler and heat exchangers). Using npentane as a working fluid has advantages thermodynamic properties at
relatively low temperatures therefore solar energy can be applied as the
heat supply. It is also a green refrigerant in contrast to CFCs.

Page 35 of 52

2.33-6

Metal Hybrid System

This is a state of the art refrigeration system developed by a group of

Japanese companies in the 90, capable for cold storage below 30 C. The
method is based on the hydrogen absorption and desorption capability of
metal hybrid alloys in exothermic and endothermic reaction, respectively.
This phenomenon can be implemented in a refrigeration cycle using a
combination of two alloys, one working at high and another at low
temperatures. Some of the advantages of this technique are that it is CFC
free, safe, no moving elements except for pumps circulating water and
brine and low noise.

2.33-7

Solar Cooling

Heat and electrical driven refrigeration systems already mentioned are

suitable to operate with solar energy, which can be converted either to heat
(solar collectors) and either to electricity (photovoltaic panels). An
important advantage of operating a cooler using solar power lies within the
intrinsic connection between solar radiation and cooling demand. Heating
loads, and therefore cooling demands are generally higher when solar
intensity is high, thus more energy is available for running the cooling
system. The appropriate refrigeration cycle depends on the cooling
demand, available form of energy input and temperature level of the
refrigerated objects and environment. From an energy saving point of view,
a solar cooling system can save electrical energy in the range of 2540%
when compared to an equivalent cooling capacity of a conventional water
cooled refrigeration system.
Solar driven absorption refrigeration was the first solar refrigeration system
using solar thermal panels as heat source for the generator. The COP of this
system was higher than the COP of other thermal operating systems,
typically around 0.60.8 and up to 1.35 for the two stages process.
Solar driven adsorption refrigeration is not as widely used as the absorption
systems. However, it can be integrated with a low temperature solar
collector, e.g., flat plate solar collectors. Ejector refrigeration can use also
solar energy to operate the generator, as already mentioned before. It can
work with a low temperature energy supply, thus a solar collector can be

Page 36 of 52

used. The vapor compression system can be also driven by electricity from
photovoltaic cells. However this system is quite expensive due to the high
installation cost and low efficiency of the photovoltaic panels. It is effective
in areas far from the electricity grid, where the cooling capacity is low.The
duplex Rankine cycle can also use thermal collectors to supply thermal
energy to the boiler. The solar energy is also suitable to use on
thermoelectric systems, through solar photovoltaic panels.

2.34 Hybrid Systems

An interesting solution, shown in Fig 2.34a, combines in a single cycle the
vapor compression and an absorption system, operated on electricity and
heat, with the following advantages:

Increase in COP values when compared with the absorption system.

Use of refrigerants of the absorption cycles.

Possibility of compression of the vapor flowing out of the generator

and the use of its latent heat of condensation to reduce the
necessary amount of thermal energy for the operation of the
generator.

Figure 2.34a Showing the Schematic of Hybrid

System

Page 37 of 52

As mentioned, the difference between this system and conventional

absorption cooling lies on the generator. The necessary thermal energy for
comes from the condensation of the refrigerant (process 23 in fig 2.34a)
previously released in the generator and compressed to a pressure such
that the saturation temperature is higher than of the generator (process 1
2). COP values of this systems lies between 2 and 3.5.
In order to intensify the heat transfer in the system, a centrifugal field was
created, by placing all heat and mass transfer equipmentevaporator,
absorber, generator and condenserin a rotating ensemble.

Page 38 of 52

3:
APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR
CONDITIONING

3.1

Major uses

The fields of refrigeration and air conditioning are interconnectd, but each
also has its own province. The interrelationship and independence can b
schematized as in Fig. 3.1 . The largest application of refrigeration, which
is the process of cooling, is for air conditioning. In addition, refrigeration
embraces industrial refrigeration, including the processing and preservation
of food; removing hat from substantial in chemical, petroleum, and
petrochemical plants; and numerous special applications such as those in
the manufacturing and construction industries.
Ina a similar manner, air conditioning embraces more than cooling. The
definition of comfort air conditioning is the process of treating air to control
simulataneously its temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribution to
meet the comfort requirements of the occupants of the conditioned
space.Air conditioning therefore includes the entire heating operation
(which does not involve refrigeration except for heat pumps) as well as the
regulation of velocity, thermal radiation, and the quality of air, including
removal of foreign particles and vapours.
Engineers are employed in the research , development, and application of
products serving these fields , and other engineers have the responsibility
of designing systems using th products. While there is no rigid barrier that
prevents engineers from moving freely through the various provinces of Fig
, the concentration of interest of commercial firms and thus the emphasis of
their engineers , lies either in air conditioning probably extends down to
about -60 c0 . Another field, cryogenics, which covers the temperatures still
lower, includes the industrial gas industry (separation of air into nitrogen

