CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Power system stability has been recognized as an important problem for secure system
operation since the 1920s. Many major blackouts caused by power system instability have
illustrated the importance of this phenomenon .Historically, transient in stability has been the
dominant stability problem on most systems, and has been the focus of much of the industrys
attention concerning system stability. As power systems have evolved through continuing
growth in interconnections, use of new technologies and controls, and the increased operation
in highly stressed conditions, different forms of system instability have emerged. For example,
voltage stability, frequency stability and inter area oscillations have become greater concerns
than in the past. This has created a need to review the definition and classification of power
system stability. A clear understanding of different types of instability and how they are
interrelated is essential for the satisfactory design and operation of power systems. As well,
consistent use of terminology is required for developing system design and operating criteria,
standard analytical tools, and study procedures.
Our objectives are to define power system stability more precisely, inclusive of all forms
provide a systematic basis for classifying power system stability, identifying and defining
different categories, and providing a broad picture of the phenomena. Discuss linkages to
related issues such as power system reliability and security.
Power system stability is similar to the stability of any dynamic system, and has fundamental
mathematical underpinnings. Precise definitions of stability can be found in the literature
dealing with the rigorous mathematical theory of stability of dynamic systems. Our intent
here is to provide a physically motivated definition of power system stability which in broad
terms conforms to precise mathematical definitions.
The report is organized as follows. In Section II the definition of Power System Stability is
provided. A detailed discussion and elaboration of the definition are presented. The
conformance of this definition with the system theoretic definitions is established. Section III
provides a detailed classification of power system stability. In Section IV of the report the
relationship between the concepts of power system reliability, security, and stability is
discussed. A description of how these terms have been defined and used in practice is also
provided. Finally, in Section V definitions and concepts of stability from mathematics and
control theory are reviewed to provide back- ground information concerning stability of
dynamic systems in general and to establish theoretical connections.
The analytical definitions presented in Section V constitute a key aspect of the report. They
provide the mathematical underpinnings and bases for the definitions provided in the earlier
sections. These details are provided at the end of the report so that interested readers can
1

examine the finer points and assimilate the mathematical rigor.

In power engineering, the power-flow study, or load-flow study, is a numerical analysis of

the flow of electric power in an interconnected system. A power-flow study usually uses
simplified notation such as a one-line diagram and per-unit system, and focuses on various
aspects of AC power parameters, such as voltages, voltage angles, real power and reactive
power. It analyses the power systems in normal steady-state operation.
Power-flow or load-flow studies are important for planning future expansion of power
systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems. The principal
information obtained from the power-flow study is the magnitude and phase angle of the
voltage at each bus, and the real and reactive power flowing in each line.
Commercial power systems are usually too complex to allow for hand solution of the
power flow. Special purpose network analysers were built between 1929 and the early
1960s to provide laboratory-scale physical models of power systems. Large-scale digital
computers replaced the analog methods with numerical solutions.
In addition to a power-flow study, computer programs perform related calculations such
as short-circuit fault analysis, stability studies (transient & steady-state), unit commitment
and economic dispatch. In particular, some programs use linear programming to find
the optimal power flow, the conditions which give the lowest cost per kilowatt hour
delivered.
A load flow study is especially valuable for a system with multiple load centres, such as a
refinery complex. The power flow study is an analysis of the systems capability to
adequately supply the connected load. The total system losses, as well as individual line
losses, also are tabulated. Transformer tap positions are selected to ensure the correct
voltage at critical locations such as motor control centres. Performing a load flow study on
an existing system provides insight and recommendations as to the system operation and
optimization of control settings to obtain maximum capacity while minimizing the
operating costs. The results of such an analysis are in terms of active power, reactive
power, magnitude and phase angle. Furthermore, power-flow computations are crucial
for optimal operations of groups of generating units.
The Open Energy Modelling Initiative promotes open source load-flow models, and other
types of energy system models.
An alternating current power-flow model is a model used in electrical engineering to
analyse power grids. It provides a nonlinear system which describes the energy flow
through each transmission line. The problem is non-linear because the power flow into
load impedances is a function of the square of the applied voltages. Due to nonlinearity, in
many cases the analysis of large network via AC power-flow model is not feasible, and a
linear (but less accurate) DC power-flow model is used instead.

