Darwin's Theory of Evolution - The Premise

Darwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all life is related and has descended from a
common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers -- all related. Darwin's
general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely naturalistic
(undirected) "descent with modification". That is, complex creatures evolve from more simplistic
ancestors naturally over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism's
genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival -- a process known as
"natural selection." These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation. Over time,
beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism (not just a variation of
the original, but an entirely different creature).
Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Natural Selection
While Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a relatively young archetype, the evolutionary worldview itself is
as old as antiquity. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Anaximander postulated the development of
life from non-life and the evolutionary descent of man from animal. Charles Darwin simply brought
something new to the old philosophy -- a plausible mechanism called "natural selection." Natural
selection acts to preserve and accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations. Suppose a
member of a species developed a functional advantage (it grew wings and learned to fly). Its offspring
would inherit that advantage and pass it on to their offspring. The inferior (disadvantaged) members of
the same species would gradually die out, leaving only the superior (advantaged) members of the
species. Natural selection is the preservation of a functional advantage that enables a species to
compete better in the wild. Natural selection is the naturalistic equivalent to domestic breeding. Over
the centuries, human breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic animal populations by
selecting individuals to breed. Breeders eliminate undesirable traits gradually over time. Similarly,
natural selection eliminates inferior species gradually over time.
Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Slowly But Surely...
Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a slow gradual process. Darwin wrote, "Natural selection acts only
by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap, but
must advance by short and sure, though slow steps." [1] Thus, Darwin conceded that, "If it could be
demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by
numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down." [2] Such a
complex organ would be known as an "irreducibly complex system". An irreducibly complex system is
one composed of multiple parts, all of which are necessary for the system to function. If even one part
is missing, the entire system will fail to function. Every individual part is integral. [3] Thus, such a
system could not have evolved slowly, piece by piece. The common mousetrap is an everyday nonbiological example of irreducible complexity. It is composed of five basic parts: a catch (to hold the
bait), a powerful spring, a thin rod called "the hammer," a holding bar to secure the hammer in place,
and a platform to mount the trap. If any one of these parts is missing, the mechanism will not work.
Each individual part is integral. The mousetrap is irreducibly complex. [4]
Darwin's Theory of Evolution - A Theory In Crisis
Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a theory in crisis in light of the tremendous advances we've made in
molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics over the past fifty years. We now know that there are in
fact tens of thousands of irreducibly complex systems on the cellular level. Specified complexity
pervades the microscopic biological world. Molecular biologist Michael Denton wrote, "Although the
tiniest bacterial cells are incredibly small, weighing less than 10-12 grams, each is in effect a veritable
micro-miniaturized factory containing thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of intricate molecular
machinery, made up altogether of one hundred thousand million atoms, far more complicated than
any machinery built by man and absolutely without parallel in the non-living world." [5]
And we don't need a microscope to observe irreducible complexity. The eye, the ear and the heart are
all examples of irreducible complexity, though they were not recognized as such in Darwin's day.
Nevertheless, Darwin confessed, "To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for
adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction
of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely
confess, absurd in the highest degree." [6]

Explore More Now!

Footnotes:
1. Charles Darwin, "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation
of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life," 1859, p. 162.
2. Ibid. p. 158.
3. Michael Behe, "Darwin's Black Box," 1996.
4. "Unlocking the Mystery of Life," documentary by Illustra Media, 2002.
5. Michael Denton, "Evolution: A Theory in Crisis," 1986, p. 250.
Charles Darwin, "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life," 1859, p. 155.

What is Evolution?
By: The FHE Team
In our opening article to the Human Origins section, we bring you a discussion of what
evolution is and how evolution works so that you can understand the principles and
mechanisms behind it, to later journey with us as we extrapolate these concepts, along with
an estimation of mankinds proclivities, to where the future of human evolution may be
headed.
On This Page:

1. Summary

2. What is Evolution?

3. The Evolution Process

3.1 Gene Flow and Genetic Drift

3.2 Natural Selection

3.2.1 The Species

3.2.2 Variation

3.2.2.1 Sexual Recombination

3.2.2.2 DNA Damage

3.2.2.3 DNA Replicating Errors

3.2.2.4 DNA Self Editing (MGEs)

3.2.3 The Environment

3.2.4 Mate Selection

4. Genetic Engineering and the Future of Human Evolution

5. References

1. Summary
Evolution is the process by which organisms change through successive generations.
Evolution occurs through gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection. Gene flow is when
separated populations reunite and mix their traits. Genetic drift is the random, benign process
of certain hereditary traits becoming more common in a species through generations,
regardless of the environment. Natural selection, on the other hand, involves a species, new
variations appearing in that species, the environment culling out unfit variations, and mate
selection which ultimately determines which characteristics get propagated.
There are a finite number of ways variation can be introduced into a species gene pool: the
natural processes of sexual recombination and DNA editing, externally-caused DNA damage,
and internally-caused DNA replicating errors.
Mankind is changing the evolutionary rules with regard to the introduction of variation into
the gene pool and the environments role in the natural selection process It is speculated
that such manipulations will have an impact on the resultant Homo sapiens and potential
future derivatives.

2. What is Evolution?
In the broadest sense, evolution is merely change, and is therefore universal; galaxies,
languages, and political systems all evolve. When focusing on biological evolution, as we do
in this article and on this website, evolution is the process by which organisms DNA change
through successive generations (1)(2).
Note that the above definition does not yet say to be better suited to the environment.
Thats a specific aspect of evolution- Read on.

3. The Evolution Process

There are three broad mechanisms for how species evolve: gene flow, genetic drift, and
natural selection (3).

3.1 Geneflow and Genetic Drift

For the purposes of our discussion, let us quickly address gene flow and genetic drift. Both
gene flow and genetic drift homogenize, or promote sameness, across a population.
Gene flow requires a situation where two (or more) populations of a species have been
separated over long enough periods of time to form distinct traits. If they mix again, the
genes will flow between populations. While initially providing variation to the two groups
as seen separately, gene flow ultimately spreads genes across the two groups homogenizing
them as a whole. Gene flow is occurring today in humans as modern transportation closes the
relative distance between previously-separated populations (4).
Genetic drift is simply the statistical shift over time of how often traits (genes) that already
exist, show up (frequencies). Certain traits either become more or less prevalent in a species
as a result of random genetic processes irrespective of the environment.
Say theres a spot on the underside of your dogs tongue that doesnt affect its sense of taste
or smell and is no way associated with reproductive ability, but after several generations its
showing up in all the pups of the bloodline. Then, as the spotted tongue dogs mix with other
breeds, it starts showing up there too. If in several thousand years all dogs had the spot, that
drift will have become fixed. At that point, if youre a dog, youve got a spot on the
bottom of your tongue.

3.2 Natural Selection

Neither of the former two mechanisms or processes really have anything to do with the
long-term evolution of a species. Natural selection is the crux of evolution theory.
Now, a key concept often misunderstood, is that evolution actually does not help shape the
best organism. It does not produce the most fit organism as is often heard. Natural
selection has no goal to optimize an organisms potential. What it does is allow the organism
best suited to the immediate environment to survive or in some cases even flourish. It in no
way intentionally prepares any organism for future demands or changes in the environment.
There are four parts to natural selection in sexually-reproducing organisms: 1) you have a
species, 2) you have a variation that happens to a member of the species 3) you have the
environment the species lives in that is either friendly, neutral, or hostile toward the variation,
and 4) you have the mating phenomenon of that species that ultimately determines the
heritable characteristics that get passed on to successive generations. If a variation is
particularly advantageous in terms of survival and/or mate selection, it will become more and
more prevalent throughout the population.
To simplify the thought, let us write it in expression form:
[species] + [variation] - [environment] x [mate selection] = [adapted
species]

Now let us examine each of the four Natural Selection factors.