Page 39 of 52

and oxygen), liquefied natural gas , and the pursuit of temperatures

approaching absolute zero.
This part of paper seeks to convey some of the breadth and diversity of the
uses of refrigeration and air conditioning. The categories of some of the air
conditioning applications described include medium-sized and large
buildings, industrial, residential, and vehicular. For the industrialrefrigeration field examples will also be cited in the food and thermal
processing

Figure 3.1

Relationship of the refrigeration and air conditioning

industries. While the cooling capacity associated with special uses of

refrigeration is small relative to air conditioning or food refrigeration. Many
of these special applications are intriguing and technical challenging.

3.2 Air Conditioning

buildings.

of

medium

sized

and

large

Most of the air- conditioning units in service provide comfort air

conditioning, the purpose of which is to supply comfortable conditions for
people. Summer cooling systems have become a standard utility in large
buildings throughout the world. Even in climates where summer
temperatures ate not high, large building may have to be cooled in order to

Page 40 of 52

remove the heat generated internally by people, lights, and other electrical
equipment. In hot climate, heat generated internally by people k lights, and
other electrical equipment. In hot climates, the existence of summer cooling
systems is the difference between workers performing effectively and not.
Some form of central system usually serves large buildings. It may consist
of one or move water- chilling plants and a water heater (traditionally
referred to as a boiler) located in a machine room. The conditioned spaces
ate served by one or more air supply and return systems, as explained
before, or the hot or chilled water may be piped to heat exchangers in the
conditioned space.

Single-story commercial buildings such as stores and factories are often

served by the rooftop units (fig 3.2 ) mounted on the roof and providing
either heated or cooled air to the conditioned space below . The unit in Fig
3.2 is a heat pump which is capable of providing either heated or cooled air
to the conditioned space.

Figure 3.2

A Rooftop Unit( Lennox industries)

Page 41 of 52

Another important class of air-conditioning installation is for hospitals and

other medical buildings. Many of the same requirements often specify the
used of 100 percent outdoor air, and humidity limits may be more severe in
operating rooms to avoid static electricity. The design of an energy-efficient
system for a hospital that also meets the special requirements poses an
engineering challenge.

3.3

Industrial AIR Conditioning

The term industrial air conditioning will refer here to providing at least a
partial measure of comfort for workers in hostile environments but also to
controlling air conditions so that they favourable to processing some object
or material.

Page 42 of 52

Spot heating:
During cold weather it may be more practical to warm a
confined zone where a worker is located. One such approach is through the
use of an infrared heater. When its surfaces are heated to a high
temperature by means of burner or by electricity, they radiate heat to the
affected area.
Spot cooling:
It may be impractical to cool an entire steel mill, but
conditions may be kept tolerable for workers by directing a stream of cool
air onto occupied areas.
Environmental laboratories:
The role of air conditioning varies from
one environmental laboratory to another. In one a temperature of -40 0c
must be maintained to test engines at low temperatures and in another a
high temperature and humidity may be maintained to study the behaviour
of animals in tropical climates.

Printing: Control of humidity is one of the primary reasons for air

conditioning printing plant. In some printing processes the paper is run
through several different presses, and the air conditioning must be
maintained to provide proper registration. Other troubles caused by
improper humidity are static electricity, curling or buckling of the paper, or
failure of the ink to dry.

Textiles: Like paper, textiles are sensitive to changes in humidity and to

a lesser extent
Changes in temperature. The yarn in modern textile plants moves at
tremendous speeds and changes in the flexibility and strength of the textile
or generation of static electricity must be prevented.

Precision parts and clean rooms:

For

manufacturers

of

precision metal parts air conditioning performs three service keeping the
temperatures uniform so that the metal will not expand and contract
maintaining a humidity so that rust is prevented, and filtering the air to
minimize dust. A technology for clean rooms (Fig ) has developed for the
design and construction of such enclosures for manufacturing electronic
components and other materials.

Page 43 of 52

Photographic products:

The photographics products industry is

a large user of air conditioning and refrigeration. Raw photographic material

deteriorates rapidly in high temperatures and humidities, and other
materials used in coating film require careful control of temperature.

Figure 3.3 A Clean room ( For injection molding machine working and cmc machines)

Computer rooms: The air conditioning system for computer rooms

should control the temperature, humidity, and cleanness of the air. Some
electronic components operate in a faulty manner it they become too hot,
and one means of preventing such localized high temperature is to maintain
the air temperature in the computer room in the range of 20 to 30 . The
electronic components in the computer function favourably at every lower
temperature for occupants. A relative humidity between 30 and 45 percent
is desirable for handling cards, since too high a relative humidity can result
in improper feeding of cards and too low a relative humidity could cause
static electricity in card decks. For long-term storage of magnetic tape the
uniformity of temperature is an important requirement. Well-filtered air is
necessary to facilitate low-maintenance operation of printers, tape drives,
and card readers.

