Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Lecture Notes 6: Basic Modulation Schemes
The first modulation considered is binary phase shift keying. In this scheme during every bit
duration, denoted by T , one of two phases of the carrier is transmitted. These two phases are
180 degrees apart. This makes these two waveforms antipodal. Any binary modulation where
the two signals are antipodal gives the minimum error probability (for fixed energy) over any
other set of binary signals. The error probability can only be made smaller (for fixed energy
per bit) by allowing more than two waveforms for transmitting information.
In this lecture we examine a number of different simple modulation schemes. We examine the
implementation of the optimum receiver, the error probability and the bandwidth occupancy.
We would like the simplest possible receiver, with the lowest error probability and smallest
bandwidth for a given data rate.
VI-1
st
rt
and height
1.
bl pT t
lT
bl
"!
bt
2P cos 2 f ct
bt
BPSK Modulator
VI-2
nt
Modulator
otherwise.
lT
2P cos 2 f ct
bl cos 2 f ct pT t
where t is the phase waveform. The signal power is P. The energy of each transmitted bit
is E PT .
2P b t cos 2 f ct
pT t
2P
st
The phase of a BPSK signal can take on one of two values as shown in Figure VI-3.
T
Let b t denote the data waveform consisting of an infinite sequence of pulses of duration T
VI-3
VI-4
bt
iT
rt
5T
4T
0 dec bi
0 dec bi
1
1
1
1
X iT
3T
2T
LPF
2 T cos 2 f ct
-1
The optimum receiver for BPSK in the presence of additive white Gaussian noise is shown in
Figure VI-3. The low pass filter (LPF) is a filter matched to the baseband signal being
transmitted. For BPSK this is just a rectangular pulse of duration T . The impulse response is
pT t The output of the low pass filter is
ht
"
0
3T
4T
5T
r d
2 T cos 2 f c h t
"
X t
2T
VI-5
VI-6
2 T cos 2 f c
2P b cos 2 f c
i 1T
r d
"
iT
2 T cos 2 f c pT iT
X iT
P
e,-1
n d
iT
2 P T bi
i 1T
2 f c cos 2 f c d
1 cos
e,+1
2n for some
E bi
"
PT bi
X iT
X (iT )
E
Figure 36: Probability Density of Decision Statistic for Binary Phase Shift
Keying
VI-7
VI-8
Pe b
2E
N0
2Eb
N0
u2 2
Qx
1
e
2
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
-7
10
-8
10
-9
10
-10
where
P e,b
du
For binary signals this is the smallest bit error probability, i.e. BPSK are optimal signals and
the receiver shown above is optimum (in additive white Gaussian noise). For binary signals
the energy transmitted per information bit Eb is equal to the energy per signal E. For
Pe b 10 5 we need a bit-energy, Eb to noise density N0 ratio of Eb N0 9 6dB. Note: Q x
is a decreasing function which is 1/2 at x 0. There are efficient algorithms (based on Taylor
2
e x 2 2 the error probability can be
series expansions) to calculate Q x . Since Q x
upper bounded by
1
Pe b
e Eb N0
2
which decreases exponentially with signal-to-noise ratio.
"
10
12
14
16
Eb/N 0 (dB)
VI-9
Bandwidth of BPSK
VI-10
The power spectral density is a measure of the distribution of power with respect to frequency.
The power spectral density for BPSK has the form
sinc2 f
fc T
fc T
PT
sinc2 f
2
S f
where
"
sin x
x
sinc x
The power spectrum has zeros or nulls at f f c i T except for i 0; that is there is a null at
1 T called the first null; a null at f f c
2 T called the second null; etc. The
f fc
bandwidth between the first nulls is called the null-to-null bandwidth. For BPSK the
null-to-null bandwidth is 2 T . Notice that the spectrum falls off as f f c 2 as f moves away
from f c . (The spectrum of MSK falls off as the fourth power, versus the second power for
BPSK).
"
S f df
1 2T
f fc
1 2T . The drawbacks are that the signal loses its constant envelope
property (useful for nonlinear amplifiers) and the sensitivity to timing errors is greatly
increased. The timing sensitivity problem can be greatly alleviated by filtering to a slightly
larger bandwidth 1 2T
f fc
1 2T .
Notice that
It is possible to reduce the bandwidth of a BPSK signal by filtering. If the filtering is done
properly the (absolute) bandwidth of the signal can be reduced to 1 T without causing any
intersymbol interference; that is all the power is concentrated in the frequency range
VI-11
VI-12
S(f) (dB)
S(f)
0.40
-20
0.30
-40
0.50
-60
0.20
-80
0.10
-100
-5
0.00
-4
-3
-2
-1
-4
-3
-2
-1
(f-f c )T
(f-fc)T
VI-13
Example
VI-14
Given:
21
10
13
Watts
Pr
S(f) (dB)
Watts/Hz.
-20
10 7 .
Desired Pe
-40
Find: The data rate that can be used and the bandwidth that is needed.
-80
-60
"
"
"
"
E t
s0 t
and
-100
-8
-6
-4
-2
s1 t
10
E t
-10
(f-fc)T
where t
2 T cos 2 f ct 0 t T is a unit energy waveform. The above describes
the signals transmitted only during the interval 0 T . Obviously this is repeated for other
VI-15
VI-16
Effect of Filtering and Nonlinear Amplification
on a BPSK waveform
intervals. The receiver correlates with t over the interval 0 T and compares with a
threshold (usually 0) to make a decision. The correlation receiver is shown below.
