International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 81 (2004) 373379

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Assessment of operational risk of steam turbine valves

Andrzej Rusin*
The Silesian University of Technology, 44-100, Gliwice, Konarskiego 18, Poland
Received 17 October 2003; revised 19 January 2004; accepted 19 January 2004

Abstract
The paper estimates the technical risk associated with the operation of power machines. The sources of risk are presented with possible
scenarios of failures. The risk involving the operation of steam turbine valves is discussed in more detail. The point estimation technique for
reliability analysis and the finite element analysis of thermal stresses are applied. Calculations of the probability of failure are made for
random loads and random properties of materials. On the basis of the real data, mean values of stresses and strains under transient operating
conditions were calculated, as well as the level of stresses under creep conditions. The calculated values were used for estimation of the
probability of valve failure and the value of technical risk.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Turbine valve; Failure analysis; Technical risk

1. Introduction
Despite the advance of technology and the creation of
modern systems of automatic control and protection,
failures of technical systems have not been eliminated.
Although awareness of the risk of such failures has been
widely disseminated, the assessment of the level of risk and
prevention is often made intuitively on the basis of
experience. Generally, the rational analysis of risk should
be based on the theory of probability, addressing the
following issues [1,2]:
How big is the risk associated with the existence of a
given technical system?
How may this risk be reduced?
What are the costs involved in the reduction of the risk in
question?
What level of risk is acceptable?
The issue of the assessment of risk associated with
conventional power stations has received more attention in
recent years [3,4]. This results from changes in the world
market for energy, involving mergers of power corporations,
sale and purchase of power stations with often unknown
* Fax: 48-32-2372680.
E-mail address: rusin@rie5.ise.polsl.gliwice.pl (A. Rusin).
0308-0161/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijpvp.2004.01.004

history of operation. At the same time, the equipment of

many power stations has become obsolete. The operational
life of many power units has already exceeded the design life.
Furthermore, serious accidents occurring in the energy
sector, including failures of turbine rotors [3] have
contributed to the problem. In the face of fierce competition
high values of reliability and availability indices and
reduction of unplanned shut-downs have become an operational priority focused on the reduction of technical risk.
The scope of this paper is to determine the technical risk
associated with the operation of power machines. In
particular, the analysis of the risk associated with the
operation of stop valves in steam turbines is discussed in
detail. Apart from rotors and cylinders, valves constitute the
most important components of turbines bearing the highest
load. Operational experience indicates that the symptoms of
wear may be observed in turbine valves, which reduces the
durability of the entire turbine. The risk associated with
the operation of valves may play an essential role in the
operational risk of a turbine and the power unit as a whole.
2. Technical risk
2.1. Quantitative assessment of risk
The analysis of the technical risk associated with
operation of a given system must follow the following

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A. Rusin / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 81 (2004) 373379

procedures [2]:

3. Hazards

definition of a system,
identification of the hazards and situations threatening
the entire system as well as its particular elements,
assessment of the probability of the occurrence of
hazards,
assessment of the consequences in the case of hazards,
assessment of risk,
design of activities associated with the existing level of
risk.

3.1. Hazards evoked by degradation processes

Technical risk should include all possible events

resulting from the existence and operation of a technical
system. In a quantitative approach, such risk is calculated as
R

X
i

REi

PEi CEi

where REi is the risk associated with event Ei ; PEi is the

probability of the occurrence of event Ei ; and CEi is the
consequence of the occurrence of event Ei :
The probability of the occurrence of events may be
assessed on the grounds of the analysis of statistical data
derived from observations, opinions of experts, or probability models. As far as the assessment of the probability of
failure of a power unit is concerned, first and foremost, as it
is a complex technical system, a detailed analysis of the risk
of failures of its particular components is required. This
paper assesses the risk associated with the operation of a
stop valve in a steam turbine, constituting one of the
principal components of a power unit.

The operation of power machines, including heat

turbines, has a cyclic nature. At the beginning of the
cycle there is a start-up. Once the working medium reaches
its nominal parameters, steady-state operation follows.
Shut-down occurs at the end of the operating cycle,
followed by natural or forced cooling of machine
components. At each phase of operation the material is
subjected to gradual degradation and loss of durability of
machine components leads to complete loss of machine
life. During start-up, the main process of life consumption
is low-cycle fatigue. To determine the essential properties
of the start-up processes almost 100 start-ups of a 200 MW
turbine were subjected to statistical analysis. The curves of
temperature changes of main steam at start-up from the
cold, warm and hot state were analyzed in detail, as shown
for a cold start in Fig. 1.
From computer simulations [6] it was possible to obtain
the time variations of stresses and strains at any valve point.
The processes of life consumption are mainly at stress
concentration points. Exemplary time variations of maximum effective stresses for some selected start-ups from the
cold, warm and hot state are shown in Fig. 2. The
distribution of stresses presented in Fig. 2 indicates that,
contrary to theoretical start-ups, real ones evoke several
stress amplitudes and, accordingly, strain amplitudes. Thus,
low-cycle fatigue life consumption during a single start-up

2.2. Sources of risk

The fundamental source of the operational risk of
machines is the absence of the certainty of performance
by every single component at any operating time
Z.L

where Z is generalized strength and L is generalized load.