Power plants: Traditionally steam power plants were kept tolerable for
workers by ventilating with outdoor air. The compactness and the increase
in heat-flow intensities now no longer leave adequate space for air ducts. To
provide cooling for many confined spaces in modern power plants air-

Page 44 of 52

cooling coils are supplied with refrigerated water that is conveyed through
pipes much smaller than the conventional air ducts.

3.4

Residential Air Conditioning

In the United States approximately 5 million room air conditioners are sold
each year, and most of them are used for residential service.
In another type of residential air conditioner, the central or unitary system,
a condensing unit consisting of the compressor and condenser is located
out of doors and evaporator coil in the interior air duct. Annual sales of this
class of this class of air conditioner are usually between 3 and 5 million
units.
During the past several decades in the United States there has been a shift
in population to the sun belt in the southern part of the country. Leaders of
the air conditioning industry point out that this demographic shift would
probably not have occurred had it not been for the widespread use of air
conditioning in homes and places of work, business, and entertainment.
Another system that is growing in importance for the combined heating
and cooling of residences is the heat pump. It first appeared on the market
in the 1950s amid optimistic predictions of how it would make competing
equipment obsolete. This entry in the market floundred, however, primarily
because of the mechanical failure rate of the heat pumps of that era.

3.5

Air conditioning of vehicles

The most air conditioned vehicle is the automobile for which between 5
and 10 million systems are sold annually. But many other conveyances are
air conditioned as well, including buses, trains, trucks, recreation vehicles,

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Figure 3.5

A bus air conditioner( Guchen company limited)

tractors, crane cabs, aircraft, and ships. The major contributor to the
cooling load in many of these vehicles is heat from solar radiation, and, in
the case of public transportation, heat from people. The loads are also
characterized by rapid changes and by a high intensity per unit volume in
comparison to building air conditioning.

3.6

Food storage and distribution

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Many meats, fish, fruits, and vegetables are perishable, and their storage
life can be extended by refrigeration. Fruits, many vegetables, and
processed meat such as sausages, are stored at temperatures just slightly
above freezing to prolong their life. Other meats, fish, vegetables, and fruits
are frozen and stored many months at low temperatures until they
defrosted and cooked by the consumer.
The frozen-food chain typically consists of the following links: freezing,
storage in refrigerated warehouses, display in refrigerated case at food
markets, and finally storage in the home freezer or frozen food
compartment of a domestic refrigerator.
Freezing: Early attempts to freeze food resulted in product laced with ice
crystals until it was discovered that the temperature must be plunged
rapidly through the freezing zone. Approches to freezing food include air
blast freezing, where air at approximately -30 0 c is blown with high velocity
over packages of food stacked on folk lift pallets; contact freezing, where
the food is placed between metal plates and surfaces; immersion freezing,
where the food is placed in low temperature brine, fluidized bed freezing,
where the individual particles re carried along a conveyor belt and kept in
suspension by an upward directed stream of cold air and freezing with a
cryogenic substance such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide.

Figure 3.6

freezing of peas is done on a fluidized

conveyer belt

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Storage:
Fruits and vegetables should be frozen quickly after
harvesting and meats frozen quickly after slaughter to maintain high
quality. Truckload and railcar-load lots are then moved to refrigerated
warehouses(Fig) where they are stored at -20 to -23 0c, perhaps for many
months. To maintain a high quality in fish, the storage temperature is even
lower.

Distribution:
Food moves from the refrigerated warehouses to food
markets as needed to replenish the stock there. In the market the food is
kept refrigerated in display cases held at 3 to 5 0c for dairy products and
unfrozen fruits and vegetables at approximately -20 0c for frozen foods and
ice cream. In the United States about 100000 refrigerated display cases are
sold each year.
The customer finally stores the food in adomestic refrigerator or freezer
until used. Five million domestic refrigerators are sold each year in the
United States, and fro several decades styling and first cost were
paramount considerations in the design and manufacture of domestic
refrigerators. The need for energy conservation, however has brought back
the engineering challenge in designing these appliances.