In this section we illustrate one main drawback to BPSK. The fact that the signal amplitude
has discontinuities causes the spectrum to have fairly large sidelobes. For a system that has a
constraint on the bandwidth this can be a problem. A possible solution is to filter the signal. A
bandpas filter centered at the carrier frequency which removes the sidbands can be inserted
after mixing to the carrier frequency. Alternatly we can filter the data signal at baseband
before mixing to the carrier frequency.
rt
T
0
dec s0
dec s1
Below we simulate this type of system to illustrate the effect of filtering and nonlinear
amplification. The data waveform b t is mixed onto a carrier. This modulated waveform is
denoted by
t
This is called the Correlation Receiver. Note that synchronization to the symbol timing and
oscillator phase are required.
2P cos 2 f ct
s1 t
The signal s1 t is filtered by a fourth order bandpass Butterworth filter with passband from
fc 4Rb to f c 4Rb The filtered signal is denoted by s2 t . The signal s2 t is then amplified.
VI-17
VI-18
Data waveform
1
0.5
0
s3 t
b(t)
0.5
This amplifier is fairly close to a hard limiter in which every input greater than zero is mapped
to 100 and every input less than zero is mapped to -100.
1
0
0.2
0.4
Simulation Parameters
0.6
time
0.8
1.2
5
x 10
Signal waveform
s(t)
1
0
1
2
0
0.4
0.6
time
0.8
1.2
5
x 10
VI-19
0.2
VI-20
Signal spectrum
100
40
80
60
60
40
80
20
S(f)
Output
100
120
20
40
140
60
160
80
180
0
0.5
1.5
frequency
100
2
2.5
7
1.5
0.5
x 10
0
Input
0.5
1.5
VI-21
VI-22
Data waveform
1
45
0.5
b(t)
40
50
55
0
0.5
S2(f)
60
1
0
0.2
0.4
65
0.6
time
0.8
1.2
5
x 10
70
1
s2(t)
75
80
85
90
0
0.5
1.5
frequency
2
0
2.5
7
x 10
0.4
0.6
time
0.8
1.2
5
x 10
VI-23
0.2
VI-24
Data waveform
20
0.5
b(t)
30
0
0.5
40
S2(f)
1
0
0.2
50
0.4
0.6
time
0.8
1.2
5
x 10
60
s3(t)
50
0
70
50
80
0
0.5
1.5
frequency
100
0
2.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
time
x 10
0.8
1.2
5
x 10
VI-25
VI-26
P cos 2 f ct
bc t
The next modulation technique we consider is QPSK. In this modulation technique one of
four phases of the carrier is transmitted in a symbol duration denoted by Ts . Since one of four
waveforms is transmitted there are two bits of information transmitted during each symbol
duration. An alternative way of describing QPSK is that of two carriers offset in phase by 90
degrees. Each of these carriers is then modulated using BPSK. These two carriers are called
the inphase and quadrature carriers. Because the carriers are 90 degrees offset, at the output of
the correlation receiver they do not interfer with each other (assuming perfect phase
synchronization). The advantage of QPSK over BPSK is that the the data rate is twice as high
for the same bandwidth. Alternatively single-sideband BPSK would have the same rate in bits
per second per hertz but would have a more difficult job of recovering the carrier frequency
and phase.
st
bs t
P sin 2 f ct
VI-27
VI-28
bc l pTs t
bs t
bc l
bs l pTs t
lTs
bs l
lTs
! !
bc t
bc l
bs l
+1
+1
-1
+1
3 4
-1
-1
5 4
+1
-1
7 4
2P cos 2 f ct
bs t sin 2 f ct
P bc t cos 2 f ct
st
The transmitted power is still P. The symbol duration is Ts seconds. The data rate is
Rb 2 Ts bits seconds.
The phase t , of the transmitted signal is related to the data waveform as follows.
lTs
4 3 4 5 4 7 4
l pTs t
VI-29
VI-30
bc t
1
t
Ts
2Ts
3Ts
4Ts
5Ts
-1
The constellation of QPSK is shown below. The phase of the overall carrier can be on of four
values. Transitions between any of the four values may occur at any symbol transition.
Because of this, it is possible that the transition is to the 180 degree opposite phase. When this
happens the amplitude of the signal goes through zero. In theory this is an instantaneous
transition. In practice, when the signal has been filtered to remove out-of-band components
this transition is slowed down. During this transition the amplitude of the carrier goes throguh
zero. This can be undesireable for various reasons. One reason is that nonlinear amplifiers
with a non constant envelope signal will regenerate the out-of-band spectral components.
Another reason is that at the receiver, certain synchronization circuits need constant envelope
to maintain their tracking capability.
bs t
1
2Ts
3Ts
4Ts
5Ts
2Ts
3Ts
4Ts
5Ts
Ts
-1
7 4
5 4
3 4
4
Ts
VI-31
VI-32
Quadrature-phase
Channel
(+1,+1)
fc Ts
f c Tb
sinc2 2 f
In-phase
Channel
sinc2 f
f c Tb
fc Ts
PTb sinc2 2 f
PTs 2 sinc2 f
S f
(-1,+1)
(-1,-1)
(+1,-1)
VI-33
S(f)
S(f) dB
1.00
VI-34
BPSK
QPSK
-20
0.75
QPSK
-40
0.50
-60
BPSK
0.25
-80
0.00
-4
-3
-2
-1
-100
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
(f-f c )T
(f-f c )T
VI-35
VI-36
2 Ts cos 2 f ct
QPSK
BPSK
LPF
Xc iTs
0 dec bc i
0 dec bc i
0 dec bs i
0 dec bs i
1
1
-20
iTs
S(f) dB
rt
-40
LPF
-80
Xs iTs
1
1
-60
iTs
2 Ts sin 2 f ct
-100
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
10
(f-fc)T
VI-37
VI-38
c i
E b bc i
Given:
c i
14
Watts/Hz.
