Electroencephalography

Gamma Waves
These are involved in higher processing tasks as well as
cognitive functioning. Gamma waves are important for
learning, memory and information processing. It is thought
that the 40 Hz gamma wave is important for the binding of our
senses in regards to perception and are involved in learning new
material.
Frequency range: 40 Hz to 100 Hz (Highest)
Too much: Anxiety, high arousal, stress
Too little: ADHD, depression, learning disabilities
Optimal: Binding senses, cognition, information processing,
learning, perception, REM sleep
Increase gamma waves: Meditation

BETA WAVES:
The higher beta frequencies are associated with
critical thinking, writing, reading, and socialization.

Frequency range: 12 Hz to 40 Hz (High)

Too much: Adrenaline, anxiety, high arousal, inability to
relax, stress
Too little: ADHD, daydreaming, depression, poor cognition
Optimal: Conscious focus, memory, problem solving
Increase beta waves: Coffee, energy drinks, various
stimulants

Alpha Waves
This frequency range bridges the gap between our conscious thinking
and subconscious mind. In other words, alpha is the frequency range
between beta and theta. If we become stressed, a phenomenon called
alpha blocking may occur which involves excessive beta activity and
very little alpha. Essentially the beta waves block out the production of
alpha because we become too aroused.
Frequency range: 8 Hz to 12 Hz (Moderate)
Too much: Daydreaming, inability to focus, too relaxed
Too little: Anxiety, high stress, insomnia, OCD
Optimal: Relaxation
Increase alpha waves: Alcohol, marijuana, relaxants, some
antidepressants

Theta Waves
. Too much theta activity may make people prone to bouts of
depression and may make them highly suggestible based
on the fact that they are in a deeply relaxed, semi-hypnotic
state. Theta has its benefits of helping improve our intuition,
creativity, and makes us feel more natural. It is also involved in
restorative sleep.
Frequency range: 4 Hz to 8 Hz (Slow)
Too much: ADHD, depression, hyperactivity, impulsivity,
inattentiveness
Too little: Anxiety, poor emotional awareness, stress
Optimal: Creativity, emotional connection, intuition, relaxation
Increase theta waves: Depressants

Delta Waves
These are the slowest recorded brain waves in human beings. They
are found most often in infants as well as young children. As we
age, we tend to produce less delta even during deep sleep. They are
associated with the deepest levels of relaxation and restorative,
healing sleep. They have also been found to be involved in
unconscious bodily functions such as regulating heart beat and
digestion.
Frequency range: 0 Hz to 4 Hz (Slowest)
Too much: Brain injuries, learning problems, inability to think,
severe ADHD
Too little: Inability to rejuvenate body, inability to revitalize
the brain, poor sleep
Optimal: Immune system, natural healing, restorative / deep
sleep
Increase delta waves: Depressants, sleep

Physiological sources

MEG/EEG signals derive primarily from cortical current sourc

Strong, focal subcortical activity can also give rise to MEG/EE

Action potentials and synapses

After an action potential is

received neurotransmitters are
released



They bind to the receptors of a
postsynaptic neuron creating PostSynaptic Potentials (PSPs)

These are caused by ions flowing
in and out of postsynaptic
membrane (eg Cl)

Postsynaptic potentials

Na ions in,
K ions out

Depending on whether the

neurotransmitter is excitatory or
inhibitory, electrical current
flows from the postsynaptic cell
to the environment, or the
opposite

The membrane of the
postsynaptic cell becomes
depolarised (more likely to
generate an action potential) or
hyperpolarised (less likely to
generate an action potential)

Action potentials not

picked up by EEG/MEG

Primary current

Negative ions flowing out of cell and
positive ions into it, make cell +ve
voltage

PSP effects last tens to hundreds of

milliseconds

Postsynaptic potentials of neighboring

cells can be similar (ensemble
encoding).