3.7

Food Processing

Some food need operations in addition to freezing and refrigerated

storage, and these processes entail refrigeration as well.
Dairy products;
The chief dairy products are milk, ice cream, and
cheese. To pasteurize milk the temperature is elevated to approximately
730c and held for about 20 s. From that process the milk is cooled and
ultimately refrigerated to 3 or 40c for storage. In manufacturing ice cream
the ingredients are fist pasteurized and thoroughly mixed. Then,

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refrigeration equipment cools the mix to about 6 0c, whereupon it enters a

freezer. The freezer drops the temperature to -50c, at which temperature to
mix stiffens but remains fluid enough to flow into a container. From this
point on the ice cream is stored below freezing temperatures.
Beverages: Refrigeration is essential in the production of such beverages
as concentrated fruit juice, beer, and wine. The taste of many drinks can be
improved by serving them cold.
Just concentrated are popular because of their high quality and reasonable
const. It is less expensive to concentrate the juice close to the orchards and
ship it in its frozen state than to ship the raw fruit. To preserve the taste of
juice, its water must be boiled off at a low temperature, requiring the entire
process to be carried out at pressures much below atmospheric.

In the brewing industry refrigeration controls the fermentation reaction and

preserves some of the intermediate and final products. A key process in the
production of alcohol is fermentation, an exothermic reaction. For producing
a lager-type beer, fermentation should proceed at a temperature between 8
and 120c, which is maintained by refrigeration. From this point on in the
process the beer is stored in bulk and ultimately bottled or kegged (Fig 3.7)
in refrigerated spaces.
The major reason for refrigeration bakery products is to provide a better
match between production and demand and thus prevent waste. Some
biological and food products are preserved by freeze drying, in which the
product is frozen and then the water is removed by sublimation (direct
transition from ice to water vapour). The process takes place in a vacuum
while heat is carefully applied to the product to provide the heat of
sublimation. Some manufacturers of instantly coffee use the freeze-drying
process.

3.8

Chemical and process industries

The chemical and process industries include the manufacturers of

chemicals, petroleum refiners, petrochemical plants, paper and plant
industries, etc. These industries require good engineering for their

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refrigeration since almost every installation is different and the cost of each
installation is so high. Some important function served by the refrigeration
in the chemical and process industries are: separation of gases,
condensation of gas, solidification of one substance in a mixture to separate
it from others, maintenance of a low temperature of stored liquid so that
the pressure will not be excessive, and removal of heat of reaction.

A mixture of hydrocarbon gases can be separated into its constituents by

cooling the mixture so that the substance with the high temperature boiling
point condenses and can be physically removed from the remaining gas.
Sometimes in petrochemical plants (Fig 3.8 ) hydrocarbons, such as
propane, are used as the refrigerant. Propane is relatively low in cost
compared with other refrigerants, and the plant is completely equipped to
handle flammable substance. In other applications separate refrigeration
units, such as the large packaged unit in Fig 3.9 , provide refrigeration for
the process.

3.9

Special application of refrigeration

Other uses of refrigeration and air conditioning span sizes and capacities
from small appliances to large industrial scale.

Drinking fountains:
small refrigeration units chill drinking water for
storage and use as needed.
Dehumidifiers: An appliance to dehumidify air in homes and buildings
uses a refrigeration unit by first passing the air to be dehumidified through
the cold evaporator coil of the system, where the air is both cooled and
dehumidified. Then this cool air flows over the condenser and is discharged
to the room.
Ice makers:the production of ice may take place in domestic refrigerators,
ice makers serving restaurants and motels, and large industrial ice makers
serving food processing and chemical plants

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Ice skating rinks:

skaters, hockey players, and curlers cannot rely
upon the weather to provide the cold temperatures necessary to freeze the
water in their ice rinks. Pipes carrying cold refrigerant or brine ate therefore
embedded in a fill of sand or sawdust, over which water is poured and
frozen.
Construction:
refrigeration is sometimes used to freeze soil to facilitate
excavations. A further use of refrigeration is in chilling huge masses of
concrete (chemical reaction which occurs during hardening gives off heat,
which must be removed so that it cannot cause expansion and stress the
concrete). Concrete may be cooled by chilling the sand, gravel, water, and
cement before mixing, as in Fig 3.10, and by embedding chilled-water pipes
in the concrete.
Desalting of seawater:
One of the methods available for
desalination of seawater is to freeze relatively salt-free ice from the
seawater, separate the ice, and remelt it to redeem fresh water.

Chapter 4

4.1

Manufacturers

local Manufacturers (Pakistani)

List of companies which are manufacturing Ac and refrigerator in Pakistan

are shown below:
NEW ALLIED ELECTRONICS INDUSTRIES (PVT) LTD
NEW ELECTRONICS (PVT) LTD
SINGER PAKISTAN LTD
RIAZ ELECTRIC CO.(PVT) LTD
A SHOME INDUSTRY (PVT) LTD

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UNITED REFRIGERATION (PVT) LTD

COOL INDUSTRIES (PVT) LTD
SHADMAN ELECRIC INDUSTRIES LTD
IMPERIAL ELECTRIC CORPORATION