3.2.1 The Species

There can be several scientific nuances to defining what a species is, including similarity of
DNA, their physical construct (morphology), or ecological niche. Well use the one most
serviceable in the broad discussion of the evolutionary process: A species is a group of
organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring (5).
Naturally, on a site named The Future of Human Evolution, the species were most concerned
with is Homo sapiens. Feel free at this point to note the idea of subspecies, because one of
the concepts well be discussing throughout the site is that of our near-term ability to create
adaptive traits specific to whatever biosphere environment in which we may find ourselves.
A subspecies is simply a geographically separated instance of a species that develops unique
traits (6).
3.2.2 Variation
How does one thing become another (the whole premise of evolution)? Without the ability to
change, organisms would never have survived on earth through the various severe climate
changes that have occurred over the past two billion years (7).
Variations are inheritable differences among the individuals of a single species. Eye color and
height are examples of observable variation, whereas resistance to a disease may not show on
the exterior but is very important from an evolutionary perspective. There are many such
examples of variation (8). In order for variations to be acted upon by natural selection and
therefore become a species-wide trait, the variations must be heritable (repeated for
emphasis).
For one thing to become something else, this variation must be introduced into the genetic
code (DNA) that gets transferred to later generations. There are a finite number of ways
variation can happen. In fact, to put a point on it, variations in nature are the result of either,
a) sex-related recombination, b) externally-caused DNA damage, c) internally-caused DNA
replicating errors, or d) DNAs own self-editing capability (9). Many scientific journals refer
to change from any source as mutation.
3.2.2.1 Genetic Variation from Recombination

Recombination occurs in sexually reproducing

organisms, such as the human. The parent has two sets of chromosomes in each cell, one

from its father, the other from its mother. In the bodys process of creating the sperm and the
egg at the cellular level, the usual paired chromosomes are split such that the sperm and the
egg carry only one set of each to the offspring. At conception, when the sperm and the egg
combine, each set of chromosomes are dissected and scrambled, then reformed with entirely
new combinations of traits (a.k.a. alleles). This process adds variability to the offspring and
allows the testing of new allele combinations (new traits) against the environment (10).
3.2.2.2 Genetic Variation from External Damage

While cells have a remarkable ability to repair DNA damaged by the environment,
occasionally a change in an existing cells molecular structure caused by the environment
survives. This is not usually a hereditary issue unless the cell affected is part of a developing
organism and through replication propagates the altered DNA thoroughly enough to affect the
reproductive cells and be transferred into the population via normal reproductive means. The
term Mosaicism refers to an organism comprised of both damaged (altered) and
undamaged (unaltered) cells (11).
3.2.2.3 Genetic Variation from Replicating Errors

Every time a human cell divides its DNA replicates. This happens in humans as in most
organisms during the maturation process and continuing constantly thereafter as cells are
replaced. Cells have to copy and transmit the exact same sequence of 3 billion nucleotides
(structural DNA molecules) to its daughter cells. While most DNA replicates with fairly high
fidelity, mistakes do happen, with polymerase enzymes sometimes inserting the wrong
nucleotide or too many or too few nucleotides into a sequence. Fortunately, most of these
mistakes are fixed through various DNA repair processes. Repair enzymes recognize
structural imperfections between improperly paired nucleotides, cutting out the wrong ones
and putting the right ones in their place. But some replication errors make it past these
mechanisms, thus becoming permanent mutations (12).
3.2.2.4 Genetic Variation via Internal Natural Editing

Mobile Genetic Elements (MGEs) are a type of genetic material that does not directly include
instructions for organism-building, but does move DNA around within the genome.
Scientists do not agree on where this material comes from. Because it is found in all forms of
life, some say it was introduced in the form of a virus-like entity in the last universal
common ancestor. In fact, when first discovered in the 1980s it was often referred to as
junk DNA because it appeared to have no function. Since then scientists have discovered
that this movement of DNA can in some cases have an indirect affect an organisms form and
function, making evolutionary leaps possible. This leads other scientists to believe that MGEs
developed as a natural part of genomic evolution (13) (14).
3.2.2 The Environment
For most of history, the environment simply was. It neither catered to nor conspired
against any species. Species either got along in the environment, or they died out. As the
environment changed, the ice ages for instance, either species were already suited to adapt, or
a variation introduced into their lineage helped them cope.
Man has become a different animal, so to speak. We have altered our environment to an
amazing degree. In fact, many of the threats inherent in our environment have been