Cortical sheet
Pyramidal neurons of the cortex are
spatially aligned and perpendicular to
the cortical surface



Spatial and temporal alignment of
membrane potential creates dipoles

Action potential are not sufficiently
correlated over space and time to
contribute to dipoles

Dipoles

Primary current, Jp =dipole

Secondary current, Jv = volume current (Ohmic return current caused
MEG is sensitive to primary and volume currents

Right hand rule

Magnetic field, B, induced by primary current vector

Also, field induced by volume currents

Content
Neural activity
Forward models
Source reconstruction

Volume conduction

When a dipole is in a
conductive medium, electrical
current spreads through this
medium (the volume or
secondary currents). They
reach the scalp to induce the
voltage differences that EEG
is sensitive to.



Brain, skull and scalp have

different conductivities

The skull has a higher
electrical resistance than the
brain => the electrical signal
spreads laterally when
reaching the skull

Volume currents for a thalamic dipole source

computed using a finite element volume conductor model
(see later).

Finite element head model

Five compartments (scalp, skull, CSF, brain grey and white matter)
Many thousand elements in each with different
conductivity.
Diffusion Tensor Imaging data
used for estimation of
gray/white matter conductivity.

Also use of Electrical Impedance

Tomography
(EIT) Finite Element
Sagittal cut through
volume conductor model of the human head
Spherical head models are a better
approximation for MEG than EEG
because MEG is also sensitive to

Tangential and
radial dipoles

Tangential dipole is oriented

parallel to the cortical surface
Radial dipole is oriented towards
or away from it
MEG is not sensitive to radial
dipoles
Lower amplitude closer to centre of head (bigger reduction for MEG)

Electrode placement the ten-twenty

electrode system

Principle of registration
EEG curve is registered/recalculated as the
difference of electric potentials between two
electrodes (varying in the course of time)
derivation = recording from a pair of electrodes
(two electrodes are connected to a single amplifier, to one EEG
channel)
bipolar
monopolar

Montages
montage = a particular
electrode arrangement,
a number of different derivations
is diplayed simultaneously
commonly used and preset
montages:
longitudinal
transverse
( referential )

EEG reading
Morphology
Amplitude
Frequency

EEG reading: morphology (wave shape)

sharp waves
spikes
= epileptiform patterns,
spike-and-wave complexes they accompany epilepsy

EEG reading: amplitude

voltage in microvolts
a peak-to-peak measurement
compared with the calibration signal
commonly 20 -100 V (in normal EEG)
amplitude changes may be pathological

EEG reading: frequency

the rhythmic EEG activity is classified as:
delta - less than 4 Hz
theta 4 to 8 Hz
alpha 8 to 13 Hz
beta more than 13 Hz

Normal rhythms
Alpha rhythm
sinusoidal waves (8-13 Hz)
maximal over the
posterior head region
(occipitally)
occurs during
wakefulness and
relaxation
best seen with the
patients eyes closed
blocked or attenuated
with eye opening

Normal rhythms
Beta rhythm
is not prominent
has low amplitude
is best seen frontally
not affected by eye opening

Theta rhythm
a small amount, of low
amplitude, frontally
accompanies drowsiness

Delta rhythm
is normal during deep sleep
is normal in childhood
is abnormal in the other cases

The normal EEG: awake EEG in adults

typical normal EEG:
alpha rhythm
the posterior
dominant rhythm
blocked with eyes
opening

Frontally beta and

theta low amplitude
activity

The normal EEG: awake EEG in

adults
low voltage EEG (atypical flat EEG)
a variety of normal finding
10% of normal healthy adults
no activity over 20 V
various frequencies may be present
alpha rhythm may be absent

Abnormal EEG amplitude changes:

local - reduction of amplitude due to:
superficial lesions in the cortex, rare
change of material between cortex and
electrodes subdural hematoma - flattening

Abnormal EEG amplitude changes:

generalized in deep coma
burst-suppression pattern or flat record

EEG in epilepsy
interictal patterns in intervals without
seizures
epileptiform patterns sharp waves, spikes,
spike-and-wave complexes
local, as a focus
or generalized

ictal patterns during seizure