Eb bs i
s i
Pr
where Eb PTs 2 is the energy per transmitted bit. Also c i and s i are Gaussian random
variables, with mean 0 and variance N0 2.
10
Watts
s i
PTs 2 bs i
Xs iTs
Example
PTs 2 bc i
Xc iTs
2n or 2 f c Ts
Assuming 2 f c Ts
Desired Pe
10 7 .
Find: The data rate that can be used and the bandwidth that is needed for QPSK.
Bit Error Probability of QPSK
Ts
N0
Pr T N0
13 52
Pe2 b
2Pe b
13 52. But
Pr
2
11 3dB or Eb N0
Pe b
or Eb N0
"
"
"
Eb N0
"
10
2Eb N0
Pe b
2Eb
N0
Solution: Need Q
since Ts 2T . Thus the data bit must be at least T 9 0 10 8 seconds long, i.e. the data
rate 1 T must be less than 11 Mbits/second. Clearly we also need a (null-to-null) bandwidth
of 11 MHz.
Thus for the same data rate, transmitted power, and bit error rate (probability of error), QPSK
has half the (null-to-null) bandwidth of BPSK.
VI-39
VI-40
P cos 2 f ct
Ts 2
bc t
st
The disadvantages of QPSK can be fixed by offsetting one of the data streams by a fraction
(usually 1/2) of a symbol duration. By doing this we only allow one data bit to change at a
time. When this is done the possible phase transitions are 90 deg. In this way the transitions
through the origin are illiminated. Offset QPSK then gives the same performance as QPSK
but will have less distorition when there is filtering and nonlinearities.
bs t
P sin 2 f ct
VI-41
VI-42
bc l pTs t
lTs
bc l
lTs
bs l
bc t
Quadrature-phase
Channel
bs l pTs t
st
(-1,+1)
(+1,+1)
2P cos 2 f ct
bs t sin 2 f ct
Ts 2 cos 2 f ct
P bc t
st
bs t
In-phase
Channel
The transmitted power is still P. The symbols duration is Ts seconds. The data rate is
Rb 2 Ts bits seconds. The bandwidth (null-to-null) is 2 Ts Rb . This modification of
QPSK removes the possibility of both data bits changing simultaneously. However, one of the
data bits may change every Ts 2 seconds but 180 degree changes are not allowed. The
bandwidth of OQPKS is the same as QPSK. OQPSK has advantage over QPSK when passed
through nonlinearities (such as in a satellite) in that the out of band interference generated by
first bandlimiting and then hard limiting is less with OQPSK than QPSK.
(-1,-1)
(+1,-1)
VI-43
VI-44
Ts 2
bc t
2 Ts cos 2 f ct
1
5Ts
0 dec bs i
0 dec bs i
1
1
Ts 2
Xc iTs
0 dec bc i
0 dec bc i
bs t
LPF
4Ts
3Ts
2Ts
Ts
-1
Ts 2
iTs
rt
1
t
2Ts
3Ts
4Ts
5Ts
1
1
Xs iTs
7 4
LPF
-1
iTs
Ts
2 Ts sin 2 f ct
5 4
3 4
Ts
2Ts
3Ts
4Ts
5Ts
VI-45
VI-46
Eb bc i
c i
Xs iTs
PTs 2 bs i
s i
Eb bs i
s i
PTs 2 bc i
Ts 2
Xc iTs
Minimum shift keying can be viewed in several different ways and has a number of significant
advantages over the previously considered modulation schemes. MSK can be thought of as a
variant of OQPSK where the data pulse waveforms are shaped to allow smooth transition
between phases. It can also be thought of a a form of frequency shift keying where the two
frequencies are separated by the minimum amount to maintain orthogonality and have
continuous phase when switching from one frequency to another (hence the name minimum
shift keying). The advantages of MSK include a better spectral efficiency in most cases. In
fact the spectrum of MSK falls off at a faster rate than BPSK, QPSK and OQPSK. In addition
there is an easier implementation than OQPSK (called serial MSK) that avoids the problem of
having a precisely controlled time offset between the two data streams. An additional
advantage is that MSK can be demodulator noncoherently as well as coherently. So for
applications requiring a low cost receiver MSK may be a good choice.
where Eb PTs 2 is the energy per transmitted bit. Also c i and s i are Gaussian random
variables, with mean 0 variance N0 2.
Pe b
2Pe b
Pe2 b
Pe b
Pe s
2n or 2 f c Ts
Assuming 2 f c Ts
VI-47
VI-48
bc l pTs t
lTs
bs l
ct
Ts 2
bs l pTs t
2 cos t Ts
2 sin t Ts
ct
Ts 2
bc l
l
lTs
bs t
bc t
P cos 2 f ct
Ts 2
ct
bc t
st
bs t c t sin 2 f ct
Ts 2 cos 2 f ct
Ts 2 c t
P bc t
st
bs t
2P
Ts 2 cos t Ts
sin 2 f ct
bs t sin t Ts
P sin 2 f ct
ct
cos 2 f ct
bc t
!
