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4.1 Introduction
Refrigeration plays a very important role in industrial, domestic and commercial
sectors for cooling, heating and food preserving applications. There are innumerable
applications of such systems and they are the major consumer of electricity around the
world. Energy consumption is directly proportional to the economic development of any
nation, however this area is in great interest now because of increase in the cost of
conventional fuels and environmental concerns globally. The scientists are looking for
new and renewable sources of energy so as to minimize the costs. Due to the
increasing energy demand, degradation of environment, global warming and depletion
of ozone layer etc, there is urgent need of efficient energy utilization and waste heat
recovery for useful applications. The researchers are concentrating on the alternate
and environment friendly refrigerants, especially after the Kyoto and the Montreal
protocols. However, in a quest to find out alternate and environment friendly
refrigerants, the energy efficiency of the equipment having conventional refrigerants is
also very important in the present age of competitive business community. The aim of
the scientific community all over the world is to switch to new and renewable energy
sources besides, efficient utilization of all conventional sources.
Air conditioning bears a huge cost because thermal comfort is very essential as
far as domestic and industrial sectors are concerned. The big challenge is to use less
102
energy for air conditioning applications in order to reduce the associated power
consumption so as to make them more efficient and environmental friendly. The
quantitative information is required to be obtained that will show the irreversibility of a
process in all the components of any plant. For effective use and proper optimization,
the detailed understanding of different thermodynamic processes in any conversion
system is very important. In order to optimize their design, a thorough thermodynamic
analysis is required. The analysis based
103
thermodynamics. However, this approach is of limited use in view of the fact that the
actual energetic losses are difficult to make out because the first law deals with the
quantity of energy and not the quality of energy. In order to calculate the actual losses
due to irreversibility in the process, exergy analysis based on second law of
thermodynamics is the proper tool. Exergy analysis utilizes exergetic efficiency criterion
taking into account all the losses appearing in a system, for measuring the actual
performance.
The exergy analysis is widely accepted as a useful tool in obtaining the
improved understanding of the overall performance of any system and its components
[11]. Exergy analysis also helps in taking account the important engineering decisions
regarding design parameters of a system [12]. Many researchers have carried out
exergy studies of different thermal energy conversion systems describing various
approach for exergy analysis and its usefulness in a more simple and effective manner
[13-23]. Padilla et al [13] carried out the exergy analysis and the impact of direct
replacement of R12 with zeotropic mixture R413A. The performance of a domestic
vapor compression refrigeration system originally designed to work with R12 was
evaluated using a simulated modeling. They concluded that the overall energy and
exergy performance of this system working with R413A is better than that of R12.
Kumar et al [14] derived a method to carry out the exergetic analysis of a vapor
compression refrigeration system using R11 and R12 as refrigerants. The procedure
to calculate various losses as well as coefficient of performance and exergetic
efficiency of the cycle has been explained by proper example. Arora and Kaushik [15]
did a detailed exergy analysis of an actual vapor compression refrigeration cycle. They
104
105
106
Rapid expansion: The adiabatic expansion of a high pressure fluid to a low pressure,
sometimes called throttling, is a process that wastes some energy available in the high
pressure fluid which could have been used to do some work.
Mixing: Mixing of fluids will results in a loss of the useful available energy.
The term entropy is a physical property of substances related to energy
utilization and conservation. Entropy is a measure of the energy that is not available to
do work. For a fluid with isentropic nature the amount of work done in compressor is
minimum. A constant entropy (i.e. isentropic) process is an ideal reversible process
which can never take place. Hence, in a real process where work is required, the
entropy increases and efforts are made to minimize this increase.