Usually analysis of a three-phase system is simplified by assuming balanced loading of all

three phases. Steady-state operation is assumed, with no transient changes in power flow or
voltage due to load or generation changes. The system frequency is also assumed to be
constant. A further simplification is to use the per-unit system to represent all voltages,
power flows, and impedances, scaling the actual target system values to some convenient
base. A system one-line diagram is the basis to build a mathematical model of the
generators, loads, buses, and transmission lines of the system, and their electrical
impedances and ratings.
The goal of a power-flow study is to obtain complete voltages angle and magnitude
information for each bus in a power system for specified load and generator real power and
voltage conditions. Once this information is known, real and reactive power flow on each
branch as well as generator reactive power output can be analytically determined. Due to
the nonlinear nature of this problem, numerical methods are employed to obtain a solution
that is within an acceptable tolerance.
The solution to the power-flow problem begins with identifying the known and unknown
variables in the system. The known and unknown variables are dependent on the type of
bus. A bus without any generators connected to it is called a Load Bus. With one exception,
a bus with at least one generator connected to it is called a Generator Bus. The exception is
one arbitrarily-selected bus that has a generator. This bus is referred to as the slack bus.
In the power-flow problem, it is assumed that the real power PD and reactive power QD at
each Load Bus are known. For this reason, Load Buses are also known as PQ Buses. For
Generator Buses, it is assumed that the real power generated PG and the voltage magnitude
|V| is known. For the Slack Bus, it is assumed that the voltage magnitude |V| and voltage
phase are known. Therefore, for each Load Bus, both the voltage magnitude and angle
are unknown and must be solved for; for each Generator Bus, the voltage angle must be
solved for; there are no variables that must be solved for the Slack Bus. In a system
The process continues until a stopping condition is met. A common stopping condition is to
terminate if the norm of the mismatch equations is below a specified tolerance
A rough outline of solution of the power-flow problem
(1) Make an initial guess of all unknown voltage magnitudes and angles. It is common to
use a "flat start" in which all voltage angles are set to zero and all voltage magnitudes are
set to 1.0 p.u.
(2) Solve the power balance equations using the most recent voltage angle and magnitude
values.
(3) Linearize the system around the most recent voltage angle and magnitude values
4

(4) Solve for the change in voltage angle and magnitude

(5) Update the voltage magnitude and angles
(6) Check the stopping conditions, if met then terminate, else go to step 2.

CHAPTER 2
2.1 PROPOSED WORK
This work essentially requires the detailed study of the various limitations of the NR method
applied to the distribution system networks. The main approach of this paper will be
implementation of the developed NR load flow method with starting from simple power systems to
complex ill-conditioned systems and investigation of its increasing complexity. The above
formulation of Newton- Raphson method of load flow solution is implemented through
DIGSILENT programming. The Newton- Raphson program is tested on various IEEE test bus
systems designed as transmission systems and distribution systems. The IEEE bus systems used in
this project work are:
1. IEEE 30-Bus Test System
2. IEEE 13-Node Test Feeder
3. IEEE 38-Node Test System
The IEEE 30-Bus Test System is used for transmission system analysis and the other two test
systems are used for distribution system analysis. The general procedure includes finding the range
of R/X ratio for the test systems so that the effect of the ratio on the behavior of the system can be
analysed through the Newton Raphson DIGSILENT. Through this analysis the susceptibility of the
systems to the change in R/X ratio of a single line or a set of lines can be judged by the maximum
power mismatch and the number of iterations required by the system to converge using the
Newton- Raphson program. Thus each test system will implement in the DIGSILENT program is
examined through tables and graphical representations of the results obtained.

Fig 2.1 IEEE 6 bus system

6

Newtons method is a general procedure that can be applied in many diverse situations. When
specialized to the problem of locating a zero of real-valued function of a real variable, it is often
called Newton-Raphson iteration. In general, Newtons method is faster than the bisection method
and Fixed-Point iteration since its convergence is quadratic rather than linear. Once the quadratic
becomes effective, that is, the values of Newtons method sequence are sufficiently close to the
root, the convergence is so rapid that only a few more values are needed. Unfortunately, the method
is not guaranteed always to convergence. Newtons method is often combined with other slower
method in a hybrid method that is numerically globally convergence.
f
r
Suppose that we have a function whose zeros are to be determined numerically. Let be a zero

f (x)

of
and let
Theorem,

be an approximation to

. If

exists and is continuous, then by Taylors

0 f r f x h f x hf x o h 2

where

hrx

h
. If

x
is small (that is,

is near

), then it is reasonable to ignore the

h f x f x

h
and solve the remaining equation for
approximation to

x0
of

. If we do this, the result is

x f x f x

, then

o h2

should be

term

x
. If

is an

. Newtons method begins with an estimate

and then defines inductively

xn1 xn

f (xn )
f xn

n 0
.(1)

2.1.1 Newtons Algorithm

x0
initial guess

xn1 xn

f (xn )
f xn

n 0,1, 2,
for

Before examining the theoretical basis for Newtons method, lets give a graphical interpretation of
it. From the description already given, we can say that Newtons method involves linearizing the

function. That is,

was replaced by a linear function. The usual way of doing this is to replace
by the first two terms in the Taylor series. Thus, if

f x f c f c x c

1
2
f c x c
2!
(2)

Then the linearization (at c) produces the linear function

l x f c f c x c
...............................(3)

l
Note that

l c f c

is a good approximation to

in the vicinity of

l c f c

, and in fact we have

and

. Thus, the linear function has the same value and the same slope as fit the point
f
c
a
r
. So in Newtons method we are constructing the target line to at point near , and finding

where the target line intersects the

-axis.