!
st
2P cos 2 f ct
where
Ts 2 cos t Ts
bc t
cos t
VI-49
VI-50
t
+1
-1
-1
+1
-1
-1
t
Ts
t
Ts
t
Ts
t
Ts
+1
+1
In the above table, because of the delay of the bit stream corresponding to the cosine branch,
only one bit is allowed to change at a time. During each time interval of duration Ts 2 during
which the data bits remain constant there is a phase shift of 2. Because the phase changes
linearly with time MSK can also be viewed as frequency shift keying. The two different
1
frequencies are f c 2T1 s and f c 2T1 s . The change in frequency is f T1s
2T where
bs t sin t Ts
bc t Ts 2 cos t Ts
tan
bs t sin t Ts
sin t
bs t
Ts 2
bc t
Tb 1 2 Ts is the data bit rate. The transmitted power is still P. The symbols duration is Ts
seconds. The data rate is Rb 2 Ts bits seconds. The signal has constant envelope which is
useful for nonlinear amplifiers. The bandwidth is different because of the pulse shaping
waveforms.
VI-51
VI-52
Ts 2
bc t
1
bc 0
bc 3
3
(t)/
7Ts t
Ts
-1
2Ts
3Ts
4Ts
bc 1 bc 2
5Ts
6Ts
bc 4
bs t
bs 1
bs 3
0
7Ts t
Ts
2Ts
-1b
s0
bs 2
4Ts
5Ts
6Ts
bs 4
2
0
2
3Ts
7Ts t
2Ts
Ts
3Ts
4Ts
5Ts
6Ts
4
8
time/Tb
10
12
14
VI-53
(-1,+1)
Quadrature-phase
Channel
VI-54
(+1,+1)
cos2 2Tb f fc
1 4Tb f fc 2
cos2 2Tb f fc
1 4Tb f fc 2
8PTb
2
S f
The nulls in the spectrum are at f f c Tb = 0.75, 1.25, 1.75,.... Because we force the signal
to be continuous in phase MSK has significantly faster decay of the power spectrum as the
frequency from the carrier becomes larger. MSK decays as 1 f 4 while QPSK, OQPSK, and
BPSK decay as 1 f 2 as the frequency differs more and more from the center frequency.
In-phase
Channel
(-1,-1)
(+1,-1)
VI-55
VI-56
Spectrum of MSK
Spectrum of MSK
0
S(f) (dB)
1.00
M SK
QPSK
B PSK
Q PSK
-10
M SK
-20
0.75
-30
-40
-50
0.50
-60
-70
0.25
-80
BPSK
-90
-100
0.00
-4
-3
-2
-1
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
(f-f c )T
(f-f c )T
VI-57
VI-58
ct
2 Ts cos 2 fc t
Ts 2
S(f)
-25
Ts 2
iTs
iTs
0 dec bs i
0 dec bs i
1
1
Ts 2
Xc iTs
0 dec bc i
0 dec bc i
LPF
rt
-50
1
1
2 Ts sin 2 fc t
Xs iTs
ct
-100
LPF
-75
-6
-4
-2
-8
(f-fc)T
VI-59
VI-60
Bit Error Probability of MSK with Coherent Demodulation
Xs iTs
PTs 2 bs i
s i
Eb bs i
s i
2Eb
N0
c i
Eb bc i
c i
PTs 2 bc i
Ts 2
Xc iTs
2n or 2 f c Ts
Assuming 2 f c Ts
where Eb PTs 2 is the energy per transmitted bit. Also c i and s i are Gaussian random
variables, with mean 0 variance N0 2.
Pe b
2Pe b
Pe2 b
Pe s
VI-61
VI-62
1.5
4
1
2
phi(t)
y(t)
0.5
-0.5
-2
-1
-4
-1.5
-2
10
time/Tb
12
14
16
18
-6
20
10
time/Tb
12
14
16
18
20
VI-63
VI-64
0.5
40
20
-0.5
-1
10
15
20
25
-20
30
-40
-60
0.5
0
-80
-0.5
-100
-1
60
10
15
20
25
-120
30
10
VI-65
VI-66
Noncoherent Demodulation of MSK
Because MSK can be viewed as a form of Frequency Shift Keying it can also be demodulated
noncoherently. For the same sequence of data bits the frequency is f c 1 2Ts if
bc t Ts 2
bs t and is f c 1 2Ts if bc t Ts 2
bs t .
at
2Ts 5Ts 2
bs 1
bc 0
bc 0
3Ts 2 2Ts
bs 0
bs 0
Detected Data
bs 1
bc 1
bc 1
bs 2
bc
Frequency
Previous Data
Ts 3Ts 2
Ts 2 Ts
0 Ts 2
Time Interval
The method to detect which of the two frequencies is transmitted is identical to that of
Frequency Shift Keying which will be considered later.
VI-67
VI-68
The implementation of MSK as parallel branches suffers from significant sensitivity to precise
timing of the data (exact shift by T for the inphase component) and the exact balance between
the inphase and quadriphase carrier signals. An alternative implementation of MSK that is
less complex and does not have these draw backs is known as serial MSK. Serial MSK does
2n 1 4T which may be important when f c is about
have an additional restriction that f c
the same as 1 T but for f c 1 T it is not important. The block diagram for serial MSK
modulator and demodulator is shown below.