4.1.2 Availability
Availability is the maximum useful work that can be obtained from a system at a
given state. A system is said to be in the dead state when it is in thermodynamic
equilibrium with the surroundings. At the dead state, a system is at the temperature
and pressure of its surroundings as well as in thermal, chemical and mechanical
equilibrium. It has no kinetic or potential energy relative to its surroundings and does
not reacts with the surroundings. A system has zero availability at the dead state. The
notion that a system must go, the dead state at the end of the process to maximize the
work output can be explained as follows:
If the system temperature at the final state is greater than or less than the
temperature of the surroundings, we can always produce additional work by running a
heat engine between these two temperature levels. If the final velocity of the system is
107
not zero, we can catch that extra kinetic energy by a turbine and convert it to rotating
shaft work and so on. However, no work can be produced from a system that is initially
at the dead state. The atmosphere around us contains a tremendous amount of
energy. However, the atmosphere is in the dead state and the energy it contains has
no work potential therefore, we conclude that a system will deliver the maximum
possible work as it undergoes a reversible process from the specified initial state to the
state of its environment, the dead state. This represents the maximum work potential
of the system at the specified state and it is called availability.
It is important to realize that availability does not represent the amount of work
that a work producing device will actually deliver upon installation. Rather it represents
the upper limit on the amount of work a device can deliver without violating any
thermodynamic laws. There will always be a difference, large or small between
availability and actual work delivered by a device. This difference represents the scope
for improvement. It may be noted that the availability of a system at a specified state
depends on the conditions of the environment as well as the properties of the system.
Therefore, availability is a property of the system-surroundings combination and not of
the system alone. Altering the environment is another way of increasing availability but
it is definitely not an easy alternative. Thus it would be desirable to have a property to
enable us to determine the useful work potential of a given amount of energy at some
specified state.
The work potential of the energy contained in a system at a specified state is
simply the maximum useful work that can be obtained from the system. The work done
during a process depends on the initial state, final state and the process path. In an
108
availability analysis, the initial state is specified and thus it is not a variable. The work
output is maximized when the process between the two specified states is executed in
a reversible manner. Therefore all the irreversibilities are disregarded in determining
the work potential. Finally the system must be in the dead state at the end of the
process to maximize the work output.
109
transfer between the system and the surroundings must take place reversibly, and no
irreversibilities should be present within the system during the process. When the final
state is the dead state, the reversible work equals availability.
4.1.4 Irreversibility
For processes, that require work, reversible work represents the minimum
amount of work necessary to carry out that process. Any difference between the
reversible work W rev and the useful work Wu is due to the irreversibilities present
during the process and this difference is called irreversibility I, it is expressed as lost
work potential i.e.
I = W rev W u
For a totally reversible process, the actual and reversible work terms are
identical and thus irreversibility is zero. This is expected since totally reversible
processes generate no entropy which is a measure of irreversibilities occurring during
a process. For all actual (irreversible processes, irreversibility is a positive quality since
the work term is positive and W rev > W u for work producing devices ad the work term is
negative since W rev < Wu for work consuming devices. Irreversibility can be used as
the lost opportunity to do work. It represents the entropy that could have been
converted to work. The smaller the irreversibility associated with a process, the greater
the work that will be produced (or the smaller the work that will be consumed). To
improve the performance of thermodynamic systems, the primary sources of
irreversibility associated with each component in the system should be located and
effort should be made to minimize them.
110
111
correct choice for designing an evaporator and their sizing is the most important factor
for an efficient and economic refrigerating system. For energy conservation, promotion
of increased heat transfer and maintaining of the highest reasonable evaporating
temperature is required. It should be noted that under no circumstances these two
factors are opposing. That is, one way of increasing evaporator heat transfer without
decreasing evaporating temperature. Effectively this means that for a given heat
transfer (refrigeration) capacity, the evaporating temperature is higher, and hence less
power is used. The energy conservation and saving options in the use of evaporators
are as follows:
1. Counter flow arrangement increases heat transfer over parallel flow, since
mean effective temperature difference is greater.
2. A flooded evaporator surface is more effective than a dry expansion surface,
which is only partially wetted.
3. Refrigerant sprays may increase surface wetting.
4. Maintenance of clean surfaces reduces the heat transfer coefficient.
5. Increased surface area, through use of fins/more tubing, increases heat
transfer.