nullified. As a result, a new temporary normal has been defined where people with genetic
debilitations that would previously have made them unfit for the natural environment can
now lead productive lives and perhaps even transmit what would have been considered
genetic disorders to future generations. Some futurists today are concerned about the future
of human evolution and point to this situation as a losing scenario in a downward spiral of
dysgenics. Humans have removed the culling effects of the environment. Believers in the
benefits of germ-line engineering see the same situation and recognize it for what it is: a
temporary condition in which humans have learned to alter one factor in the natural selection
equation (the environment) without having mastered control over purposeful variation:
altering the dysfunctional gene(s) for healthier alternatives. This mastery to correct and
improve upon dysfunctional DNA will come in short time. No need to fear dysgenics.
One final word on the environment: we do not mean to imply that man has mastered the
global environment, merely many survival-related elements within it. In fact the health of the
biosphere remains a top concern of scientists and futurists alike. We are on a race to see if
mans instigation of global warming and the loss of biodiversity will optionally a) upset the
balance of earths environment to the point that it is hostile to the human organism, b) allow
us long enough to learn to mitigate our own destructive forces, c) allow us long enough to
colonize extra-solar planets, many of which we are finding are terrestrial in nature, or d) both
(b) and (c), allow us long enough to learn to live with the planet while colonizing others in
the future.
3.2.4 Mate Selection
Critical to the topic of natural selection in sexually-reproducing organisms is the mate
selection phenomenon. From evolutions perspective mate selection is just as, if not more
important than, the environment in deciding what traits are passed on to future generations,
sometimes to the detriment of survival capability. The Robin has been used as an example of
this. Females at some point took a liking to a hint of red in the male. Multiplied over
thousands of generations, the male is now bright red and the easy target of predators (15).
The point is that nature may inadvertently create the most wondrous variation, perhaps
immunity to cancer for example. But if the person first gifted with the variation cant find a
mate with which to procreate, the species gene pool will never receive the benefit of natures
gift.

4. Genetic Engineering
By now, you understand how the whole process of natural evolution works, right down to the
molecular level. Genetic engineering is simply the manual editing of the genes, much in the
same way that natural editing occurs. By manipulating DNA in a zygote (the single cell
resulting from a fertilized egg that grows into a human) we can introduce deliberate, targeted,
heritable variation that can then be tested by the environment. Just like natures evolution,
the future of human evolution is subject to the natural selection equation: (species) +
(variation) (environment) x (mate selection) = (adjusted species). The key differences are
randomness and time. We dont have to wait eons or leave it up to chance to accidentally hit
upon desirable or necessary traits. In a free society we can enjoy the opportunity to choose a
happier, healthier genetic future for ourselves and our children.

See our genetic engineering section for more.

5. References
(1) Northwestern University Online Definitions,
http://groups.molbiosci.northwestern.edu/holmgren/Glossary/Definitions/DefB/biological_evolution.html
(2) Merriam-Webster Dictionary, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/evolution
(3) Berkeley University, Evolution 101,
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIMechanisms.shtml
(4) Extensive gene flow in human populations as revealed by protein and microsatellite DNA
markers.
Santos EJ, Epplen JT, Epplen C. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9156328
(5) Merriam-Webster Dictionary, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/species
(6) Merriam-Webster Dictionary, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/subspecies
(7) A journey through climate history.
http://www.abc.net.au/innovation/environment/cc_timeline.html
(8) Google search on examples of genetic variation. https://www.google.com/search?
q=examples+of+genetic+variation
(9) Modern Genetic Analysis.Griffiths AJF, Gelbart WM, Miller JH, et al., New York: W. H.
Freeman; 1999. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21393/
(10) Recombination http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-is-constantly-changingthrough-the-process-6524876
(11) Chial, H. (2008) Somatic mosaicism and chromosomal disorders. Nature Education
(12) DNA Replication Errors and Causes of Mutation,
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-replication-and-causes-of-mutation-409
(13) A Discussion of Mobile Genetic Elements, http://www.icr.org/article/evolutions-bestargument-has-become/
(14) Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th edition. New York:
W. H. Freeman; 2000. Section 9.3, Mobile DNA. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21495/
(15) Onelife Website, The Evolution Process,
http://www.onelife.com/evolve/evolution.html#EP

Additional resources referenced in the writing of this article:

What is a gene mutation and how do mutations occur?

http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/genemutation

Mobile Genetic Elements: The Agents of Open Source Evolution.

http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/30_Frost_2008.pdf