UNIVERSITY OF NICOSIA

DEPARTMENT OF OIL AND GAS ENERGY ENGINEERING

Lecture 1:The Earth System

Dr. Ernestos Sarris

Lecture Outline
Definitions
The scientific method
Earths shape, surface and geologic record
Earth model (density/ mantle/ core (inner-outer) / crust/ chemical
composition)
The Earth system and interacting components (climate/ tectonic/ geodynamo)
Summary

Definitions

Definitions
What is Geology; is the science that deals with Earth.
History: Born.
Composition: evolve
Internal structure: how it works
Surface features: preserve its habitats for life

The three basic concepts of geology

(1) Earth as a system of interacting components.
(2) Plate tectonics as a unifying theory of geology.
(3) Changes in the Earth system through geologic time.

Geo-systems: Are studied separately from the earth system and their
interactions may effect the balance of another system.
(1) Volcanos (gases trigger climate changes).
(2) Lakes.
(3) Basins.

The Scientific Method

The Scientific
Method
Is the observational approach to
the physical universe on which
all scientific inquiry is based.
Hypothesis: tentative explanation
based on data collected through
observations and experiments.
Theory: A set of hypotheses that has
survived repeated challenges and
accumulated a substantial body of
experimental support.
Model: a precise representation of
how a natural system is built or should
behave. Knowledge based on many
hypotheses and theories

Earths Shape
Surface
and
Geologic Record

Earths Shape, Surface and Geologic Record

Earth's overall shape: sphere (revolution ellipse bulged at the poles).
Average radius: of 6370 km.
Geometric representation: Slightly bulged at the equator and is slightly
squashed at the poles owing to the planet's rotation.
Volume: 1.1x1027 cm3. Mass: 5.977x1027 gr. Average density: 5.517 gr / cm3
Solid surface: 510x106 km3 (water mass 316x106 km3 -71%). The topography
deviates from this overall shape by about 10 km.
Geologic record: is the information preserved in rocks formed at various
times throughout Earth's long history.
Principle of Uniformitarianism
that the geologic processes we see in action today have worked in much the
same way throughout geologic time
Slow phenomena: Mountain drifting, erosion, layering sediments (progressive
change)
Fast phenomena: Volcano eruption, meteorite collision (extreme events)

Earths Shape, Surface and Geologic Record

Elevations (two main groups): (A) 0-1 km above sea level for land surface
(B) 4-5 km below sea level for deep oceans.

Earth Model

Earth Model
Earth's interior
Concentric layers of different
compositions separated by
nearly spherical boundaries.
Crust, varies from about 40 km
thick beneath continents to about
8 km thick beneath oceans.
Mantle, a thick shell of dense
rock that extends to the coremantle boundary at a depth of
2900 km.
Central Core, which is composed
primarily of Fe and Ni.
Two layers:

liquid outer and a solid inner

core, separated by a boundary at
a depth of 5150 km.

Wiechert model

Earth Model
How do we know this stuff ?

Seismic waves caused earthquakes

which illuminate the Earths interior
(travelling is heavily influenced by
composition)
Compressive = solids and liquids
Shear = only solids
How earthquakes created ?
An earthquake occurs when geologic
forces cause brittle rocks to fracture,
sending out vibrations.
Can we measure them?

Discontinuity Theory 1st class

2st (Conrad)
Surface

Acid-granites
Base-Basalts

Crust
2000 C0 400 kbar

Mohorovicic

Mantle
3000
C0

1300
kbar

Core

2st (Repetti)

Wiechert/Gutenberg
2st (Bullen)
Liquid/Solid

They can be recorded with sensitive

Composition
instruments seismometers, that
allow geologists to make pictures of Crust: Si, Al, Mg, Ca, Ti, Zr, Th, U, Sn, Mn
Mantle: Se, Te, As, Bi, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Ag, Hg
Earth's inner workings.
Core: Fe, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Pt, Os, Ir
Result = Discontinuity theory

Driving force = GRAVITY

Earth Model

Density Jumps
Caused by changes in the
chemical composition

8 Dominant chemical elements

Fe, Al, Si, O2, Mg, Ca, Ni, S

Driving force = GRAVITY

The Earth System

The Earth System

Understanding a complex system (Earth), we need to breakdown into subsystems
(geosystems) to see how they work and interact with one another.
Three major global Geosystems:
Climate system: mainly involves interactions among the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
and biosphere. The climate system is driven by heat from the Sun (External
processes).
Plate tectonic system: mainly involves interactions among Earth's solid components
(lithosphere, asthenosphere, and deep mantle) driven by Earth's internal heat
(Internal processes).
Geodynamo system: mainly involves interactions within Earth's central core. Driven
by Earth's internal heat (Internal processes).
Small Geosystems:
Volcanos (erupt lava that provide materials)
Petroleum reservoirs (provide oil and gas)
Hydrologic (provide drinking water)

