Seminar Report on

Anti-lock
braking
system

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Prepared by

RANJAN NAYAK

JYOTI

Jyotiranjan_541@yahoo.com

Introduction

An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a safety

system on motor vehicles which prevents the wheels
from locking while braking.
A rotating road wheel allows the driver to maintain
steering control under heavy braking, by preventing a
locked wheel or skid, and allowing the wheel to
continue to forward roll and create lateral control, as
directed by driver steering inputs. Disadvantages of
the system include increased braking distances under
some limited circumstances (snow, gravel, "soft"
surfaces), and the creation of a "false sense of
security" among drivers who do not understand the
operation, and limitations of ABS.

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History
Anti-lock braking systems were first developed for

aircraft in 1929, by the French automobile and aircraft

pioneer, Gabriel Voisin, as threshold braking an
airplane is nearly impossible.

An early system was Dunlop's Maxaret system,

introduced in the 1950s and still in use on some aircraft
models.
A fully mechanical system saw limited automobile use
in the 1960s in the Ferguson P99 racing car, the
Jensen FF and the experimental all wheel drive Ford
Zodiac, but saw no further use; the system proved
expensive and, in automobile use, somewhat unreliable.
However, a limited form of anti-lock braking, utilizing a
valve which could adjust front to rear brake force
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distribution when a wheel locked, was fitted to the

1964 Austin 1800.
Chrysler, together with the Bendix Corporation,
introduced a crude, limited production ABS system on
the 1971 Imperial. Called "Sure Brake", it was available
for several years, and had a satisfactory performance
and reliability record.
Ford also introduced anti lock brakes on the Lincoln
Continental Mark III and the Ford LTD station wagon,
called "Sure Trak" in 1975.
The German firms Bosch and Mercedes-Benz had
been co-developing anti-lock braking technology since
the 1930s, and introduced the first completely
electronic 4-wheel multi-channel ABS system in trucks
and the Mercedes-Benz S-Class in 1978.
ABS Systems based on this more modern Mercedes

design were later introduced on other cars and

motorcycles. General Motors introduced the
"Trackmaster" ABS on their Cadillac models in 1971 as
an option that was operational on the rear wheels for
RWD models.

In 1988 BMW became the world's first motorcycle

manufacturer to introduce an electronic/hydraulic ABS
system, this on their BMW K100.

In 1992 Honda launched its first ABS system, this on

the ST1100 Pan European.

In 1997 Suzuki launched its GSF1200SA (Bandit) with

ABS
Today ABS has become a standard equipment even for
small cars

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Theory
When the car brakes (normally), the momentum of
the car must be reduced, so a backwards force needs
to be transmitted to the car. This is achieved by the
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wheels exerting a forward force on the street which

lies below the threshold of maximum static sliding
friction. The wheels keep sticking to the road because
of this friction.

If the driver brakes very hard (or accelerates

extremely) it can occur that the maximum static
friction is surpassed and the wheels lose their grip and
begin sliding (or spinning). In this case the dynamic
sliding friction (which is less than the maximum static
friction) takes over
The amount of traction which can be obtained for an
auto tire is determined by the coefficient of static
friction between the tire and the road. If the wheel is
locked and sliding, the force of friction is determined
by the coefficient of kinetic friction and is usually
significantly less. A tire that is just on the verge of
slipping (10 to 20% slippage) produces more friction
with respect to the road than one which is locked and
skidding (100% slippage). Once traction is lost, friction
is reduced, the tire skids and the vehicle takes longer
to stop. So locked wheels are less effective in stopping
on a road
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But in gravel, sand and deep snow, locked wheels

dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. A locked tire
allows a small
wedge of snow to
build up ahead of
it which allows it
to stop in a
somewhat
shorter distance
than a rolling tire.
That is why some
vehicles have an
on/off switch for
deactivating the
antilock system
when driving on
snow.
So, antilock
brakes do not
necessarily
reduce the
stopping
distance, and in
fact may actually
increase stopping
slightly on dry pavement. But on wet or slick
pavement, antilock brakes may reduce the stopping
distance up to 25% or more, which could be the
difference between a safe stop and an accident
But what ABS provides is Directional stability which
is very crucial.
Directional stability also depends on traction. As long
as a tire does not slip, it will roll only in the direction it
turns. But once it skids, it has about as much
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directional stability as a hockey puck on ice because,

regardless of the angle of the front wheels, the vehicle
continues to skid in whatever direction its momentum
sends it until either the driver releases the brakes. By
minimizing the loss of traction, antilock braking helps
maintain directional stability and steering control

Basic Operation
The Anti-lock Braking System is designed to maintain
vehicle control, directional stability and optimum
deceleration under severe braking conditions on most
road surfaces.
It does so by monitoring the rotational speed of each
wheel and controlling the brake line pressure to each
wheel during braking. This prevents the wheels from
locking up.
The ABS system has following main components
Wheel Speed Sensors
Abs Control Module
Hydraulic Modulator
Pump Motor & Accumulator.

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The sensors - one at each wheel since1985, but at both

front wheels and one at the rear differential on earlier
models send a variable voltage signal to the control
unit, which monitors these signals, compares them to
its program information, and determines whether a
wheel is about to lock up.
When a wheel is about to lock up, the control unit signals
the hydraulic unit to reduce hydraulic pressure (or not
increase it further) at that wheels brake caliper. Pressure
modulation is handled by electrically-operated solenoid
valves.
Regardless of manufacturer or the type of vehicle, all
antilock brake systems operate in a similar manner. Wheel
speed sensors are placed on each wheel that is to be
controlled. Each speed sensor usually has a toothed
wheel, like a gear, that rotates at the same speed as the
vehicle wheel or axle. Mounted close to, but not touching
this toothed wheel, is a permanent magnet wrapped with
a coil of wire, called the pick-up coil (see illustration). As
each tooth rotates past the permanent magnet, it causes
the magnetic field to concentrate and increase slightly.
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This, in turn, induces a small pulse of current in the coil of

wire. The number of pulses per second is directly
proportional to the speed of the wheel. The faster the
wheel turns, the faster the teeth pass the magnet and the
higher the pulse rate.
The pulsed output from the wheel speed sensors goes
to an electronic controller, which monitors each wheel's
speed relative to the speed of the other wheels. As long
as the brakes are not being applied and all of the
monitored wheels are rotating at roughly the same speed,
the system takes no action. If, however, the brakes are
being applied and one or more of the monitored wheels
suddenly begins to reduce speed at a higher rate than the
othersindicating a loss of traction with the road and an
imminent wheel lockup and skidthe controller then
activates the antilock system.

The

antilock brake system on any vehicle is simply an

additional monitoring and controlling function
superimposed on the existing vehicle brake system.
ABS is not a second brake system, nor does it replace
the vehicle brake system. When all four wheels on an
automobile are monitored and controlled, the system
is called a four-channel ABS. If the front two wheels
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plus the rear axle (but not each rear wheel