2 sin 2 f 1t pT t
gt
1 4T for some
st
bt
1
1
where f 1 fc 4T
and f 2 fc 4T
. (For serial MSK we require f c
2n
integer n. Otherwise the implementation does not give constant envelope).
G f
2P cos 2 f 1t
f1 T
f1 T e
T sinc f
f1 T
j f
f1 T e
T sinc f
G f
VI-69
iT
rt
Demodulator
VI-70
The low pass filter (LPF) removes double frequency components. Serial MSK is can also be
viewed as a filtered form of BPSK where the BPSK signal center frequency is f 1 but the filter
is not symmetric with respect to f 1 . The receiver is a filter matched to the transmitted signal
(and hence optimal). The output is then mixed down to baseband where it is filtered (to
remove the double frequency terms) and sampled.
LPF
H f
X iT
2 T cos 2 f 1t
f1 T
f1 T
0 25
e
0 25 2
j2 f
f1 T
"
"
4T cos 2 f
1 16 f
H f
VI-71
VI-72
1 2 and
2P cos 2 f ct
st
t 2
qt
"
0 kT
1T
iT d
0 i 0
2h bi q t
0 kT
iT
1 2
bi g
2h
t k
then the modulation is the same as MSK. Continuous Phase Modulation Techniques have
constant envelope which make them useful for systems involving nonlinear amplifiers which
also must have very narrow spectral widths.
1T
i 0
The function g is the (instantaneous) frequency function, h is called the modulation index
t
and bi is the data. The function q t
0 g d is the phase waveform. The function
dg t
dt
gt
VI-73
VI-74
Example
Given:
14
Watts/Hz.
10
Watts
Pr
Desired Pe
10 7 .
Gaussian minimum shift keying is a special case of continuous phase modulation discussed in
the previous section. For GMSK the pulse waveforms are given by
Q
gt
Bandwidth available=26MHz (at the 902-928MHz band). The peak power outside must
be 20dB below the peak power inside the band.
"
"
"
"
VI-75
VI-76
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
h(t)
phi(t)
10
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
10
2
8
time/Tb
10
12
0
0
14
Figure 64: Phase Waveform for Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (BT=0.3)
10
time/Tb
12
14
16
18
20
Figure 65: Data Waveform for Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (BT=0.3)
VI-77
VI-78
1.5
-10
1
-20
0.5
b(t)
|H(f)|
-30
-40
-50
-0.5
-60
-1
-70
-80
5
f
-1.5
10
10
time/Tb
12
14
16
18
20
VI-79
VI-80
20
1.5
10
1
0
y(t)
|X(f)|
0.5
-10
-0.5
-20
-1
-30
-1.5
-40
5
f
-2
10
10
time/Tb
12
14
16
18
20
VI-81
VI-82
3
4
2
2
phi(t)
phi(t)
-1
-2
-2
-4
-3
-6
10
time/Tb
12
14
16
18
-4
20
10
15
time/Tb
20
25
30
VI-83
VI-84
60
0.5
40
20
-0.5
-1
10
15
20
25
-20
30
-40
1
-60
0.5
-80
-100
-0.5
-1
-120
0
10
15
20
25
30
10
VI-85
VI-86
Data Waveform
2
Real(x(t))
4 QPSK
0
1
2
0
As mentioned earlier the effect of filtering and nonlinearly amplifying a QPSK waveform
causes distortion when the signal amplitude fluctuates significantly. Another modulation
scheme that has less fluctuation that QPSK is 4 QPSK. In this modulation scheme every
other symbol is sent using a rotated (by 45 degrees) constellation. Thus the transitions from
one phase to the next are still instantaneous (without any filtering) but the signal never makes
a transition through the origin. Only 45 and 135 degree transitions are possible. This is
shown in the constellation below where a little bit of filtering was done.
10
15
20
time
25
30
35
40
25
30
35
40
Data Waveform
2
Imag(x(t))
1
0
1
2
0
10
15
20
time
VI-87
VI-88
2
2
1.5
1
0
1
2
0.5
3
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4
0
0.5
2
1
0
1
1.5
2
3
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
2
2
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
VI-89
General Modulator
VI-90
Orthogonal Signals
M
T 0
A set of signals i t : 0
0 T ) if
b1 t
b2 t
"
i t j t dt
2P cos 2 f c
f0 t
Many signal sets can be described as linear combinations of orthonormal signal sets as we
will show later. Below we describe a number of different orthonormal signal sets. The signal
sets will all be described at some intermediate frequency f 0 but are typically modulated up to
the carrier frequency f c .
bk t
"
i t j t dt
st
ut
b3 t
In most cases the signals will have the same energy and it is convenient to normalize the
signals to unit energy. A set of signals i t : 0 t T 1 i M are said to be
orthonormal (over the interval 0 T ) if
Select
one of
M 2k
unit energy
signals
bl pT t
lT i
12
""
bi t
VI-91
VI-92
0 T
lT
X1 l T
il t
lT
1 T
X2 l T
b1 t
b2 t
bk
b1 t
b2 t
bk
bk t
rt
1 bk t
bk t
Choose
Largest
f0 t
2 T cos 2 fc
t
lT
XM l T
VI-93
m T t is the impulse response of the m-th matched filter. The output of these filters
(assuming that the il -th orthogonal signal is transmitted is) given by
VI-94
log2 M
ln 2
ln 2
Eb
N0
Eb
N0
4 ln 2
4 ln 2
ln 2
0 if
Eb
N0
, Pe
ln 2 = -1.59dB.