The Earth System

Global Processes
External processes
Driven by solar energy (sun heats the surface). Heat energizes the atmosphere and
oceans and is responsible the climate and weather.
* Rain
* Wind
* Ice erode mountains
* Shape the landscape.
[The shape of the landscape, in turn, changes the climate].
Internal processes
Driven by heat energy trapped during the planet's origin and generated by
radioactivity in its deep interior. The internal heat drives motions in the mantle and
core, supplying the energy to:
* Melt rock,
* Move continents,
* Lift up mountains.

The Earth System

Open System
Exchange mass and energy with
the rest of the cosmos. For
Simplicity we study Earth as a
single system

The Earth System

Climate system
Weather: term we use to describe temperature, precipitation, cloud cover, and
winds observed at a particular location and time on Earth's surface. Is governed
primarily by the changes in solar energy. Acts as input on seasonal and daily
cycles (i.e. hot summers, cold winters)
Climate: is a description of these weather cycles obtained by averaging temperature
and other variables over many years of observation.
Greenhouse effect: Sun warms Earth's surface, some of the heat is trapped by
water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases in the atmosphere.
This explains the pleasant climate that makes life possible.
If atmosphere contained no greenhouse gases, its surface would be frozen solid!
Greenhouse gases and CO2, are essential in regulating the climate
An urgent problem is to understand the global warming that might be caused by
human-generated emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases.

The Earth System

Tectonic system
Lithosphere: strong outer shell that encases a weaker hot and lower shell. It includes
the crust and the top part of the mantle down to an average depth 100 km. Its tends
to behave as a nearly rigid and brittle material
Asthenosphere: weak underlying the lithosphere and it behaves as fluid. It is a
moldable, ductile solid.
Theory of Plate Tectonics
The lithosphere is not continuous (12 large plates).
Driven force: convection in the mantle (internal heat) cause the plate movement over
Earth's surface
Rate: few centimeters per year.
Each plate acts as a rigid unit, riding on the asthenosphere which also is in motion.

The Earth System

Tectonic system
Unified theory of Plate Tectonics
The lithosphere begins to form from rising hot mantle material where plates separate,
cooling and becoming more rigid as it moves away from this divergent boundary.
Eventually, it sinks into the asthenosphere, dragging material back into the mantle at
boundaries where plates converge (Action of gravity).
Explains: worldwide distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes, continental drift,
mountain building. (e.t.c)

The Earth System

Geodynamo System
Involves interactions that produce a magnetic field deep inside the Earth, in its fluid
outer core. This magnetic field reaches outer space shielding the biosphere from
the Sun's radiation (Actual observation).
Earth's internal magnetic field behaves as if a powerful bar magnet were located at
Earth's center and inclined about 11 from its axis of rotation. (Actual observation).
Theory: heat flowing out of Earth's core causes convection that generates and
maintains the magnetic field.
Open question: Why is a magnetic field created by convection in the outer core but
not by convection in the mantle?
Possible answers:
A) Outer core is made primarily of iron (very good conductor) whereas the silicate
rocks of the mantle are very poor electrical conductors.
B) Convective motions are more rapid in the liquid outer core than in the solid
mantle, which cause stirring of electric currents in the iron to create a
geodynamo with a strong magnetic field.

The Earth System

Key events of the Earths History
Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago.
Earliest life forms are found in rocks about 3.5 million years old.
By 2.7 billion years ago, photosynthesis by early plant life produced increasing
levels of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere.
Only one-half billion years ago animals appeared, diversifying rapidly in an
explosion of evolution.
Life history is marked by periodic mass extinctions. About 65 million years
ago, dinosaurs were killed off in an extinction event that was caused by a large
bolide impact.
Our species (Homo sapiens) arrived 200,000 years ago / tiny fraction of the
4.5-billion-year history of the Earth.

Summary
What is geology.
How scientists communicate with each other through The scientific method.
Different types of information about Earths shape, surface and geologic
record.
What are the Earths major layers.
Studying the Earth system as an interacting system is easier
(climate/ tectonic/ geodynamo).
Understood the basics of Plate tectonics.
Earths Key events

Thanks
For
Your Attention
Questions?