6. Having higher fluid velocities increase the heat transfer coefficient, in both the
refrigerant and air or water side. In liquid chillers this is achieved by increasing
the number of passes.
112
113
consideration because of the vast quantity of power used. These energy saving
methods can be summarized as:
1. Multistage
compression
with
the
economizer
cycle
decreases
power
114
1. Maintain clean heat transfer surfaces, through proper water treatment and
maintenance.
2. Compare the required power for air cooled condenser with that of either
evaporative or water cooled condenser and then select the condenser design.
3. Select condensers with a large heat transfer surface area.
surface.
If the system is subject to hunting a cross charge or other anti- hunting type
TEV must be used.
115
116
and an expansion device. The vapors from low temperature evaporator are sucked into
the compressor and compressed to increase the pressure and temperature. The
compression is assumed to be polytropic and the vapors are condensed in the air
cooled finned condenser in which the fan is driven by an electric motor which is also
driving the evaporator fan at other end. The speed of the condenser and evaporator fan
is kept constant. The compressor is hermetic type reciprocating compressor with 2100
watts nominal input power at 220V (50Hz). The evaporator was designed for a cooling
capacity of 24K BTU. The refrigerant is charged in four steps and the performance is
evaluated at each stage. The unit also comprises of other devices such as filters and
compressor protection device. The refrigerant volume flow rate was measured using a
rotameter which is specifically calibrated for R-22. The temperature and pressure were
measured by using compound gauges. The photographic view of the experimental set
up and line diagram is shown in Fig.-4.1(a) & 4.1(b) and the specifications of the VCR
system are given in Table-4.1.
117
118
119
Qe
Wc
(4.1)
[ (Q(1 T
/ T ) in (Q(1 To / T )out W
(4.2)
For the present system shown in Fig.4.1b, the component wise exergy balance
equation can be written as below:
a) Compressor
( EX D ) comp = E x1 + Wc E x 2 = mr (To ( s2 s1 ))
(4.3)
b) Condenser
120
(4.4)
c) Expansion Device
( EX D ) exp = Ex 3 E x 4
= mr (h3 To s3 ) mr (h4 To s4 )
(4.5)
= mr (To ( s2 s1 ))
d) Evaporator
( EX D ) evap = E x 4 + Qe (1 To / Tr ) E x1
= mr (h4 To s4 ) + Qe (1 To / Tr ) mr (h1 To s1 )
(4.6)
The total exergy destruction in the system is the sum of exergy destruction in different
components of the system and is given by
e) Total exergy destruction
( EX D ) total = ( EX D ) comp + ( EX D ) cond + ( EX D ) exp + ( EX D ) evap
(4.7)
f) Exergy Efficiency
exergy =
Qe
(1 To / Tr
Wc
(4.8)
121
122
performance was observed in all the case and hence, the data after a certain period
was not plotted as can be seen in Fig.-4.2.
Coefficient of Performance
10
9
8
Coefficient of
Performance (25%
charged)
7
6
Coefficient of
Performance
(50%charged)
5
4
Coefficient of
Performance (75%
charged)
3
2
1
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Coefficient of
Performance (100%
charged)
Running Time/minutes
Table 4.2a: Parameters of the VCR system when the unit is 25% charged
Time
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Pdisch./
kg/cm
4
9.2
9.4
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.95
10
10.1
10
Psuc./
kg/cm
-15 cm
of Hg
0.4
0.45
0.55
0.6
0.61
0.68
0.7
0.7
0.71
0.7
m/
kg/s
Cond.
In/c
Evap. Inlet
/ c
0.0236
0.0283
0.0306
0.0318
0.033
0.0332
0.0334
0.0334
0.0334
0.0334
0.0332
52
52
58
58
68
68
75
75
76
76
75
24.5
24.5
21
21
20.1
20.1
20.8
20.8
21.1
21.1
22.1
123
Table 4.2b: Exergetic performance results of the VCR system when the unit is
25% charged
RE/
kJ
4.283
5.140
5.547
5.760
5.941
5.983
5.895
5.895
5.915
5.915
5.854
Wcomp./
kJ
0.732
0.686
0.878
0.906
1.193
1.198
1.203
1.387
1.411
1.407
1.374
COP
5.848
7.485
6.313
6.357
4.977
4.991
4.897
4.248
4.191
4.201
4.258
EXD
evap.