VI-95
ln 2
Eb
2N0
log2 M
"
dx
Eb
N0
exp2
Eb
N0
4 ln M
x2 2
exp2
Pe s
"
du
where u is the distribution function of a zero mean, variance 1, Gaussian random variable
given by
1
2
u2 2
E
N0
ln M
"
ue
E
2N0
4 ln M
exp
!
2E M
N0
The symbol error probability of M orthogonal signals with coherent demodulation is given by
1
2
E
N0
ln M
""
To determine the probability of error we need to determine the probability that the filter output
corresponding to the signal present is smaller than one of the other filter outputs.
ln M
ln M
Normally a communication engineer is more concerned with the energy transmitted per bit
rather than the energy transmitted per signal, E. If we let E b be the energy transmitted per bit
then these are related as follows
E
Eb
log2 M
Thus the bound on the symbol error probability can be expressed in terms of the energy
transmitted per bit as
where m m 0 1 2
M 1 is a sequence of independent, identically distributed
Gaussian random variables with mean zero and variance N0 2.
Pe s
exp
E
N0
il
Pe s
il
!
!
Xm l T
E
N0
VI-96
bk
b2 t
b1 t
il
1T
" " "
" " "
where for l
lT
ut
Pe , s
1 0- 1
1 0- 2
1 0- 3
M=2
1 0- 4
So far we have examined the symbol error probability for orthogonal signals. Usually the
number of such signals is a power of 2, e.g. 4, 8, 16, 32, .... If so then each transmission of a
signal is carrying k log2 M bits of information. In this case a communication engineer is
usually interested in the bit error probability as opposed to the symbol error probability. These
can be related for any equidistant, equienergy signal set (such as orthogonal or simplex signal
sets) by
1 0- 5
8
16
1 0- 7
Shannon
Limit
1 0- 8
M=32
1 0- 9
M=1024
"
M
Pe s
2M 1
1 0- 1 0
2k 1
Pe s
2k 1
Pe b
1 0- 6
-4
-2
10
12
14
16
Eb/N0 (dB)
VI-97
1 0- 1
1 0- 2
lT
2
Xc 1 lT
1 T
Pe,b
VI-98
1 0- 3
Z1 lT
1 0- 4
f0 t
2 T cos 2 fc
M=2
Xs 1 lT
lT
1 T
1 0- 5
1 0- 6
Shannon
Limit
Choose
Largest
16
rt
32
1 0- 9
1 0- 8
1 0- 7
M=1024
10
12
14
16
Xc M lT
f0 t
Eb/N0 (dB)
2 T sin 2 fc
-2
lT
-4
M T
1 0- 1 0
ZM lT
Xs M lT
M T
lT
VI-99
VI-100
1 T l T then
c 1
E cos
Xc m l T
c m
s 1
E sin
Xs m l T
s m
Eb m log2 MN0
m 2
M
e
m
As with coherent demodulation the relation between bit error probability and symbol error
probability for noncoherent demodulation of orthogonal signals is
2s 1
2k 1
Pe s
2k 1
M
Pe s
2M 1
"
Pe b
2s M
2c M
ZM l T
2s 3
Z3 l T
2c 1
2s 2
2c 3
2c 2
Z2 l T
s 1 sin
2 E c 1 cos
The decision statistic then (if signal 1 is transmitted) has the form
Z1 l T
Eb log2 MN0
1
e
M
Pe s
VI-101
P e,s
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
M =2
10
-5
10
-6
10
-7
10
-8
10
-9
M =8
M =3 2
M =4
M =1 6
10
12
14
16
10
10
10
10
16
10
10
10
10
10
Eb/N 0 (dB )
32
-1 0
10
10
Pb
10
10
VI-102
10
10
15
Eb N0 (dB)
VI-103
A. Time-orthogonal (Pulse position modulation PPM)
B. Time-orthogonal quadrature-phase
1T M
1T M
2M
T
2iT
M
2i
T
M
M
2
01
M
2T
elsewhere
M even
f0
M
2T
"
cos 2 f 0t
f1
2i
elsewhere
M
2T
2i
2M
sin 2 f 1t dt
T
f0
2iT
M
2M
sin 2 f 0t
T
sin 2 f 0t
f0
M
n
2T
2M
T
"
"
i 1T M
2i t
elsewhere
01
iT M
"
"
iT M
sin 2 f 0t
2M
T
i t
VI-105
VI-106
D. Frequency-orthogonal quadrature-phase
C. Frequency-orthogonal (Frequency Shift Keying FSK)
i
t
T
2E
cos 2 f 0
T
nM
2T
f0
i
t
T
2i
"
2E
sin 2 f 0
T
2i t
i
t
2T
nM
f0
2T
"
01
""
i t
2E
sin 2 f 0
T
VI-107
VI-108
4):
Example (M
E. Hadamard-Walsh Construction
The last construction of orthogonal signals is done via the Hadamard Matrix. The Hadamard
matrix is an N by N matrix with components either +1 or -1 such that every pair of distinct
rows are orthogonal. We show how to construct a Hadamard when the number of signals is a
power of 2 (which is often the case).