2.1.2 Error Analysis (Quadratic convergence of Newtons method)

Now we analyze the errors in Newtons method. By errors, we mean the quantities

en x n x

. (We are not considering round-off errors)

Let us assume that

is continuous and is a simple zero of
the definition of the Newton iteration, we have

en 1 xn 1 r xn

f r 0 f r

so that

. From

f xn
f xn en f ( xn ) f ( xn ) en f ( xn ) ( f ( xn ) f (r ))
r en

.
f ' xn
f ' xn
f ( xn )
f ( xn )

(2)
By Taylors Theorem, we have

1
f x n f r f ' x n x n r e n2f '' n
2

1
1
f n en2
f '' r
en1 2
2
en2 cen2
f r
f r
...(4 )

c 1

e n 10 4

e n 1 10 8

l n 1 10 16

Suppose that
and
. Then by Equation (3), we have
and
.
We are impressed that only a few additional iterations are needed to obtain more than machine
precision.

en

e n 1

This equation tells us that

is roughly a constant times
. This desirable state of affairs is
called quadratic convergence. It accounts for the apparent doubling of precision with each iteration
of Newtons method in many applications.

M lim
n

en1
e2n
8

We have yet to establish the convergence of the method. By Equation (3), the idea of the proof is

1
f n f x n
2

en
simple: If

is small and if

is not too large, then

Define a quantity

e n 1

dependent on

necessary we decrease

to be sure that the denominator in Equation (4) is positive, and then if

c 1

so that

. This is possible because as

1
f r f r
2
converges to

c
converges to

converges to 0,

. Having fixed

Suppose that we start the Newton iteration with a point

satisfying

. Hence, by the definition of

c
, set

x0 r

x0

0 r

, and so

and

(5)

will be smaller than

by

1
max f x min f x
x r
2 x r

We select small enough

en

e0
. Then

, we have

1
f 0 f x 0 c
2
.
Therefore, Equation (5) yields

x1 r e1 e0 2c e0 e0 c e0 c

e 0 e0
.

x1
This shows that the next point
repeated, with the results

, also lies within

units of

. Hence, the argument can be

e 2 e1 2 e 0

e1 e 0
,

e3 e 2 e0
3

.
In general, we have

e n n e0
.

0 1

lim n 0

lim e n 0
n

Since
, we have
, and so
.
Summarizing, we obtain the following theorem on Newtons method.
2.1.3 Theorem (Theorem on Newtons method)
9

f (r) 0

f
Let

be twice continuously differentiable and

locally and quadratically convergent to

xn1 r c xn r

f '(r) 0
. If

, then Newtons method is

and satisfies

n 0

.
In some situations Newtons method can be guaranteed to converge from an arbitrary starting point.
We give one such theorem as a sample.
2.1.4 Theorem (Theorem on Newtons method for a convex function)

C 2 R

If
belongs to
, is increasing, convex and has a zero, then the zero is unique, and the
Newtons method will converge to it from any starting point.

f x 0

f
Proof. Recall that a function
on

is convex if

e n 1 0

. By Equation (3),

xn r

. Thus,

f xn f r 0

for all
for

. Since

n 1

is increasing,

f
. Since

e n 1 e n
. Hence, by Equation (2),

f 0

. Thus, the sequences

en

is increasing,
and

xn

are

e lim en
*

0
decreasing and bounded below (by

and

, respectively). Therefore, the limit

x lim x n
*

e* e* f x* f ' x*

x* r

exists. From Equation (2), we have

.

10

and

f x * 0
, where

and

CONCLUSION
This report has addressed the issue of stability definition and classification in power
systems from a fundamental viewpoint and has examined the practical ramifications of
stability phenomena in significant detail. A precise definition of power system stability that
is inclusive of all forms is provided. A salient feature of the report is a systematic
classification of power system stability, and the identification of different categories of
stability behavior. Linkages between power system reliability, security, and stability are
also established and discussed. The report also includes a rigorous treatment of definitions
and concepts of stability from mathematics and control theory. This material is provided as
background information and to establish theoretical connections.

11

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