individually) are to be controlled, the system is called
a three-channel ABS. On heavy trucks with two rear
drive axles, the ABS is commonly a four-channel
system which controls the front wheels and two of the
four rear wheels. Trailers pulled by heavy truck
tractors may also have their own separate ABS which
must interconnect with the ABS on the tractor.
In an automobile, the brakes are actuated by
hydraulic pressure. The ABS controller operates
solenoid valves built into the high pressure side of the
master brake cylinder. These valves are normally open
and do not interfere with braking. When the controller
senses that a wheel is locking up while braking, it first
activates a solenoid to close a valve in the affected
wheel's brake line which prevents the pressure from
increasing any further. If the locked wheel continues to
lose speed, the controller activates a second solenoid
which bleeds pressure off the affected brake line, in
effect releasing the brake for that wheel regardless of
whether the driver is still pushing on the brake pedal.
As soon as the wheel regains traction and its speed
increases, the solenoids are de-activated and normal
braking resumes. Of course, if the conditions are such
that the wheel starts to skid again, the brake will
promptly begin to lock up and the ABS will take over.
This cycle is repeated 12 to 15 times per second until
either the road condition changes or the driver
releases the brakes. The driver will be able to detect
this rapid cycling as a vibration felt through the brake
pedal, but will not have to take any action. The ABS
will minimize the skid and will allow the driver to
maintain directional control of the vehicle.
The brakes on a heavy truck are actuated by air
pressure, rather than hydraulic pressure. The antilock
brake system on a truck works in a manner similar to
the ABS on an automobile, except the antilock air
pressure control valves are located on the vehicle
frame rail, near each wheel.
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Components
WHEEL SPEED SENSORS

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The wheel speed sensors (WSS) consist of a magnetic

pickup and a toothed sensor ring (sometimes called a
"tone" ring). The sensor(s) may be mounted in the
steering knuckles, wheel hubs, brake backing plates,
transmission tail shaft or
differential housing. On
some applications, the
sensor is an integral part
of the wheel bearing and
hub assembly. The
sensor ring(s) may be
mounted on the axle
hub behind the brake
rotor, on the brake rotor
itself, inside the brake
drum, on the
transmission tail shaft or
inside the differential on
the pinion shaft.
The wheel speed
sensor pickup has a
magnetic core surrounded by coil windings. As the wheel
turns, teeth on the sensor ring move through the pickup
magnetic field. This reverses the polarity of the magnetic
field and induces an alternating current (AC) voltage in
the pickup windings. The number of voltage pulses per
second that are induced in the pickup changes in direct
proportion to wheel speed. So as speed increases, the
frequency and amplitude of the wheel speed sensor goes
up.
The WSS signal is sent to the antilock brake control
module, where the AC signal is converted into a digital
signal and then processed. The control module then
counts pulses to monitor changes in wheel speed.

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On applications where the wheel speed sensor is not

part of the hub or wheel bearing assembly, it can be
replaced if defective. Sensor problems can be caused by
an accumulation of debris on the end (they are
magnetic), incorrect air gap or faults in the wiring or
connectors.

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ABS CONTROL MODULE

The ABS electronic control module (which may be

referred to as an EBCM "Electronic Brake Control
Module" or EBM "Electronic Brake Module") is a
microprocessor that functions like the engine control
computer. It uses input from its sensors to regulate
hydraulic pressure during braking to prevent wheel
lockup. The
ABS
module
may be
located in
the trunk,
passenger

compartment or under the hood. It may be a separate

module or integrated with other electronics such as
the body control or suspension computer. On the
newer ABS systems (Delphi DBC-7, Teves Mark 20,
etc.), it is mounted on the hydraulic modulator.
The key inputs for the ABS control module come from
the wheel speed sensors and a brake pedal switch.
The switch signals the control module when the brakes
are being applied, which causes it to go from a
"standby" mode to an active mode.
When ABS braking is needed, the control module kicks
into action and orders the hydraulic unit to modulate
brake pressure as needed. On systems that have a
pump, it also energizes the pump and relay.

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Like any other electronic control module, the ABS

module is vulnerable to damage caused by electrical
overloads, impacts and extreme temperatures. The
module can usually be replaced if defective, except on
some of the newest systems where the module is part
of the hydraulic modulator assembly.
HYDRAULIC MODULATOR:

The hydraulic
modulator or actuator
unit contains the ABS
solenoid valves for
each brake circuit. The
exact number of valves
per circuit depends on
the ABS system and
application. Some have
a pair of on-off solenoid
valves for each brake
circuit while others use a single valve that can operate
in more than one position. On Delco VI ABS systems,
small electric motors are used in place of solenoids to
drive pistons up and down to modulate brake
pressure.
On some systems, the individual ABS solenoids can be
replaced if defective, but on most applications the
modulator is considered a sealed assembly and must
be replaced as a unit if defective.
Hydraulic modulator has a hydraulic modulator block
including a reservoir and a damper; and an electronic
control block detachably attached to the surface of the
hydraulic modulator block. The reservoir and the
damper are overlapped with each other such that a
surface of the hydraulic modulator block becomes
entirely substantially flat. With this, the hydraulic
modulator becomes simple in construction. The
hydraulic modulator has a solenoid valve; an
electronic control circuit board; and an electric wiring
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pattern prepared by pressing a metal plate having a

first major surface formed with a first tin layer and a
nickel layer and a second major surface formed with a
second tin layer, into a three-dimensional shape such
that the electric wiring pattern is formed with (1) a
first terminal having a surface that is formed with the
first or second tin layer electrically connected with the
solenoid valve, (2) a connector terminal having first
and second surfaces respectively formed with the first
and second tin layers, and (3) a second terminal
having a surface that is formed with the nickel layer
electrically connected with the electronic control
circuit board. Thus, each terminal has a secure
electrical connection with another member.

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PUMP & ACCUMULATOR

A high pressure electric pump is used in some ABS

systems to generate power assist for normal braking
as well as the
reapplication
of brake
pressure
during ABS
braking. In
some systems,
it is used only
for the
reapplication
of pressure
during ABS
braking.
The pump
motor is
energized via a relay that is switched on and off by the
ABS control module. The fluid pressure that is
generated by the pump is stored in the "accumulator."
The accumulator on ABS systems where the hydraulic
modulator is part of the master cylinder assembly
consists of a pressure storage chamber filled with
nitrogen gas.
Should the pump fail (a warning light comes on when
reserve pressure drops too low), there is usually
enough reserve pressure in the accumulator for 10 to
20 power-assisted stops. After that, there is no power
assist. The brakes still work, but with increased effort.

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On ABS systems that have a conventional master

cylinder and vacuum booster for power assist, a small
accumulator or pair of accumulators may be used as
temporary holding reservoirs for brake fluid during the
hold-release-reapply cycle. This type of accumulator
typically uses a spring loaded diaphragm rather than a
nitrogen charged chamber to store pressure.

Anti-Lock Brake Types

There are several ABS systems used by the auto
manufacturers, every make and model chooses what
system is best suitable for their vehicle depending on
size and weight, we will show you the most common
systems used today.

Open and closed systems:

Open anti-lock system : Open anti-lock system is
one in which the brake fluid released from the brakes
during ABS stop is not returned to the brake during
the ABS stop; instead, the fluid is stored in an
accumulator during the ABS stop, then returned to the
master cylinder reservoir afterwards.
A disadvantage of the open systems is that the
brake pedal will drop during a long ABS stop as fluid
flows from the brake lines.
Some open systems have a pump that restores fluid to
the master cylinder to keep the pedal from sinking,
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but the pump is not involved in the actual anti-lock

function.
This type is used in simple-real wheel-only ABS
designs.
Closed system: Closed system has some means,
generally an electrically powered pump, to restore
hydraulic pressure that's bled off during an ABS stop.
The pump supplies fluid to an accumulator, where
it's stored under pressure until is needed to increase
brake line pressure. In some cases, pump pressure is
applied to the brakes during the ABS stop, with the
amount and timing of pressure application controlled
by a solenoid valve

By The Number Of Channels :

Anti-lock braking systems by the number of channels
-- that is, how many valves that are individually
controlled -- and the number of speed sensors
Four-channel, four-sensor ABS - This is the best
scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels
and a separate valve for all four wheels. With this
setup, the controller monitors each wheel individually
to make sure it is achieving maximum braking force.