2.443
2.932
3.109
3.229
3.322
3.345
3.391
3.391
3.392
3.392
3.394
EXD
comp.
3.723
3.654
4.068
4.196
4.579
4.592
4.614
4.765
4.785
4.775
4.731
EXD
cond.
1.836
2.826
3.092
3.233
3.376
3.416
3.447
3.481
3.484
3.491
3.453
EXD
exp.
2.442
2.930
3.169
3.291
3.425
3.449
3.469
3.469
3.474
3.474
3.445
EXD
total
10.446
12.343
13.440
13.950
14.703
14.804
14.924
15.107
15.137
15.133
15.024
Exergy
% Exergy
Efficiency Efficiency
0.0359
3.5
0.0431
4.31
0.1132
11.3
0.1175
11.75
0.1398
13.9
0.1408
14
0.1244
12.44
0.1244
12.44
0.1186
11.86
0.1186
11.86
0.0972
9.72
Table 4.3a: Parameters of the VCR system when the unit is 50% charged
Time
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Pdisch./
kg/cm
9
9.4
9.6
9.8
9.9
10
10
10.05
10.05
10.05
10.05
10.05
Psuc./
kg/cm
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.71
0.71
0.715
0.7
0.71
0.71
0.71
m/
kg/s
0.028
0.0306
0.0306
0.0306
0.0317
0.03175
0.03179
0.03179
0.03179
0.0332
0.0341
0.0353
124
Cond.
In/c
47
53
62
62.2
64
64.4
69
67.9
65
62
65
65
Evap. Inlet
/ c
23
20.3
21.5
21.3
19.6
20.3
22.5
21.4
19.4
17.3
19.5
19.5
Table 4.3b: Exergetic performance results of the VCR system when the unit is
50% charged
EXD
RE/ kJ
5.117
5.559
5.556
5.513
5.716
5.722
5.700
5.729
5.697
5.996
6.156
6.390
Wcomp./
kJ
0.573
0.750
0.961
0.952
1.026
1.030
1.154
1.119
1.052
1.006
1.130
1.169
COP
8.921
7.412
5.780
5.790
5.566
5.555
4.939
5.119
5.413
5.960
5.447
5.465
EXD
evap.
2.885
3.076
3.104
3.079
3.163
3.165
3.222
3.199
3.168
3.229
3.409
3.526
EXD
comp.
3.586
3.967
4.142
4.133
4.320
4.320
4.415
4.387
4.311
4.452
4.630
4.790
EXD
cond.
2.800
3.076
3.110
3.131
3.261
3.280
3.287
3.290
3.277
3.416
3.527
3.649
EXD
exp.
2.932
3.176
3.175
3.175
3.298
3.294
3.303
3.294
3.308
3.453
3.542
3.664
total
12.204
13.297
13.532
13.519
14.044
14.061
14.229
14.172
14.066
14.552
15.109
15.629
Exergy
Efficiency
0.0691
0.1270
0.1037
0.1067
0.1445
0.1307
0.0868
0.1089
0.1480
0.2003
0.1578
0.1638
% Exergy
Efficiency
6.91
12.7
10.3
10.6
14.4
13
8.68
10.89
14.8
20.03
15.78
16.38
Table 4.4a: Parameters of the VCR system when the unit is 75% charged
Time
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
Pdisch./
kg/cm
15.16
15.18
15.27
15.28
15.28
15.3
15.3
15.3
15.3
15.3
15.32
15.32
15.32
Psuc./
kg/cm
3.2
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
m/
kg/s
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
0.03532
125
Cond.