This results from the random nature of many data [5],
including for example, geometrical dimensions, material
properties, such as: yield stress, material toughness, creep
rupture strength, load, including thermal loads. These last
data are because of random temperature fields, especially in
unsteady states.
The degree of the loss of strength should also be treated
as a random variable. The above mentioned factors indicate
that the durability of a machine component should be treated
as a random variable and in its successive operating periods
the probability of damage should be assessed.
Human errors are also sources of risk. The identification
of the sources of risk makes it possible to design possible
hazards.

Fig. 1. Time variations of the temperature of steam at the start-up from the
cold state.

A. Rusin / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 81 (2004) 373379

375

the mean value of the stress is 60 MPa and its standard

deviation is 4 MPa.
3.2. Instantaneous hazard
An instantaneous hazard may be expressed by the
following relations:
in the absence of cracks

sM . Rm

where
Rm ultimate strength
sM von Mises stress
in presence of flaws [8]
K
. FLr
KIC
Fig. 2. Exemplary time variations of effective stresses during start-up from
the cold state (1), warm state (2) and hot state (3).

of a turbine is equal to
Zi

m
X

Zk

k1

Zk

1
Nfk

where Zk is the fatigue life consumption due to the kth

amplitude in a cycle, Nfk is the number of operation cycles
to failure, m is the number of essential strain amplitudes in
one operating cycle.
Statistical analysis revealed that the average start-up is
characterized by two essential stress and strain amplitudes.
The mean values and standard deviations of the strain
amplitudes are indicated in Table 1.
In steady-state operation the life is limited by creep. This
phenomenon occurs with more intensity in stop valves in the
high-pressure section due to the highest values of the
medium temperature in contact with the valve metal.
In such case, the main load is the steam pressure.
Detailed analysis of the creep of a valve in a 200 MW
turbine was discussed in Ref. [7]. It has been estimated that
Table 1
Mean value and standard deviation of strain amplitudes
No. of amplitude
in a cycle

Mean value m (%)

1
2

0.116
0.07

Standard deviation s (%)

0.028
0.016

where
2
6
FLr 1
p2 0:14Lr 0:3 0:7 exp20:65Lr 
K Ms l
Lr s=sy
sapplied tensile stress,
lflaw-size dimension,
Mcoefficient dependent on the shape and location
of a defect,
sy yield stress,
KIC material toughness.

4. Probability of valve failure

4.1. Probability of valve failure from the processes
of degradation
The calculated mean values of the strain amplitude
during start-ups and the mean stress in steady creep, as well
as the estimated standard deviation of these values make it
possible to calculate the allowable number of operating
cycles and the allowable time of operation under creep
conditions. For the Cr Mo V cast steel the following
equation was assumed to describe fatigue
Nf aD1b

where
D1amplitude of total strains,
a; bconstants,
Nf number of cycles to failure.
Under creep conditions the dependence between time to
rupture and stress has the form
t f c sd

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A. Rusin / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 81 (2004) 373379

where

Table 2
Mean value and standard deviation of constants a; c; Zc

ssteady stress under the conditions of creep,

c; dconstants,
tf time to failure.
Thus, low-cycle fatigue life consumption in one operating cycle is:
ZN

m
X

1
aD1i b

i1

1
csd

m
X
i1

a
c
Zc

395
6.38 1010
1

50
1.27 1010
0.05

P P2

10

1
2

1
1
t d
aD1i b
cs

11

pf pg # 0

12

g Zc 2 ZN;t
where Zc is the critical value of life consumption. This is a
random variable.
Using the reliability index b; the first order approximation of the probability of valve failure is
pf f2b

13

14

f is the cumulative normal distribution function.

To calculate the probability of valve damage, the
following coefficients were assumed b 21:59; d 22:9:
Coefficients a and c are random variables, as well as the
critical value of life consumption Zc : The mean values and
standard deviations for these random variables are indicated
in Table 2.
Moreover, the strain amplitudes and stress levels under
creep conditions are also random variables. The calculations
of the probability of failure were carried out by means of the
point estimation method PEM [10].
For function Y of one random variable X with mean value
mx and variance s2x ; the moment of kth order of variable Y
assumes the following form
EY k P yk P2 yk2

y2 Ymx 2 sx

s2y

1
y y2
2

y 2 y2
2

2

16

17

For uncorrelated m random variables, expression (16)

assumes the following form
EY k

1 k
y
yk222
2m

18

where y corresponds to the value of function Y

determined for the values of arguments mx1 sx1 ; mx2
sx2 ; whereas, y222 denotes the value of function Y at
point mx1 2 sx1 ; mx2 2 sx2 ; for all m random variables of
random vector X:
The graphical form of the dependence between the
probability of valve failure and the operating time and
number of start-ups is presented in Fig. 3. A significant
increase of the probability of valve failure occurs after
200,000 h of operation time.
4.2. Probability of instantaneous failure

where

mg
sg

y Ymx sx

Accordingly, the mean value of a new random variable

my and its variance s2y is calculated as:

my EY

This life consumption is a random variable. The

probability of valve damage after N start-ups and operation
time t is calculated as [9]