H2
H2
H4
H2
H2
H2 l
H2 l
H2 l
H2 l
H2
"
"
Example (M
8):
H4
H4
H8
H4
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2l
H4
"
Now it is easy to check that distinct rows in these matrices are orthogonal. The i-th modulated
signal is then obtained by using a single (arbitrary) waveform N times in nonoverlapping time
intervals and multiplying by the j th repetition of the waveform by the jth component of the
i-th row of the matrix.
VI-109
VI-110
1 t
T 8 T 4 3T 8 T 2 5T 8 3T 4 7T 8 T t
2 t
"
3 t
T 8
5T 8
7T 8
3T 8
8 t
3T 4
T 4
VI-111
VI-112
W2
Yi
W8
W4
X3
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
Y2
X2
Y2
X2
Y3
X3
Y3
X3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
X1
Y1
Y2
X2
Y2
Y3
X3
Y3
2 T sin 2 f ct
X1
Y1
W7
LPF
W3
X2
W6
X1
Y1
iT M
W5
W2
Process
Choose
Largest
Y1
W4
rt
X1
Xi
W1
W3
LPF
iT M
W1
2 T cos 2 f ct
Noncoherent Reception of
Hadamard Generated Orthogonal Signals
VI-113
VI-114
Noncoherent Reception of
Hadamard Generated Orthogonal Signals
X5
X6
Y2
X7
X8
X2
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
Y5
Y3
X4
X5
X6
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y8
X7
X8
Y7
Y8
X6
X7
X8
Y2
Y7
Y1
Y6
X3
Y4
X5
2
2
X2
Y3
X1
Y2
X4
Y4
X3
X8
Y8
X7
Y7
Y6
X6
X3
Y5
X5
X2
Y3
Y4
X4
Y2
Y3
X3
X2
X1
Y1
W8
X4
X1
Y1
W7
X3
Y1
W6
X2
X1
W5
X1
2
WX 1
WX 5
WX 2
WX 6
WX 3
WX 7
WX 4
WX 8
VI-115
VI-116
Biorthogonal Signal Set
A biorthogonal signal set can be described as
E0 t
s1 t
E1 t
s0 t
EM
2 1
2 1
sM
sM
E0 t
EM
2 1
sM
That is a biorthogonal signal set is the same as orthogonal signal set except that the negative
of each orthonormal signal is also allowed.. Thus there are 2N signals in N dimensions. We
have doubled the number of signals without changing the minimum Euclidean distance of the
VI-117
VI-118
""
fs r0 Fn r0
r0 0
Fn
r0
r0 H0
M 2 1
2 1
rM
r0
0 r1
P r0
dr0
!
""
Pc 0
B8
"
Fs x
fn x
Fn x
1
x
22
1
x
22
VI-119
1
exp
2
x
E
1
exp
2
x
!
!
fs x
VI-120
The bit error probabiltiy for birothogonal signals can be determined for the usual mapping of
bits to symbols. The mapping is given as
000000
000
000000
001
s0 t
011111
111
111111
111
111111
110
100000
000 sM
where 2
M 2 1
dr0
s1 t
sM
r0 0
r0
Fn
fs r0 Fn r0
Pe 0
2 1
sM
s0 t
s1 t
sM
2 1
z2
dz
2
1
exp
2
2 2
1M
2E
2 z
N0
2 1
"
Pe s
sM
The mapping is such that signals with furthest distance have largest number of bit errors. An
error of the first kind is defined to be an error to an orthogonal signal, while an error of the
second kind is an error to the antipodal signal. The probability of error of the first kind is the
probability that H j is chosen given that s0 is transmitted ( j M 2) and is given by
rM
2 1
rj
0 H0
rj
r1
""
r0 r j
P rj
Pe 1
VI-121
fn r j d r j
M 2 2
rj
Fn
Fn r j
rj
Fs
Fs r j
VI-122
It should be obvious that this is also the error probability to H j for j M 2. The probability
of error of the second kind is the probability that HM 2 is chosen given that s0 is transmitted
and is given by
r0
rM
2 1
r0 H0
r0 r2
""
0 r1
P r0
Pe 2
2 z
1M
z2
dz
2
1
exp
2
2 Pe 1
2 2
2E
N0
f n r0 d r 0
M 2 2
2E
N0
r0
0
Fn
r0 Fn r0
Fs
dr0
M 2 1
r0
Fn
fs r0 Fn r0
Pe 2 .
The bit error probability is determined by realizing that of the M 2 possible errors (all
equally likely) of the first kind, M 2 2 of them result in a particular bit in error while an
error of the second kind causes all the bits to be in error. Thus
M 2
Pe 1 Pe 2
Pe b
2
M 2
Fs u Fs u Fn u Fn u M 2 2 fn u d u
2
0
VI-123
VI-124
P e,b
1 0- 1
Pe , s
1 0- 1
1 0- 2
1 0- 2
1 0- 3
1 0- 3
1 0- 4
1 0- 4
M=4
1 0- 5
1 0- 5
1 0- 6
1 0- 6
M=2,4
1 0- 7
1 0- 7
8
1 0- 8
1 0- 8
32
M=128
1 0- 9
M=128
1 0- 9
32
1 0- 1 0
-4
-2
10
12
14
1 0- 1 0
16
Eb/N0(dB)
-4
-2
10
12
14
16
Eb/N0(dB)
Figure 84: Symbol Error Probability for Coherent Demodulation of Biorthogonal Signals
VI-125
VI-126
For example
1
01
""
i
S8
si t
si t
When the orthogonal set is constructed via a Hadamard matrix this amounts to deleting the
first component in the matrix since the other components sum to zero.