In/c
58
60
60
64.5
70.5
56.1
79.5
74
69.3
70.1
74
74
72.4
Evap. Inlet
/ c
22.9
24.3
24
23
22.5
22.3
24.5
22.6
22.2
24.8
23
24.7
25.7
Table 4.4b: Exergetic performance results of the VCR system when the unit is
75% charged
EXD
RE/
kJ
6.012
5.772
5.962
5.916
5.941
5.832
5.853
5.839
5.863
5.818
5.888
5.878
5.807
Wcomp./
kJ
0.7312
0.7806
0.7771
0.9290
1.1162
0.6676
1.3670
1.2222
1.0809
1.0809
1.2151
1.1975
1.1409
COP
8.222
7.393
7.672
6.368
5.322
8.735
4.281
4.777
5.424
5.382
4.845
4.908
5.089
EXD
evap.
3.603
3.592
3.589
3.645
3.635
3.635
3.594
3.647
3.574
3.554
3.527
3.609
3.641
EXD
comp.
3.995
4.058
4.048
4.164
4.313
3.921
4.578
4.408
4.281
4.334
4.419
4.440
4.408
EXD
cond.
3.945
3.945
3.963
3.974
3.995
3.935
4.030
4.009
3.988
3.984
3.998
4.002
3.991
EXD
exp.
3.686
3.702
3.682
3.685
3.691
3.697
3.694
3.682
3.697
3.704
3.707
3.684
3.682
total
15.230
15.299
15.284
15.469
15.636
15.189
15.898
15.747
15.540
15.578
15.653
15.736
15.724
Exergy
Efficiency
0.1247
0.1058
0.1175
0.0840
0.1048
0.1028
0.0931
0.0989
0.1647
0.1268
0.1862
0.0854
0.0409
% Exergy
Efficiency
12.4
10.5
11.7
8.4
10.4
10.2
9.3
9.8
16.47
12.68
18.62
8.5
4.09
Table 4.5a: Parameters of the VCR system when the unit is 100% charged
Time
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
Pdisch./
kg/cm
18.6
18.8
18.8
18.4
18.6
18.7
18.7
18.5
18.5
18.8
19
18.6
18.3
Psuc./
kg/cm
4.1
4.2
4.2
4.15
4.15
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.15
126
m/
kg/s
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
0.03768
Cond.
In/c
74
80
81.5
82
82
81
83
88
88
88
88
89
81
Evap. Inlet/
c
9
7
6.5
8
8.1
9
7
7.7
8.2
9
6.9
7.5
7.5
Table 4.5b: Exergetic performance results of the VCR system when the unit is
100% charged
RE
/kJ
6.285
6.232
6.262
6.258
6.262
6.273
6.217
6.262
6.228
6.183
6.202
6.266
6.266
Wcomp./k
J
1.299
1.507
1.552
1.582
1.571
1.522
1.597
1.786
1.767
1.744
1.759
1.804
1.556
COP
4.834
4.135
4.033
3.954
3.985
4.121
3.891
3.506
3.524
3.544
3.524
3.471
4.026
EXD
evap.
3.915
3.876
3.855
3.883
3.889
3.892
3.849
3.890
3.888
3.892
3.847
3.864
3.884
EXD
comp.
4.171
4.318
4.363
4.431
4.408
4.385
4.431
4.578
4.589
4.566
4.544
4.600
4.397
EXD
EXD
cond.
exp.