Three-channel, three-sensor ABS - This scheme,

commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS,
has a speed sensor and a valve for each of the front
wheels, with one valve and one sensor for both rear
wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheels is
located in the rear axle.
This system provides individual control of the front
wheels, so they can both achieve maximum braking
force. The rear wheels, however, are monitored
together; they both have to start to lock up before the
ABS will activate on the rear. With this system, it is
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possible that one of the rear wheels will lock during a

stop, reducing brake effectiveness.

One-channel, one-sensor ABS - This system is

commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS.
It has one valve, which controls both rear wheels, and
one speed sensor, located in the rear axle.
This system operates the same as the rear end of a
three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored
together and they both have to start to lock up before
the ABS kicks in. In this system it is also possible that
one of the rear wheels will lock, reducing brake
effectiveness.
This system is easy to identify. Usually there will be
one brake line going through a T-fitting to both rear
wheels. You can locate the speed sensor by looking for
an electrical connection near the differential on the
rear-axle housing

Integrated systems and Non-integrated

systems
Integrated systems:
An integrated system gets its name from the fact that
the major hydraulic components like the brake booster
and the hydraulic modulator are integrated into a unit
with the master cylinder. Other components, such as
the accumulator and hydraulic modulator, may also be
part of the assembly. Many of these systems have no
vacuum booster.
In such systems, the ABS pump provides brake boost
as well as the pressure necessary for anti-lock brake
operation.
The pump forces fluid into one or more accumulators,
where is stored at very high pressures, typically 2000
to 3000 psi until it is needed. On systems without a
vacuum booster, the booster is a valve, controlled by
the driver's foot on the brake pedal, which regulates
the amount of boost applied.
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Non-integrated systems:
Non-integrated systems, also known as "add-on" ABS,
are installed in conventional brake systems between
the master cylinder and the wheel brakes. A vacuum
booster is used.
The master cylinder is very much alike, or in some
cases identical, to the master cylinder used with nonanti-lock brakes.
The hydraulic modulator is installed near the master
cylinder. The brake fluid lines from the master cylinder
connect to the hydraulic modulator. Brake lines run
from the hydraulic modulator to each of the wheel
brakes.
During normal braking, it's as if the hydraulic
modulator weren't there, hydraulic pressure from the
master cylinder flows uninterrupted through the
modulator to the brakes.
During an ABS stop, the hydraulic modulator rapidly
changes the hydraulic pressure at the wheel brakes,
holding it steady, reducing it, or letting it increase.
Fluid pressure is reduced by allowing some of the high
pressure to return to its source. This low pressure fluid
in an ABS system is commonly referred as "decayed"
fluid.

Hydraulic circuits:
Primary:
The primary circuit is normally operated by the master
cylinder piston closest to the rear of the master
cylinder, and thus in direct contact with the booster
pushrod.
Secondary:

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The secondary circuit is operated by the master

cylinder piston closest to the front of the master
cylinder.
In the case of front-rear split circuits, the primary
circuit operates both front brakes and the secondary
circuit operates both rear brakes, in diagonally split
circuits, the primary operates one front brake and
diagonally opposite rear, while the secondary operates
the remaining two wheels.

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Modern developments
Modern Electronic Stability Control (ESC or ESP)
systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a
minimum of two additional sensors are added to help
the system work: these are a steering wheel angle
sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of
operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor
detects that the direction taken by the car does not
coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports,
the ESC software will brake the necessary individual
wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated
systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver
intends. The steering wheel sensor also helps in the
operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this
will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve
should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by
how much

Disadvantages
Increased braking distances under some limited
circumstances (ice, snow, gravel, "soft" surfaces),
Creation of a "false sense of security" among
drivers who do not understand the operation, and
limitations of ABS.
The anti-lock brakes are more sensitive on the
damper condition. the influence of the worn
components on the performance of the vehicle
with anti-lock brakes is more significant than
without anti-lock brakes, the stopping distance
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with defective shocks is by meters longer for the

presented simulation scenario.

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