Standard deviation s

where

The total life consumption after N start-ups and an

operating time t; in accordance with a linear damage
summation rule, is:
ZN;t N

Mean value m

The creep degradation in 1 h of operation is:

Zt

Random variable

15

Following Section 3.2, if a new performance function is

introduced as
g Rm 2 s

19

the probability of damage is equal to:

pf pg # 0

20

For given values of ms 145 MPa, ss 38:5 MPa,

mR 360 MPa, sR 36 MPa, pf 2:26 1025 was
derived.
Another performance function may be defined as
p
21
g FLr KIC 2 M s l
and the probability of damage may be expressed by
pf pg # 0

22

where all variables, that is: KIC ; sy ; M; s; l are random.

Their random nature is due to the variable temperature field

A. Rusin / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 81 (2004) 373379

377

Fig. 3. Probability of valve failure in the function of operation time t and turbine start-ups number N:

(KIC ; sy ; s) and indistinct location and dimensions of a

possible defect (M; l). The assumed probability characteristics are in Table 3.
The probability of damage calculated on the grounds of
the above values is pf 0:47 1023 :
4.3. Total probability of valve failure
The probability of instantaneous damage of a valve as
well as damage due to the processes of degradation was
evaluated above. The probability of damage due to the
processes of degradation increases in time. The instantaneous damage hazard is associated with rapid changes in
stresses occurring under unsteady operation, first of all,
during start-ups. This means that at each start-up, there are
several modes of possible failure of the valve. The total
probability pfc of such failure may be estimated in
the following way
X
pfi $ pfc $ max pfi
23
i

where pfi is the probability of failure due to ith mode.

The above estimation is accurate for a low probability

of failure and mutual independence of possible modes.
From the results obtained for the probability of instantaneous damage and the damage due to the passage of
time, total probability of HP valve failure in a 200 MW
turbine at start-up phase was estimated in Fig. 4. For
example, for a turbine that has been in operation for
175,000 h and 400 start-ups, the probability of valve
failure at start-up is about 0.50 1023. At steadyoperation the probability of failure is considerably lower
and equals about 0.12 1024.
Table 3
Mean value and standard deviation of KIC ; sy ; M; s; l
Random variable

Mean value m

Standard deviation s

KIC (MPa m1/2)

M ( )
s (MPa)
l (m)
sy (MPa)

55
1.42
66
0.0025
165

15
0.3
16
0.001
16.5

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A. Rusin / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 81 (2004) 373379

Fig. 4. Probability of value failure at start-up.

5. Assessment of the consequences of valve failure

The assessment of the consequences of valve failure
requires a full understanding of the mechanisms of damage
and all their effects, including, for example, the financial
loss of income, costs of repairs, costs of replacement,
penalty fees, etc. Furthermore, the technical consequences
and impacts on the external environment, including possible
casualties, injuries to personnel, and pollution of the natural
environment or loss of corporate goodwill should also be
accounted for. The failure of the stop valve has financial
implications, involving:

costs of purchasing a new valve,

costs of replacing the valve,
costs of start-up losses in the power unit,
loss of profits connected with stand-by,
losses associated with penalty payments for failure
to supply energy.

Other implications, for example, secondary malfunctions

of other components of the power unit caused by the
damaged valve, as well as possible impacts on

Fig. 5. Risk diagram.

A. Rusin / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 81 (2004) 373379

the environment, were disregarded because of their low

probability.

6. Assessment of risk
On the grounds of the calculated probability of valve
failure in different operation phases and the estimated
implications of the damage it is possible to assess the risk
involved. The variables discussed above were entered on the
risk diagram in Fig. 5. The scale of the effects was expressed
in a relative percentage scale related to the value of
replacing the power unit. The areas of negligible risk (A),
low risk (B), medium risk (C), high risk (D) and extreme
risk (E) were differentiated on the diagram. The risk
associated with the operation of the valve depends on its
operating time. For example, for the valve of a turbine
which worked for 150,000 h and was started up 400 times
during that time V1 ; the area of risk is low. Medium risk
corresponds to 250,000 h of work and 800 start-ups of the
turbine V2 :

7. Conclusions
The calculation results indicate that stop valves are not
critical components of a power unit. The technical risk
involved in the operation of the valves increases under
unsteady operation modes, especially during start-ups.

379

Nevertheless, even at start-ups the risk is still low or

medium. The medium risk concerns power units operated
for over 225,000 h and started up more than 800 times.
Thus, it may be assumed that in view of such operation time,
the replacement of stop valves in 200 MW turbines is
justified. It is also possible to lower the risk by reducing the
stresses occurring under unsteady operation modes, for
example, by proper control of the turbine start-up.

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