1 M 1
si t
M i0
Same as orthogonal except subtract from each of the signals the average signal of the set, i.e.
VI-127
VI-128
Pe , s
Pe,b
1 0- 1
1 0- 1
1 0- 2
1 0- 2
1 0- 3
1 0- 3
1 0- 4
1 0- 4
1 0- 5
1 0- 5
1 0- 6
1 0- 6
1 0- 7
1 0- 7
1 0- 8
1 0- 8
M=2
16
1 0- 9
32
16
1 0- 1 0
10
12
14
Simplex.data
16
M=2
32
1 0- 9
1 0- 1 0
10
12
14
Eb/ N0 (dB)
16
Eb/ N0 (dB)
VI-129
VI-130
For this modulation scheme we should use Gray coding to map bits into signals.
2
i
0
M
Ac i cos 2 f ct As i sin 2 f ct
A cos 2f0t
si t
"
"
2i
M
2i
A sin
M
Ac i
E N0
QPSK
2E
cos
N0
2
4E
cos e cos 1
N0
Pe s
As i
A cos
This type of modulation has the properties that all signals have the same power thus the use of
nonlinear amplifiers (class C amplifiers) affects each signal in the same manner. Furthermore
if we are restricted to two dimensions and every signal must have the same power than this
signal set minimizes the error probability of all such signal sets.
1,
01
where for i
BPSK
VI-131
VI-132
B it Erro r P ro b ab ility
S y m b o l Erro r P ro b ab ility
1 0 -1
1 0 -2
M=2
1 0 -3
10 0
1 0 -1
1 0 -2
M = 32
M = 16
M=8
M=4
1 0 -3
M = 2 ,4
1 0 -4
M=8
1 0 -4
1 0 -5
0
12
16
M = 16
M = 32
1 0 -5
20
24
E b /N 0 (d B )
12
16
20
24
Eb /N 0 (d B )
VI-133
VI-134
Pe,s
10-1
10-2
10-3
Ai s t
si t
10-4
where
i
10-5
10-6
""
Ei
1 M 1
Ei
M i0
A2i
A2 M 1
2i
M i0
01
M A
2i
Ai
10-7
10-8
M2 1 2
A
3
2M 1
M
6E
1 N0
10-10
Pe s
10-9
10
15
20
25
30
M2
Eb/N0 (dB)
VI-135
VI-136
1
10-1
Pe,b
10-2
10-3
10-4
M=8
""
M=4
M=16
Bi sin 2 f ct
Ai cos 2 f ct
si t
10-6
For i
10-5
10-7
2
M signals
Pe 1
10-8
10-9
10-10
0
10
15
20
25
Eb/N0 (dB)
VI-137
where u t is called the lowpass signal. For general CPM the modulation is nonlinear so that
the below does not apply. Also
VI-138
In practice a set of signals is not used once but in a periodic fashion. If a source produces
symbols every T seconds from the alphabet A 0 1
M 1 with be representing the l th
letter l then the digital data signal has the form
"
"
nT
sbn t
nT
l
In g t
st
ut
!
!
where
2) The random variables bn need not be a sequence of i.i.d. random variables. In fact if we are
using error-correcting codes there will be some redundancy in b 2 so that it is not a sequence of
i.i.d. r.v.
E In In
j 2 f mT
F gt
gt e
j2 f t
dt
1 (i.i.d).
Example: BPSK In
m
G f
I f
In many of the modulation schemes (the linear ones) considered we can equivalently write the
signal as
st
Re u t e jct
u t
1
I f G f 2
T
F Eu t
u f
VI-139
VI-140
T
2
u f
A2 T
sinc2
4
sinc2
I f
fc
S f df
5. Gabor bandwidth
T
2
fc 2 S f d f
f df
WG
P S fc
WN
m 0
4. Noise bandwidth
E In In
A cos ct pT t
gt
6. Absolute bandwidth
1
2%
1
2
7. half null-to-null
for BPSK).
null-to-null.
2
T
1. Null-to-Null
min W : S f
WA
Definition of Bandwidth
3 35dB
5 and 6
3 3dB
BPSK
2.0
20.56
35.12
1.00
0.88
QPSK
1.0
10.28
17.56
0.50
0.44
MSK
1.5
VI-141
VI-142
2Eb
N0
BPSK has Pe s
R
W
"
10
9 6dB
Eb N0
1
T
1
T
"
R
W
20
"
2
Ts
1
T
or
VI-143
1
2T
1
Ts
VI-144
E b /N 0 (d B )
M-ary PSK has same bandwidth as BPSK but transmits log2 M bits/channel use (T sec).
M-ary PSK
A chie v ab le
R e g io n
24
18
12
30
log2 M
T
R
log2 M
W
1
T
36
1 0 -3
1 0 -2
1 0 -1
101
102
R W
Eb N0
U nachie v ab le
R e g io n
-2
2R W
-1
or
log2 1
R W
R Eb
W N0
R /W (b its/se c/H z)
1 there is a
"
VI-145
VI-146