3.357 3.968
3.327 3.994
3.319 3.993
3.338 3.982
3.323 3.9752
3.327 3.970
3.319 3.9921
3.300 3.986
3.308 3.981
3.297 3.987
3.274 3.996
3.278 3.981
3.345 3.9843
EXD
total
15.413
15.516
15.532
15.636
15.596
15.575
15.592
15.756
15.767
15.743
15.662
15.725
15.612
Exergy
Efficiency
0.4011
0.4451
0.4593
0.4231
0.4210
0.4004
0.4440
0.4305
0.4164
0.3946
0.4453
0.4356
0.4356
% Exergy
Efficiency
40.1
44.5
45.9
42.3
42.1
40.04
44.4
43.05
41.64
39.46
44.53
43.56
43.56
an evaporator temperature of 7oC when the system is 100% charged while the least
exergy efficiency was found to be 3.5% at an evaporator temperature of 24.5oC and
25% system charging. The reason for reduced exergy efficiency when the refrigerant
is only 25% charged is because the refrigerant temperature is almost same as the
reference temperature and hence exergy content is very small in the later case as
compared to the former case. Thus the results are consistent with the hypothetical
127
COPC =
TL
(TH TL )
(5.9)
16
Exergy Efficiency /%
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
24.5
24.5
21
21
20.1
20.1
20.8
20.8
21.1
21.1
22.1
128
Exergy Efficiency/%
25
20
15
10
5
0
23
20.3
21.5
21.3
19.6
20.3
22.5
21.4
Evaporator Temperature
19.4
17.3
19.5
19.5
/oC
20
Exergy Efficiency /%
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
22.9
24.3
24
23
22.5
22.3
24.5
22.6
22.2
24.8
23
24.7
25.7
129
Exergy Efficiency /%
48
46
44
42
40
38
36
9
6.5
8.1
7.7
8.2
6.9
7.5
7.5
130
The exergy destruction in the evaporator is found to be the least when the
system is 75% charged. This is because of the higher evaporator temperature
observed during the test and this reduces the term Q | 1
| in Eq. (4.6)
131
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
24.5
24.5
21
21
20.1
20.1
20.8
20.8
21.1
21.1
22.1
Evaporator Temperature/oC
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
23
20.3
21.5
21.3
19.6
20.3
22.5
21.4
19.4
17.3
19.5
19.5
132
16
15.8
15.6
15.4
15.2
15
14.8
22.9
24.3
24
23
22.5
22.3
Evaporator
24.5
22.6
22.2
24.8
23
24.7
25.7
Temperature/oC
15.8
15.7
15.6
15.5
15.4
15.3
15.2
9
6.5
8.1
7.7
8.2
6.9
7.5
7.5
133
higher in this case and the compressor consumers less work. It is also observed from
the tables that the exergy destruction is almost comparable when the system is 75%
and 100% charged while it is least when the system is 25% charged, this is due to the
fact that when the system is 25% charged, the evaporator temperature is higher and
therefore the term Q | 1
| is significantly low.
5.6 Conclusions
Exergy analysis is a technique to present the process and this further aid in
reducing the thermodynamic losses occurring in the process. This is an important tool
in explaining the various energy flows in a process and in the final run helps to reduce
losses occurring in the system. In this experimental study, a window air conditioning
system based on vapor compression cycle is modified for experimental analysis. The
system comprises of four components i.e. compressor, a capillary tube (expansion
device), a condenser and an evaporator and is having a cooling capacity of 24K BTU.
Based on the experiment testing following conclusions are drawn:
1. Although the quantity of refrigerant charged do affect the exergy losses but the
maximum losses in all the cases are in the compressor. This is attributed to the
frictional losses and losses due to wire drawing effect during suction and delivery
of the refrigerant. This will augment the study of tribology to exactly study the
friction characteristics and also the design aspects needs to be improved to
reduce the wire drawing effect to have efficient compressor.
134
2. It is observed that the total exergy destruction is comparable when the system is
75% and 100% charged and it is least when the system is 25% charged
because the evaporator temperature is very close to the reference temperature.
3. The average coefficient of performance is highest when the system is 50%
charged and this is because of higher refrigerating effect and reduced
compressor work.
4. The exergy efficiency of the system varies from 3.5% to 45.9% which is mainly
due to the variation of evaporator temperature.
5. The average values of the system exergy efficiency are more when the system
is 100% charged. These values show that the overall exergy performance is
better when the system is fully charged but the compressor work is the highest
in this case and the COP is also less as compared to other situations. When the
actual requirements are less the system should be operated with variable
refrigerant flow so as to achieve optimum balance between the exergy efficiency
and energy saving.
135
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